REALIZING RENEWABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL
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1 REALIZING RENEWABLE ENERGY POTENTIAL BY Patrick Hirl, PE Renewable natural gas (RNG) is a universal fuel that enhances energy supply diversity; uses municipal, agricultural and commercial organic waste; and can be stored and transported by the existing natural gas pipeline network. Many technologies proven and emerging offer natural gas producers a chance to generate RNG now, creating increased economic and environmental value.
2 The U.S. is the largest producer of natural gas, generating almost 25 percent of the world s total production. Decaying ancient plant and animal life, organic material that produces natural gas, also emits carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and other impurities into the air. While a relatively cleanburning fuel, these natural gas emissions represent a form of greenhouse gas that stays in the atmosphere. Similar organic matter, created today, is accessible and offers the same CH₄ energy potential in the form of biogas. Using proven and emerging technologies, opportunities exist to create renewable natural gas (i.e., CH₄) from local waste, meet renewable portfolio requirements and improve the diversity of our energy supply. RENEWABLE NATURAL GAS Biogas is produced from a range of sources, including municipal wastewater, organic and solid waste, energy crops, and animal manure. A mixture of CH₄, CO₂, water vapor and other impurities, raw biogas is not compatible with storage or distribution in the existing natural gas pipeline infrastructure. However, when biogas is cleaned and purified, it results in renewable natural gas (RNG), an energy source completely compatible and interchangeable with fossil natural gas. RNG offers the same low-carbon properties of natural gas, but yields 25 times fewer greenhouse gas emissions and qualifies as a renewable fuel under the federal Renewable Fuels Standard (RFS) and a low-carbon fuel within California s Low Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS). RNG can be used in the same applications as natural gas, taking advantage of the more than 210 natural gas pipeline systems and 305,000 miles of inter- and intrastate transmission pipelines that exist in the U.S. today. Unlike other renewable resources, such as solar and wind, RNG has an immediate storage, transportation and distribution solution in the existing natural gas pipeline grid. Using existing and available assets, RNG can be deployed to generate power in natural gasfired plants or fuel for natural gas vehicles (NGVs). ADVANTAGES OF RNG: Reduces unwanted emissions by recycling CO₂ Pipeline quality and pipeline ready Completely interchangeable fuel source with natural gas Sustainable production feedstocks and value-added use of waste products Extensive and existing infrastructure for storage and distribution Available all day, every day without the need for additional storage Uses existing field-proven processes and commercially ready technologies RNG TECHNOLOGIES Many field-proven technologies and processes exist to produce RNG. Not unlike the methods that aid the production of natural gas, each platform upgrades raw gas to create pipeline-quality gas. The feedstocks used for each process are sustainable, generally readily available and are often otherwise considered waste. LANDFILL BIOGAS Landfill gas is a byproduct of the decomposition of organic materials in landfills and is made up of about half CH₄ and half CO₂, with trace levels of nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen and other compounds. According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), municipal solid waste landfills are the third-largest source of human-related CH₄ emissions in the U.S. Instead of a pollutant, landfill gas and biogas from municipal and industrial wastewater treatment plants can serve as feedstock to create RNG. These gas mixtures require removal of impurities and CO₂ to create RNG form biogas. The following technologies are commercially available to perform these processes PAGE 2 OF 6
3 FIGURE 1: Sources of biogas in your community Water Scrubbing A simple and reliable technology, water scrubbing separates CO₂ from biogas and dissolves it in water through the absorption column. CO₂ is then released into the desorption column by adding air at atmospheric pressure. Hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) is efficiently absorbed by the water and then released during desorption. Before venting, any concentration of H₂S air streams must be treated, typically by an activated carbon filter. Amine Scrubbing During amine scrubbing, biogas enters an absorber and makes contact with an amine solution. The CO₂ and H₂S in the biogas react during heating and transfer from gas to a liquid phase. The resulting product stream, mainly CH₄, exits the absorber while the remaining liquid is passed to a stripper column where any