Ecosystems. Chapter 42. An array of organisms and their physical and chemical environment. Inputs and outputs of energy and nutrients
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1 Ecosystems Chapter Ecosystems Ecosystem An array of organisms and their physical and chemical environment Inputs and outputs of energy and nutrients Energy flows one way, into and out of an ecosystem Materials are cycled among resident species 1
2 Energy Sources Sunlight supplies energy to most ecosystems Primary producers Convert energy of sunlight into chemical energy (autotrophs) Take up nutrients that all living organisms require Energy Sources Consumers - get energy from food Herbivores feed on producers Carnivores eat herbivores and other consumers Flesh of animals Omnivores eat animals and plants Decomposers feed on organic waste and remains. It is broken down into inorganic building blocks Detritivores- eat small particles of organic matter (crabs and earthworms) 2
3 Energy efficiency is not 100%. All energy eventually lost most as heat from metabolism. Energy input, from sun Primary Producers Plants, Other Photoautotrophs Energy inputs from the environment flow through producers, then consumers. All energy that entered this ecosystem eventually flows out of it, mainly as heat. Nutrient cycling Consumers Detritivores, Decomposers Energy output (mainly metabolic heat) Producers and then consumers concentrate nutrients in their tissues. Some nutrients released by decomposition get cycled back to producers. Fig. 42.2, p.734 Trophic Levels Organisms in an ecosystem are classified by trophic levels (feeding levels) Organisms at the same trophic level are the same number of steps away from the energy input Approximately 10% of the energy is transferred from one energy level to the next. A food chain shows who eats whom Path of energy and nutrient flow among organisms 3
4 Food chains or trophic levels coyote Fourth Trophic Level carnivore (third-level consumer) sparrow Third Trophic Level carnivore (second-level consumer) grasshopper Second Trophic Level herbivore (primary consumer) big bluestem grass First Trophic Level autotroph (primary producer) Fig. 42.3b, p.735 Key Concepts: ORGANIZATION OF ECOSYSTEMS An ecosystem consists of a community and its physical environment A one-way flow of energy and a cycling of raw materials among its interacting participants maintain it It is an open system, with inputs and outputs of energy and nutrients 4
5 42.2 Food Webs Food chains interconnect as food webs Most ecosystems support only four or five trophic levels away from original energy source Efficiency of energy transfer is low Energy lost limits the length of the chain 42.2 Food Webs Shorter in habitats that change widely over time Longer in stable habitats Ocean depths If there are a large number of connections then there will be more herbivores If there are fewer number of connections then there will be more carnivores 5
6 Types of Food Webs Type of energy varies with season. Most of the energy stored in producers moves through the detrital food web Biological Magnification A chemical substance is passed from organisms at each trophic level to those above, becoming increasingly concentrated in body tissues Pesticides (herbicides, insecticides, fungicides) Industrial pollutants Toxic metals (lead, mercury) DDT in raptors 6
7 Key Concepts: FOOD WEBS Food chains are linear sequences of feeding relationships, from producers through consumers, decomposers, and detritivores The chains cross-connect as food webs Most energy that enters a food web returns to the environment, mainly as metabolic heat Key Concepts: FOOD WEBS (cont.) Most nutrients are cycled; some reenter the environment Biological magnification is the increasing concentration of a substance in tissues of organisms as it moves up food chains 7
8 42.4 Energy Flow Through Ecosystems Primary productivity of a system The rate at which producers capture and store energy in their tissues Depends on number of producers and balance between energy stored and energy used Varies with climate, seasonal changes, nutrient availability, and other factors 42.4 Energy Flow Through Ecosystems Gross primary production all energy trapped by the producers Net primary production the fraction of trapped energy that producers funnel into growth and reproduction. 8
