Designing and Building Fuel Cells

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1 Designing and Building Fuel Cells Colleen Spiegel Me Grauv Hill NewYork Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto

2 Foreword xii Chapter 1. An Introduction to Fuel Cells What Is a Fuel Cell? Comparison with batteries Comparison with heat engine,' Why Do We Need Fuel Cells?.' Portable sector Transportation sector Stationary sector History of Fuel Cells PEM fuel cells Solid oxide fuel cells Molten carbonate fuel cells Phosphoric acid fuel cells Alkali fuel cells How Do Fuel Cells Work? 12 Chapter Summary 13 Problems 13 Bibliography 13 Chapter 2. Fuel Cells and the Hydrogen Economy Characteristics of Hydrogen ^ Safety aspects of hydrogen as a fuel World Energy Demand Development of the Hydrogen Economy Hydrogen Production, Distribution, and Storage Technologies for hydrogen production Technologies for hydrogen storage Worldwide hydrogen refueling stations 25

3 vi Contents 2.5 Investment of Hydrogen Infrastructure Government support Long-term projections of hydrogen use Key players in hydrogen R&D 29 Chapter Summary 33 Problems 33 Bibliography 34 Chapter 3. Fuel Cell Types ^ Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFCs) Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs) Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs) Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) Molten-Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCs) Zinc Air Fuel Cells (ZAFCs) Protonic Ceramic Fuel Cells (PCFCs) Biological Fuel Cells (BFCs) 49 Chapter Summary 50 Problems 51 Bibliography 51 Chapter 4. Fuel Cell Applications Portable Power ' Backup Power Basic electrolyzer calculations Transportation Applications Automobiles, Buses Utility vehicles Scooters and bicycles Stationary Power Applications * 72 Chapter Summary 83 Problems 84 Bibliography 84 Chapter 5. Basic Fuel Cell Thermodynamics Basic Thermodynamic Concepts Fuel Cell Reversible and Net Output Voltage Theoretical Fuel Cell Efficiency & Energy efficiency Fuel Cell Temperature Fuel Cell Pressure 102 Chapter Summary 104 Problems 104 Bibliography 105 Chapter 6. Fuel Cell Electrochemistry Electrode Kinetics Voltage Losses 112

4 vii 6.3 Internal Currents and Crossover Currents Improving Kinetic Performance 117 Chapter Summary 118 Problems 118 Bibliography ' 119 Chapter 7. Fuel Cell Charge Transport Voltage Loss Due to Charge Transport "'' Microscopic Conductivity in Metals Ionic Conductivity in Aqueous Electrolytes Ionic Conductivity of Polymer Electrolytes Ionic Conduction in Ceramic Electrolytes 130 Chapter Summary 131 Problems 132 Bibliography 132 Chapter 8. Fuel Cell Mass Transport Convective Mass Transport from Flow Channels to Electrode Diffusive Mass Transport in Fuel Cell Electrodes Convective Mass Transport in Flow Structures Mass transport in flow channels ' Pressure drop in flow channels ' 144 Chapter Summary 149 Problems ~ 149 Bibliography 150 Chapter 9. Heat Transfer 151 T 9.1 Fuel Cell Energy Balance General energy balance procedure Energy balance of fuel cell stack General energy balance for fuel cell Energy balance for fuel cell components and gases Heat Generation and Flux in Fuel Cell Layers Heat Conduction Heat Dissipation Through Natural Convection and Radiation Fuel Cell Heat Management Heat exchanger model & Air cooling Edge cooling 166 Chapter Summary 167 Problems 168 Bibliography 168 Chapter 10. Fuel Cell^Modeling Conservation of Mass Conservation of Momentum 175