remaining CO₂ is released. Any remaining liquid is passed through a packing material and steam, where further residual CO₂ is released. Gas Membranes Gas membrane separation has been used for decades in landfill gas purification, and both the process and filters have improved over time. High CH₄ recovery is possible as the membranes allow most of the CO₂ to permeate through the dense filter. The resulting RNG can then be injected into existing natural gas pipelines. Pressure Swing Adsorption A dry, four-phase process, pressure swing adsorption (PSA) separates gases. Biogas is fed into a column and CO₂ is adsorbed on bed material while CH₄ flows through the column. When the adsorption column material is saturated with CO₂, the feed is closed and pressure is released. The CO₂-rich gas is then led to an off-gas stream. ANAEROBIC DIGESTION Anaerobic digestion is a bacterial fermentation process where microorganisms naturally break down organic matter to produce biogas. In environments with little or no oxygen, anaerobic digestion thrives in waterlogged soils, lagoons, marshes, wetlands and bodies of water. Anaerobic digestion is also the main decomposition process occurring in landfills. Anaerobic digestion produces CO₂, CH₄ and sludge. Using large, oxygen-free digesters, the tanks are hermetically sealed and sometimes heated to create 2017 PAGE 3 OF 6
4 WHITE PAPER / RENEWABLE NATURAL GAS optimal conditions. A common technique, known as a completely stirred tank reactor, encourages the process and avoids sedimentation and degasification by agitating the solution inside the tank. Anaerobic digestion relies on four stages: Hydrolysis: The digestor is fed organic matter from municipal solid waste, agra-industry waste, food returns or manure. The process starts when large protein macromolecules, fats and carbohydrate polymers (cellulose and starch) break down through hydrolysis to create amino acids, sugars and long-chain fatty acids. Acidogenesis: The products are then fermented to form volatile fatty acids (lactic, propionic, butyric and valeric acid) through acidogenesis. Acetogenesis: Bacteria consume the fermented products to generate acetic acid, CO₂ and hydrogen. Methanogenesis: The final step occurs when methanogenic organisms consume the hydrogen, acetate and CO₂ to create CH₄. Typically, the resulting CH₄ from anaerobic digestion ranges from 40 percent to 70 percent by volume, but the overall biogas CH₄ yield can vary considerably depending on conditions, biological reactions and feedstock type. The challenge for adoption of this effective and straightforward process is not that the technology has not been proven. Instead, the low value of renewable energy in the U.S. provides a challenge in making this waste and energy crops. To harness the energy within the approach to RNG production financially viable. waste or forest residues, different mixtures of heat and pressure are used to break the molecules to capture the DRY BIOMASS energy released. Dry biomass cannot be converted to RNG by anaerobic digestion but must, instead, be treated thermally to Small-Scale Gasification produce gas. When dry biomass is gasified, synthetic Using dry organic matter, such as wood chips or gas or syngas is produced, which contains carbon agricultural waste, small-scale gasification uses heat monoxide (CO), CO₂, hydrogen (H₂) and CH₄, along with (typically greater than 700oC), with controlled oxygen other components. Through different synthesis processes, and air, to transform the solid biomass into a syngas. it is possible to produce different final products, such The process is straightforward and can be accomplished as CH₄, from the syngas. in several different designs of gasifiers. The high temperature in the gasifier breaks the biomass down Feedstock for RNG from dry biomass includes woody to syngas, which is then cleaned of impurities. material, municipal solid waste, biosolids, agricultural 2017 PAGE 4 OF 6
5 Gasification is made up of distinct process steps: Drying first removes the moisture in the biomass, as high moisture content will result in a failure to produce clean gas. Pyrolysis is where heat is applied to the raw biomass, in the absence of oxygen, which then rapidly decomposes the material. The remaining fragments are carbon-to-carbon chains, similar to charcoal. Cracking breaks down large molecules into lighter gases by exposing the molecules to heat. This step is necessary to produce a cleaner gas that supports proper combustion without residue. Reduction, a reverse process of combustion, removes oxygen from the remaining waste products at a high temperature to produce combustible gases (e.g., H₂, CO, and CH₄). Small-scale gasification can require capital costs for the setup and for more sophisticated systems to produce high syngas quality. Producers must consider the economies of scale and whether local, accessible feedstock is available to maintain viability for RNG production. Syngas Methanation Converting