Wind Energy Chapter 13 Resources and Technologies. Energy Systems Engineering

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1 Wind Energy Chapter 13 Resources and Technologies Energy Systems Engineering

2 Further Readings David Spera, Ed., Wind Turbine Technology: Fundamental Concepts of Wind Turbine Engineering, ASME Press, New York, Manwell, J et al (2002) Wind Energy Explained. Wiley, West Sussex, 2003.

3 Learning Objectives Understanding wind data Estimating available wind using statistics Overview of turbine function Actuator disc model Blade element theory Economics of wind energy Other design issues and consideration of local impacts Future of turbine design Integrating wind and other intermittent sources into the grid

4 Key Concepts Energy source Wind = solar energy converted to kinetic energy Terminology Distinction between mill and turbine Two basic types: Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) Modern turbine depends on Aerospace technology Modern materials engineering Sophisticated fluid mechanics Precise electronic controls

5 Early Wind Generators An early example: Brush Electric Generator, Cleveland, OH, 1880s, 12kW Early adaptation of wind-powered mechanical pump to generating electricity First attempt at > 1 MW turbine Smith-Putnam Turbine, Vermont, 1940s, 1.25 MW Failed prematurely, not repeated Development of modern utility-scale turbine California, Denmark in 1970s and 1980s Experimentation with vertical axis turbines, but eventually settled on horizontal axis design

6 Madison Wind Farm, Madison, NY Source:

7 Figure Growth in annual and cumulative installed capacity of utility-scale wind turbines in U.S., Source: American Wind Energy Association

8 Figure Total installed capacity, 2005 and 2010 Total = 59.1 GW Total = GW Source: Global Wind Energy Consortium

9 Figure Main parts of a utility-scale wind turbine Fluid dynamics Material advances Lighter, stronger and more efficient assemblies Increased swept areas Slower blade speeds Taller towers Blades rotate along the roll axis Nacelle rotates along the yaw axis Most utility scale towers have 3 blades Trade off between energy extraction efficiency, cost and weight. Not to scale

10 Operating Requirements for HAWTs Start, stop, and control output during operation Assisted startup: use turbine as motor Change pitch during operation to modulate power Stopping function: loss of load emergency Winds above design speed Can also shed wind at high wind speeds Solidity of blades: area of blades relative to total swept area

11 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT) No need for yaw rotation Responds to wind from any directions No utility scale VAWTs Some 500 to 20KW units Study continues

12 So, Where do we site these things? Brazos Wind Ranch in Texas Madison Wind Farm, Madison, NY Smoky Hills Wind Farm in Kansas Where the wind is!

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22 We need to Understand wind data Estimate available wind using statistics

23 Data Gathering for Wind Sites For most sites, 1 year record predicts mean wind speed to within accuracy of 10% Importance of data from all seasons of year E.g., summer versus winter usually different Estimation of interannual variability nearly as important as estimating mean annual wind E.g., data gathering at Fenner wind farm, NY state Average meters, or 17.3 MPH Gathered data for several years prior to installation at site Resulting output from site in kwh of electricity varies + 5% from predicted average from year to year

24 Table Classification of wind resource by wind speed range in m/s and mph at hub height of turbine

25 Wind Statistics Two methods Sample Average speed from limited number of readings Statistical wind maps estimate local wind from nearby readings adjusted for terrain and prevailing winds. Detailed Histograms (bin analyses) of continuous wind readings at a site 8760 hours per year! Year to year variations are generally <10%.

26 Hypothetical Year Bin Min Max Hr/Year % Avg m/s No limit no record Hr/Year Hr/Year 8760 About 40% of year is good to outstanding plus range (blue) If we are OK up to 25 mph, then we have about 50% useful wind We should expect about 220,000 kwh/year from our 50 kw turbine

27 No Detail Data, what then? Rayleigh Distribution (special case of Wiebull Distribution) can be applied if average wind speed is known. Calculates approximate bins based on U avg, and the shape of the Rayleigh statistical curve Accuracy depends on site conditions

28 Comparison of observed and Rayleigh estimated probabilities of wind speeds in a given bin for wind speeds up to 14 m/s Average wind speed 5.57 m/s

29 Statistical Wind Mapping Uses statistical approach to predict wind at sites without exhaustive measuring Data inputs required Prevailing winds Elevation Terrain Calibrate & verify accuracy of mapping by comparing to sites with known, measured wind data Is the wind map s prediction for these sites sufficiently accurate? Companies like AWS Truewind specialize in wind mapping.