5 viii Contents 10.3 Conservation of Energy Conservation of Species Conservation of Charge The Electrodes Mass transport Electrochemical behavior Ion/electron transport Heat transport in the electrodes The Electrolyte ^ 185 Chapter Summary 186 Problems 187 Bibliography 187 Chapter 11. Fuel Cell Materials Electrolyte Layer PEMFCs and DMFCs PAFCs AFCs MCFCs SOFCs Fuel Cell Electrode Layers PEMFC, DMFC, and PAFC catalysts PEMFC, DMFC, and PAFC gas diffusion layers AFC electrodes MCFC electrodes, SOFC electrodes ' Low-Temperature Fuel Cell Processing Techniques SOFC manufacturing method Method for Building a Fuel Cell Preparing the polymer electrolyte membrane Catalyst/electrode layer material Hot-pressing the MEA 215 Chapter Summary 217 Problems 217 Bibliography 218 Chapter 12. Fuel Cell Stack Components and Materials Bipolar Plates Bipolar plate materials for low and medium temperature fuel cells Coated metallic plates Composite plates <= Flow-Field Design Materials for SOFCs Materials for MCFCs ^ PAFC Materials and Design Channel Shape, Dimensions, and Spacing Bipolar Plate Manufacturing Nonporous graphite plate fabrication Coated metallic plate fabrication Composite plate fabrication 237

6 ix 12.8 Gaskets and Spacers PEMFCs/DMFCs/AFCs SOFC Seals End Plates Constructing the Fuel Cell Bipolar Plates, Gaskets, End Plates, and Current Collectors Bipolar plate design Gasket selection End plates ^ Current collectors 244 Chapter Summary 244 Problems 245 Bibliography 245 Chapter 13. Fuel Cell Stack Design Fuel Cell Stack Sizing Number of Cells Stack Configuration Distribution of Fuel and Oxidants to the Cells Cell Interconnection SOFCs AFCs Stack Clamping Water Management for PEMFCs Water management methods Putting the fuel cell stack together 267 Chapter Summary Problems 269 Bibliography 269 Chapter 14. Fuel Cell System Design Fuel Subsystem Electrical Chapter Summary Problems Bibliography Humidification systems Fans and Blowers Compressors Turbines Fuel cell pumps Subsystem Power diodes Switching devices Switching regulators Inverters <= Supercapacitors Power electronics for cellular phones DC-DC converters for automotive applications Multilevel converters for larger applications Hybrid Power Systems Fuel Cell System Efficiency

7 Chapter 15. Fuel Types, Delivery, and Processing Hydrogen Gas Liquid Carbon nanofibers Other Common Fuel Types Methanol Ethanol Metal hydrides " Chemical hydrides Ammonia Natural gas Propane Gasoline and other petroleumbased fuels Bio-fuels Fuel Processing Desulfurization Steam reforming Carbon formation Internal reforming Direct hydrocarbon oxidation Partial oxidation Pyrolysis Methanol reforming Bioproduction of Hydrogen Photosynthesis ' Digestion processes Electrolyzers Electrolyzer efficiency High pressure in electrolyzers Chapter Summary 348 Problems 349 Bibliography. 349 Chapter 16. Fuel Cell Operating Conditions Operating Pressure Operating Temperature Flow Rates of Reactants Humidity of Reactants Fuel Cell Mass Balance 363 Chapter Summary 370 Problems " 370 Bibliography 371 Chapter 17. Fuel Cell Characterization Fuel Cell Testing Setup Verification of the Assembly Fuel Cell Conditioning BaseiineTest Conditions and Operating Parameters Temperature Pressure 378

8 xi Flow rate Compression force Polarization Curves Fuel Cell Resistance Current interrupt The AC resistance method The high-frequency resistance (HFR) method Electrochemical (EIS) impedance spectroscopy Stoichiometry (utilization) sweeps Limiting current " Cyclic voltammetry Current Density Mapping Neutron Imaging Characterization of Fuel Cell Layers Porosity determination BET surface area determination Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) X-ray diffraction (XRD) Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) X-ray fluorescence (XRF) Inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS) 391 Chapter Summary 391 Problems 392 Bibliography 392 Appendix A. Useful Constants and Conversions 395 Appendix B. Thermodynamic Properties of Selected Substances 397 Appendix C. Molecular Weight, Gas Constant and Specific Heat for Selected Substances 399 Appendix D. Gas Specif ic Heats at Various Temperatures 401 Appendix E. Specific Heat for Saturated Liquid Water at Various Temperatures 403 Appendix F. Thermodynamic Data for Selected Fuel Cell Reactants at Various Temperatures 405 Appendix G. Binary Diffusion Coefficients for Selected FueJ Cell Substances 413 Appendix H. Product Design Specifications 415 Appendix I. Fuel Cell Design Requirements and Parameters 417 Index 423

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