Energy & Sustainability. Lecture 14: Fossil Fuels Coal February 26, 2009

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1 Energy & Sustainability Lecture 14: Fossil Fuels Coal February 26, 2009

2 Fossil fuels 2000 Oldest of all technologies: Burning fuel to provide heat More than ¾ of our present day use of primary energy is from fossil fuels Process of combustion: chemical reaction between oxygen, usually from surrounding air, and the constituent elements of the fuel, mainly carbon and hydrogen Energy release as heat which is carried away initially by the combustion products

3 Coal In contrast to oil/gas might be called ignoble fuel Less convenient transportation, storage and use Produces twice the amount of CO 2

4 Coal In contrast to oil/gas might be called ignoble fuel Its extraction leads to land subsidence and spoil heaps Strip mining Deaths of hundreds of miners in an average year

5 Coal Consumption: Coal Rise < Total Energy Rise

6 Coal Combustion Extremely complex nature The composition of Coal: Carbon and hydrogen Oxygen and nitrogen Sulphur and others Inert materials moisture

7 Composition of Coal Amounts of inert materials and moistures obviously important when determining the heat value of coal

8 The Combustion Process Early stage of combustion: moisture evaporates (more moisture in brown coal than hard coal, between 1% and 10%) Heating and evaporation uses some of the energy of the coal, but less than 1% Temperature continues to rise: a range of gases evolve, called volatile matter (VM): Arise from the dissociation of coal structure Carry most of the hydrogen and oxygen, some of its carbon: CO, CH4, other forms of hydrocarbons (bitumens) Release heat as they burn, about 50% of the coals energy

9 The Combustion Process Combustible part of the material remains: fixed carbon (charcoal, coke) Can burn at high temperature in oxygen: Depending on type of coal this accounts for virtually all the heat output or no more than half Finally: Ash (inert material that remains) Best coal has less than 10% of it 15% not uncommon, and in some countries 30% is tolerated if priority is to use local coal

10 Different Types of Ranks of Coal Fixed carbon is a factor determining the rank

11 Combustion Products Chemical change of main components: Nitrogen: NOX or No x Sulphur: SO 2 Sulphur can account for as much as 5% of the mass In high sulphur coals about half of it maybe in the inert material (removable by washing) Even less than 1% releases 20 kg of SO 2 per tonne of burned coal

12 How much carbon dioxide is released in the combustion of one tonne of coal?

13 How much CO 2 in combustion of one tonne of coal? Assume all the carbon in the coal reacts with oxygen: rel. atomic mass: 12 2*16 44 So 12 kg of C produces 44 kg of CO 2 or 1 kg of C produces 3.67 kg of CO 2 Now consider one tonne of low VM bituminous coal: 10% is moisture or ash > 900kg of dry and ash free coal 88% of this coal carbon > 792 kg of carbon So the mass of CO 2 released in the combustion of 1 tonne of coal is 792 kg * 3.67 = 2.9 tonnes

14 Fires, furnaces and boilers The destination of approx. ¾ of fossil and bio fuels is a fire, furnace or boiler Driving factor in design of boilers: efficiency with which energy is extracted Better design Lower fuel requirements Lower costs Lower emission of CO 2 and other undesirable products

15 How much water is needed to bring a liter of water to boil? Input data: specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg 1 K 1 Mass of 1 liter of water = 1 kg Heat value of wood = 15 MJ / kg Density of wood = 600 kg m 3 1 cubic centimeter = 10 6 m 3

16 How much water is needed to bring a liter of water to boil? Calculation Heat energy needed to heat 1 liter of water from 20 o C to 100 o C = 80 * 4200 J = 336 kj Heat energy released in burning 1cm 3 of wood = 15 * 600 * 10 6 MJ = 9.0 kj Volume of required wood Suggests only one thin stick of about a food of wood is needed Surprising result? = cm 3 = 37 cm 3 Why not that simple?

17 Sideremark: Latent Heat amount of energy in the form of heat released or absorbed by a chemical substance during a change of state

18 Fires, furnaces and boilers The stove might have only a fuel to useful heat efficiency of 10%, which can be compared to 70% of a well run domestic gas water heater or >90% for a modern power station boiler The major consumers of coal: large power station boilers to produce steam Useful to study because: Most efficient fuel burning systems we have Waste products create some of the world s major pollution problems Interesting technological solutions exist

19 Power Station Boilers To extract the maximum energy from the solid fuel, both fixed carbon and the VM must be fully burnt (not simple since one is solid and the other gas) Both must be burnt at about the same rate Purpose of the plant: to produce steam > third requirement is for the best possible heat transfer from the burning fuel into the circulating water Finally: minimize by products and include a method to deal with unavoidable waste: ash and flue gas Aim: power station that can deal safely and efficiently with fuels with very different physical properties and range of heat values