9 42.4 Energy Flow Through Ecosystems Net ecosystem production gross primary production minus the energy that producers, detritivores, and decomposers require. Subtracted because it is NOT availabel to next trophic level Ecological Pyramids Energy pyramids and biomass pyramids Depict how energy and organic compounds are distributed among organisms of an ecosystem Energy pyramids are largest at their base Usually primary producers Always largest at the base 9
10 Ecological Pyramids Biomass pyramids Dry weight of all organisms at each trophic level in a specific ecosystem Common Primary producers most biomass Carnivores least biomass may be upside down Consumer biomass can exceed that of producers Producers are eaten almost as fast as they grow and reproduce and cannot accumulate top carnivores (gar and bass) carnivores (smaller fishes, invertebrates) herbivores (plant-eating fishes, invertebrates, turtles) 809 producers (mainly algae and eel grass) detritivores (crayfish) and decomposers (bacteria) Small biomass (g/m squared) on aquatic system of Florida. Producers bulk. Fig a, p
11 Ecological Efficiency Only about 10% of energy transferred from trophic level to trophic level Influences amount of energy transferred Proportion of digestible biomass Amount of energy lost by the animals Warm-blooded loose faster then cold blooded Active animals loose mere than less active animals Higher efficiency of transfer allows for longer food chains Key Concepts: PRIMARY PRODUCTIVITY Primary productivity is the rate at which an ecosystem s producers capture and store energy in their tissues during a given interval The number of producers and the balance between photosynthesis and aerobic respiration influence the amount stored 11
12 42.5 Biogeochemical Cycles In biogeochemical cycles, water or a nutrient moves from an environmental reservoir, through organisms, then back to the environment Hydrologic cycle Carbon cycle Nitrogen cycle Phosphorus cycle 42.5 Biogeochemical Cycles Transfer to and from reservoirs are far slower than rates of exchange among organisms of an ecosystem. Minerals enter and leave rocks slowly Nutrient cycles depend on decomposers 12
13 42.5 Biogeochemical Cycles Hydrologic cycle oxygen and hydrogen moving at a global scale Atmospheric cycle gaseous form of a nutrient available to ecosystems Carbon and nitrogen Sedimentary cycle nutrients that do not often occur as gases Phosphorus 42.5 Biogeochemical Cycles Cycles Hydrologic cycle Carbon cycle Nitrogen cycle Phosphorus cycle 13
14 42.6 The Hydrologic Cycle Evaporation, condensation, and precipitation move water from its main reservoir (oceans) into the atmosphere, onto land, and back to oceans 42.6 The Hydrologic Cycle Evaporation driven by the sun Liquid to a vapor Transpiration- Evaporation of water from plant parts 14
15 42.6 The Hydrologic Cycle Condensation- Water vapors form drops as it cools Gives rise to clouds Precipitation clouds releasing water Rain Snow Hail 42.6 The Hydrologic Cycle Evaporation, condensation, and precipitation move water from its main reservoir (oceans) into the atmosphere, onto land, and back to oceans A watershed area drains into a waterway Valley to Amazon river basin Aquifers permeable rock layers that hold water Groundwater includes water in soil and aquifers Runoff flows over ground into a waterway when saturated 15
16 The Hydrologic Cycle - FYI A Global Water Crisis Humans are disrupting the water cycle Salinization of soil due to uptake of water and evaporation Stunts plant growth and decreases yields Pollution of groundwater drinking supplies 16
17 A Global Water Crisis Contaminants disrupt aquatic ecosystems, drive vulnerable species to local extinction Desalinization of seawater increases freshwater supplies, but uses fossil fuels EXSPENSIVE A Global Water Crisis Water overdrafts from aquifers (saltwater intrusion) Water is drawn from aquifers faster than natural processes replenish it. Near the coast salt water is drawn into aquifer Ogallala aquifer is half depleted Supplies 20% of nations crops Withdrawal exceeds replenishment by a factor of 10 17