30 Wind Data Cautions A Raleigh approximation might fit one set of measured data very well, but may not accurately predict another. Small differences between predicted and actual are important because available power varies with the cube of wind speed! Power per unit swept area, P = 0.5ρU 3 ρ = air density, on the order of 1 kg/m 3 Example Varies with elevation and climate P avg = 0.5(1.15)(5.57) 3 = 99 W/m 3 P 14 = 0.5(1.15)(14) 3 = 1578 W/m 3 Big Difference

31 Figure Comparison of observed and Rayleigh estimated probabilities of wind speeds in a given bin for wind speeds up to 14 m/s

32 Observed vs. Estimated Power Observed Raleigh for Uavg = 5.57 m/s Annual Power Output Bin Min Max Bin % Min Cum Bin % Observed Estimated % 0.00% % 2.50% % 7.13% % 10.74% % 12.93% % 13.59% % 12.91% % 11.27% % 9.14% % 6.92% % 4.91% % 3.28% % 2.06% % 1.22% % 0.69% No limit % From Table Another Approach Multiply the average by (6/π) 1/3 (the limit of the average of the cube over the cube of the averages) (5.57)( ) = 6.91m/s P = 0.5(1.15)(6.91) 3 = W/m 2 Annual output = 18.97)(8760) = 1662 kwh/m 2 Using the straight average wind speed of 5.57 m/s would have resulted in a low estimate of only 870 kwh/m2. This highlights the importance of the higher wind speeds because of the cubed effect. P windspeed 1 e bin ( / 4)( bin/ avg) 2 P 0.5 U 3 Very good agreement in this case But that is what we expected from the good curve fit

33 Relative value of wind speed and power as a function of height above the ground, indexed to value at 30 m. = W 8.86 m/s Wind speed increase rapidly at first, but then less rapidly with height. We use a shear coefficient to estimate the relative values of wind versus height. Power can then be calculated. See example 13-3 on pp 445 for more detail.

34 Figure Seasonal distribution of wind speed in m/s by month of year at proposed Enfield, New York, wind farm site (height =58m)

35 Figure Hourly distribution of wind speed for example 365 days of year at proposed Enfield, New York, wind farm site (height = 58m)

36 Figure Wind rose from 1-year wind data for proposed wind turbine site at Ithaca College, Ithaca, New York Source: Prof. Beth Clark, Ithaca College

37 Turbine Operating Modes Cut-in Speed below which blades do not spin Operating Range Output increases rapidly with speed High Operating Range Output increases slow and at a point load must be reduced Fixed pitch blades are allowed to stall Variable pitch blades reduce their pitch Rated Wind Speed speed of maximum output, will either hold steady or decline with increases wind speed Cut Out Speed put on the brakes

38 Figure Power curve for 1.5-MW turbine for wind speeds from 0 to 21 m/s, with extraction efficiency

39 Table Calculation of annual output for turbine with power curve from Fig and empirically measured distribution at hypothetical site with U avg = 8.4 m/s

40 Modeling Aerodynamic Behavior of Wind Turbines Levels of modeling: The Actuator Disc Model assumes an idealized rotor with infinite number of blades. Strip Theory incorporates blade geometry. Computational fluid dynamics allow more accurate models. All are Limited Most overpredict Models can provide an upper limit, like Carnot

41 Actuator Disk Analysis Rotates in plane perpendicular to wind Composed of infinite number of blades Translate wind energy into rotation Like a Carnot engine Cannot be built in practice Useful to estimate theoretical limits Assumptions Incompressible fluid flow No drag or friction Uniform thrust over disk surface No wake rotation Steady state

42 Introduction to Strip Theory Divides blades into sections (strips or elements) which can be analyzed separately. Sometimes called Blade Element Theory. Propellers put energy into the fluid (air or water) stream. Wind tubines extract energy from the stream. Blade element approximation good for HAWT analysis Expanding wake puts shed vortices outside of rotor diameter Unlike air or water propellers