20 Coal fire power station

21 Three types of solid fuel power station boiler

22 The Grate boiler Fuel is in pieces of a few millimeters across Fed in from a hopper or on a conveyer belt Move across the grate in an upward flow of air Fixed carbon burns on the grate and the volatile matter in the space above Radiant heat from both reaches array of tubes through which the water circulates The hot gases from the combustion reach another set of tubes

23 The Grate boiler Boilers of this type are still used for coal, but mainly for biofuels such as wood chips, processed domestic wastes etc., not suitable for pulverized fuel boilers Increasingly replaced with cleaner more efficient boilers

24 Pulverized Fuel Boilers Most common boiler type in presentday coal fired power stations in use for more than half a century Can transfer > 90% of the energy content of the coal to the circulating water or steam Pulverized fuel (PF): coal enters the furnace in the form of particles less than about 100 microns Coal dust swept in a controlled flow of air to the burner jets Tiny particles > the fixed carbon burns completely in a short time > VM and fixed carbon burn together in roughly the same part of the furnace > efficiency increase in heat transfer

25 Pulverized Fuel Boilers Short time that fuel spends in the furnace > reduces the production of NOX and other combustion products Careful control of the air/fuel mixture is required (not enough air: unburnt char in the ash or CO in the flue gases too much air: promotes production of undesirable oxides and reduces the efficiency by carrying away more heat in the flue gases) On line monitoring (control of flue gas flow, particle size) Disadvantage of PF boilers: ash is fine dust that will be carried into the atmosphere without preventive measures

26 Fluidized Bed Boilers Fluidized bed combustion (FBC) offers solutions to some of the pollution problems of coal combustion Possibility of burning other fuels cleanly 1980s: first plants on stream By the end of 2000: a few 1000 Essential feature: thick layer of inert material (sand or gravel (particle sizes of mm) on the base plate Base plate has small apertures through which jets of air are blown At a certain air speed: thickness of material expands to a depth of >1m and starts to behave like liquid

27 Fluidized Bed Boilers Air flow further increased: forms bubbles rising through the bed > particles bounce around as if they were a boiling liquid Fuel particles are fed into the bed Constant motion and air flow > both fixed carbon and VM burn quickly and heat the entire bed Water tubes are buried in the bed and or containment walls > excellent thermal contact > good heat transfer does not require the high temperatures of an open furnace Bubbling fluidized bed combustion (BFBC): majority of plants

28 So why has bituminous coal better heat value than anthracite? The relative proportion of fixed carbon and volatile matter generally indicative of the different ranks.

29 FBB: Other systems Circulating fluidized bed combustion (CFBC): Developed a little later, but rapid growth (>1000 since 2000) Increased air flow drives particles in the space above the fluidized bed > behave like a hot gas Circulating system: constantly returns particles to the bed > high temperature is maintained > increase of time for combustion > wider range of coals and other fluids can be used Pressurized fluidized bed combustion (PFBC): Most advanced, can produce 250 MW Based on the BFBC, but higher pressure in the furnace (~10atm) > hot gases from the furnace can be used in a gas turbine as well as raising steam for the steam turbine (combined cycle) Pressurized circulating systems under development

30 Flue Gases Quantities which might be released into the atmosphere by a modern 660 MW coal fired power station in one hour (figures are approximate): 2500 tonnes of Nitrogen, 80% of the air, pass unchanged through the whole system but heating it accounts for about half of the energy loss in the boiler 700 tonnes of carbon dioxide > climate >150 tonnes of steam (moisture in the coal, combustion product), not condensing it accounts for the other half of lost energy, but flue gases need to stay hot if they are to rise through a tall chimney

31 Flue Gases Quantities which might be released into the atmosphere by a modern 660 MW coal fired power station in one hour (figures are approximate): A tonne of NOX: The higher the furnace temperature the greater the production of NOX > acid rain, other health damages 1 20 tonnes of sulphur dioxide, power station of this example produces about 4 tonnes of SO 2 in one hour from coal with 1% sulphur > acid rain tonnes of fly ash (particulates) resulting from burning pulverized coal > visible as dirt, tiny particles can damage lungs and contain poisonous impurities.