biomass to syngas and then RNG through methanation a chemical reaction converting CO₂ to CH₄ is a process based on existing coal-tosyngas technology for large-scale production. Using uniform woody biomass, municipal solid waste or agricultural waste, syngas methanation requires several steps. Biomass is initially dried, using air or steam, and thermally pretreated using pyrolysis to decompose the material. The resulting biomass is gasified, and raw gas is passed through a high-temperature (typically 400 o C) gas filter to remove solids and tars. The gas is cooled and cleaned, often using a water scrubber. The clean gas enters a methanation reactor using either fixed-bed or fluidized bed methanation. Finally, the clean RNG is compressed, conditioned and ready for transportation or storage. While the technology and process are proven from the coal and refining industry, cost reductions are required to help adoption using biomass feedstock. Also, operators must consider feedstock logistics to provide sufficient quantity and accessibility. SOLAR ELECTROLYSIS Using solar electrolysis, splitting water to form H₂ and O₂ using renewable electricity, is a proven process and is being adopted to provide hydrogen for fuel cell vehicles. For RNG production, solar energy powers electrolysis, which consists of an anode and cathode separated by an electrolyte. It is within this unit that electrons are used to create the H₂ and O₂ from water. There are different types of electrolyzers, including polymer, alkaline and solid oxide. Electrolysis splits the water into oxygen and hydrogen. The resulting hydrogen reacts with CO₂ in a methanation step that results in RNG, which can be stored and transported in the existing natural gas network. Production of RNG using solar electrolysis is a promising technology. Challenges exist in reducing the capital cost of the electrolyzer unit and improving efficiency in the conversion of electricity to hydrogen and reacting hydrogen and CO₂ to form CH₄ PAGE 5 OF 6
6 SOLAR HYDROTHERMAL GASIFICATION Although in relatively early stages of development, using hydro- and solar thermal gasification to produce RNG are promising areas being explored for broad commercialization. Catalytic Hydrothermal Gasification Unlike gasification of dry biomass to produce syngas, there is potential to create natural gas during a hydrothermal process known as catalytic hydrothermal gasification (CHG). CHG converts wet organic materials similar to those used for anaerobic digestion into RNG quickly, efficiently and with higher yields than anaerobic digestion. The CHG process converts resulting organic matter to produce CH₄ and clean, sterile water that is valuable as a liquid fertilizer. Feedstocks include most wet organic waste, manure, municipal biosolids and agricultural waste. Because the process uses a pressurized system, the technology can avoid the requirement, and energy cost, to dry the feedstock. The system operates at high temperature and pressure, which causes a higher capital cost that has been a challenge in making this technology financially viable. Solar Thermal Collectors Hydrothermal gasification can be assisted by solar energy. Using concentrated solar technology, mirrors focus sunlight on a thermal collector. Heat is usually converted to steam to produce electricity (with a steam turbine generator), but process heat can also be produced. Solar thermal collectors could be used to generate heat that would help with higher fuel production and carbon energy conversion to increase the efficiency and sustainability of the overall process of CHG. Solar thermal collectors can be established to continuously provide high-temperature heat using solar troughs, plus serve as a thermal energy storage system. While the technology requires further development, potential exists for this technology to supplement and enhance RNG production. POWERFUL POTENTIAL It s not often the opportunity arises to reuse a fossil fuel energy resource or create quality energy from waste. With proven production processes and promising emerging technologies, the chance exists for modern natural gas companies to generate RNG today, helping meet energy demands and increase adoption of a new renewable energy resource. RNG offers a unique opportunity to improve energy diversity, not to mention create tremendous economic and environmental value. BIOGRAPHY PATRICK HIRL, PE, is a senior project manager for the Burns & McDonnell industrial water team. He specializes in renewable energy project development, greenhouse gas emissions and reduction, sustainability evaluations, technology assessment, and project financial analysis. His work includes design criteria development, project management, and on-site construction management and supervision. Patrick has a bachelor s degree in civil engineering and a Ph.D. in environmental engineering from the University of Notre Dame RNG PAGE 6 OF 6
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