43 Power Coefficient, C P The Ratio of Power Extracted to Power Available Translating Devices Move with the Wind Sailboats for example Efficiency limited by velocity relative to the wind, and by drag coefficient Power Coefficients on the order of 15% Wind Turbine Blade Angle of Attack A function of relative velocity

44 Figure Winds and forces acting on a cross section of a turbine blade, showing angle of attack between midline of cross section and relative wind velocity V r Note that the blade is rotating up the page

45 Figure Relative value of power coefficient C P /C P-max as a function of ratio of v/u to (v/u) max, using Eq. (13-29)

46 Tip Speed Ratio and Advance Ratio TSR λ : λ = ΩR/U where Ω is rotation speed in rad/s R is swept area radius (length of blade) in m U is free wind speed in m/s Advance Ratio J: J = 1 / λ

47 Figure Rotor power coefficient C Pr as function of tip speed ratio

48 Table Turbine performance as a function of for representative turbine with 10-m blade radius and fixed wind speed U = 7.0 m/s

49 Economics of Wind Choice of site using wind data Land requirements Cost elements: Installed capital cost: turbines + balance of system: roads, cables, substations, etc Operation & maintenance (~2% of cap charge) Insurance, royalties, land rentals (~ 0.5%) Balance of system costs ~ 20% of total capital costs for on-shore systems Other factors e.g. Volatility of natural gas price gives wind a market advantage Proximity to transmission line Air quality permitting not required (advantage over fossil fuels)

50 Land Requirements for Large-Scale Wind Production Suppose we replace 500 average coal plants = 1 trillion kwhr/yr (100 million US avg. homes) Take Fenner site as standard: $1.5 M per turbine 7 turbines per sq mi 4.4 M kwhr per turbine per year Number of turbines required: 230,000 Compare: goal of 230,000 MW installed in Europe by 2020 Area required: 33,000 sq mi (21% of North & South Dakota combined) Cost: approx $350 billion

51 Effect of technological advance on cost Optimal size tradeoff: Energy increases with square of radius, turbine cost increases with cube of radius In functional form: Net Benefit from increasing size = a*r 2 - b*r 3 Coefficients a and b depend on the technology Technological improvement reduces value of coefficient b >> larger turbines Advantage of slow speed: Less noise, fewer bird kills Only possible with large turbines (~500 kw+), since they can better absorb gearing losses

52 Design Issues and Adverse Local Environmental Impacts Placement: given upwind obstacle w/ height H Turbine should be min 2xH above and 20xH downwind from obstacle Visual effect on surroundings Use photomontage to show visual effect of turbines Noise: must meet local zoning requirements for not exceeding noise limits

53 Layout Considerations for Wind Parks Each turbine must have enough space around the post to rotate in any direction Turbines in a line perpendicular to prevailing wind must have 2x rotor radius space to avoid collisions Turbines along line of prevailing wind must have 5x to 10x rotor radius to avoid negative effects of turbulence

54 Impact on birds Relative quantity of bird fatalities from collisions with turbines Some number of birds killed each year due to striking turbines However, the number is small compared to fatalities from cars, windows, cats, etc. Changing turbine technology has helped birds Slower rotation speed Compare 100 kw turbine in California in 1980s vs 1.5 MW turbine today Change from lattice-work to solid tower Turbine tower does not encourage nesting Wind energy helps birds over long term since it slows climate change

55 Future Objectives for Wind Power Maximize turbine blade size ( m diameter) Offshore turbines on floating platforms, moored to bottom Dynamic feathering of blades in real time to respond to changes in wind, maximize output Urban wind turbine concepts for building tops Possibly large HAWTs atop buildings Large or small VAWTs also envisioned

56 Using Software to Optimize Wind Farm Layout Data requirements Topographical data Wind data Technology characteristics of turbines Given number of devices, terrain, wind, optimizes location to maximize output

57 Integrating Wind into the Grid Conventional ( dispatchable ) supply: Baseline Load following Peaking Goal: use up capacity with lowest variable cost first If wind energy is available, use first Load-following plants adjust in real time to changing demand, changing availability of wind This works up to a point With sufficient presence of wind in the energy mix, may need additional infrastructure to offset

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