32 Flue Gas There are two ways of dealing with these pollutants: remove them or don t produce them

33 Flue Gas and FBC Fluidized bed boilers approach: Don t produce them: Sulphur components are reduced at source by introducing lime stone: SO 2 reacts with limestone >calcium sulphate (can be removed from the bed) NOX production reduced by keeping bed temperature < 1000 deg C (2000 deg C in conventional plant) Smaller quantities of particulates than in pulverized fuel plant

34 Flue Gas Removel The flue gases of FBC boilers are cleaned using the same methods as in PF plants In the case of PFBC particulate removal is an integral feature of the plant since the gases must be cleaned to a high standard before they can be used in a gas turbine

35 Particulate removal: Flue Gas Removel bag filters (method of a traditional household vacuum cleaner, inefficient for particle sizes of < 10 microns) cyclone filters ( particles are thrown outwards from the fast spinning air, inefficient for particle sizes of < 10 microns) Electrostatic precipitation (fine particles acquire an electric charge by passing near a high voltage wire and are pulled side ways out of the gas stream by an electrical field, effective for very small particles, but capital costs considerably higher) Combination of the above

36 Flue Gas Desulphurization FGD usually involves reacting the SO2 with finely divided lime stone (CaCO3, calcium carbonate) Usually a slurry or spray or jets of water are used to bring the limestone into contact with the flue gas > insoluble calcium sulphate precipitates and can be removed Involved costs: Electrostatic precipitation: 5% to the capital cost of a new power station FGD as much 15% and uses energy > reduces overall efficiency of plant > increases costs per energy unit

37 Why do very few power plants worldwide reach the best achievable reductions of the pollutants? Put into context: 3000 tonnes /hour of gases leave the boiler Hotter than the hottest domestic oven ( o C) Particulate level greater than in the worst ever Salt Lake City smog a concentration of SO 2 a 1000 times worse than downtown L.A. on a bad day Enough moisture to cause it to start raining in the gas stream if the temperature falls below that of a moderate oven

38 Why do very few power plants worldwide reach the best achievable reductions of the pollutants? Any cleaning system must be able to handle this hot, dirty corrosive mass on a continuous basis Should remove most of the pollutants, current aims: ~90% of SO 2 and 99% of particulates Should use as little energy as possible Should leave environmentally acceptable residues And should be cheap There is no such system

39

40 Emission Trading Administrative approach used to control pollution, aka cap and trade How it works: Central authority (government, international body) sets a cap on the amount of a pollutant that can be emitted Companies etc. are issued emission permits and a required to hold an equivalent amount of allowances or credits Total of allowances must not exceed cap Companies that need to increase their allowances must by credits from the companies who pollute less

41 Emission Trading Effect: buyer is paying charge for pollutant, seller is being rewarded for reducing pollution In theory: those who can reduce emissions most cheaply will do so > pollution reduction at the lowest possible costs to society Examples: Greenhouse gases trading program in the EU, SO2 and NOX trading program in the US Contrast: direct emission taxes Pro: most of the money stays in the system and is spent on sustainable projects, reduces cost to control acid rain (in case of of SO2) Contra: complexity, monitoring, enforcement, dispute, manipulation, too many emission credits

42 Emission Trading Financial Times in 2007: Carbon markets create a muddle and leave much room for unverifiable information

43 Comparison of Emission Trading with ruled based system Europe: ruled based US: sulfur dioxide trading system instituted in 1990

44 Clean Coal Initiative "Coal is an abundant resource in the world...it is imperative that we figure out a way to use coal as cleanly as possible. Dr. Steven Chu, Secretary of Energy Senate Confirmation Hearing January 13, 2009

45 Clean Coal Initiative From the DOE website: Clean coal technology" describes a new generation of energy processes that sharply reduce air emissions and other pollutants from coal burning power plants.

46 Clean Coal Initiative From the DOE website: "In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the U.S. Department of Energy conducted a joint program with industry and State agencies to demonstrate the best of these new technologies at scales large enough for companies to make commercial decisions. More than 20 of the technologies tested in the original program achieved commercial success.

47 Clean Coal Initiative From the DOE website: "The early program, however, was focused on the environmental challenges of the time primarily concerns over the impact of acid rain on forests and watersheds. In the 21st century, additional environmental concerns have emerged the potential health impacts of trace emissions of mercury, the effects of microscopic particles on people with respiratory problems, and the potential global climate altering impact of greenhouse gases.

48 Clean Coal Initiative There will be government co financed programs, e.g Utah:

49 Clean Coal Initiative Three projects at the University of Utah: Fundamentals of Mercury Oxidation in Flue Gas This $539,000 project (DOE share: $397,000): develop knowledge and models needed by utility operators to meet expected EPA mercury regulations focus on understanding mercury oxidation reaction chemistry including the effects of chlorine, nitrogen oxide, sulfur dioxide, and ash particle reactions. Materials for Power Plant Sensors (DOE up $608k): develop novel microscale gas sensing devices suitable for application in exhaust gas streams of power plants. devices that can tolerate these conditions while still accurately sensing very small levels of gases such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides.

50 Clean Coal Initiative Three projects at the University of Utah: Corrosion Resistant Coatings for Power Plants (DOE share: $200,000): develop a commericially viable coating technology based on nanocrystalline intermetallic materials for advanced coal fired power generation systems for which corrosion resistance and creep strength at high temperatures are critical

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