18 A Global Water Crisis Water to regulate political behavior Turkey has built dam sites at headwaters of Tigris and Euphrates rivers In the words of one of the dam site managers, Turkey can shut off water flow into Syria and Iraq to regulate their political behavior The Carbon Cycle Carbon cycle Carbon moves from reservoirs in rocks and seawater, through its gaseous form (CO 2 ) in the atmosphere, and through ecosystems Carbon-oxygen cycle Carbon moves in and out of ecosystems combined with oxygen in carbon dioxide, bicarbonate, and carbonate 18
19 F Y I diffusion between atmosphere and ocean bicarbonate and carbonate dissolved in ocean water combustion of fossil fuels photosynthesis aerobic respiration marine food webs producers, consumers, decomposers, detritivores incorporation death, into sediments sedimentation marine sediments, including formations with fossil fuels uplifting over geologic time sedimentation Fig a, p.744 atmosphere (mainly carbon dioxide) volcanic action terrestrial rocks photosynthesis aerobic respiration combustion of wood (for clearing land; or for fuel) combustion of fossil fuels weathering soil water (dissolved carbon) leaching, runoff land food webs producers, consumers, decomposers, detritivores death, burial, compaction over geologic time deforestation peat, fossil fuels Fig b, p
20 Carbon Cycling between Ocean and Atmosphere Deforestation and burning of wood and fossil fuels are adding more carbon dioxide to the atmosphere than oceans can absorb The Greenhouse Effect Natural processes and human activities add more greenhouse gases to the atmosphere Gases that can profoundly influence the average temperatures of the Earth s surface Carbon dioxide, CFCs, methane, nitrous oxide Greenhouse Effect- Named because gasses act as a pane of glass in a greenhouse 20
21 The Greenhouse Effect Gasses absorb wavelengths of visible light and transmit them toward Earth s surface The surface absorbs the wavelength and then emits longer, infrared wavelengths heat. Greenhouse gasses impede the escape of heat energy form Earth into space and increases temperature. It has to have some gasses or the Earth would be too cold to support life The Greenhouse Effect Greenhouse gases trap heat in the lower atmosphere 21
22 The Greenhouse Effect CO 2 follow annual cycles of primary production Decline in summer due to photosynthesis increase Rise in winter when photosynthesis declines Global Warming Global Warming Long term increase in temperature near Earth s surface Evaporation increases precipitation increases Causing flooding in some areas and droughts in others 22
23 42.9 The Nitrogen Cycle Plants can t use atmospheric N 2 Nitrogen fixation (soil bacteria) takes up N 2 (gas) and forms ammonia Denitrification (denitrifying bacteria) returns some nitrogen to the atmosphere 42.9 The Nitrogen Cycle Denitrification (denitrifying bacteria) returns some nitrogen to the atmosphere Farmers must counter act loss of nitrogen when they plant crops that use a lot of nitrogen Plant rotation 23
24 The Nitrogen Cycle - FYI Disruption by Human Activities Human activities add nitrogen to ecosystems Examples: Fertilizer application and fossil fuel burning (releases nitrogen oxides) 24
25 42.10 The Phosphorus Cycle Phosphorus moves in a sedimentary cycle Mainly stored as phosphate in rocks Earth s crust is the largest reservoir Phosphorus is often the limiting factor for plant growth and algal producers Required for energy (ATP adenosine triphosphate) The Phosphorus Cycle Subtropical and tropical ecosystems have limited amounts of phosphorus available for plants Most is tied up in plants Developed countries have too much phosphorus Heavily fertilized fields At one point soaps Moves to water ways and causes algal blooms 25
26 The Phosphorus Cycle - FYI Eutrophication Excessive nutrient enrichment of an ecosystem Example: Phosphorus in aquatic ecosystems Natural But, exacerbated by humans 26
27 Key Concepts: CYCLING OF WATER AND NUTRIENTS Availability of water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other substances influences primary productivity Ions or molecules of these substances move slowly in global cycles, from environmental reservoirs, into food webs, then back to reservoirs Human activities can disrupt these cycles 27
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