Support to DG Environment for the development of the Mediterranean De-pollution Initiative Horizon 2020

Transcription

1 Support to DG Environment for the development of the Mediterranean De-pollution Initiative Horizon 2020 Review of Ongoing and Completed Activities Prepared for DG Environment European Commission December 2006 Contract LDK-ECO S.A. Environmental Consultants Off 21 Thivaidos str. Athens GR Greece Tel: Fax: Web:

2 This document has been prepared for use within the Commission. It does not necessarily represent the Commission s official position.

3 Project title: Contract no: Country: Support to DG Environment for development of the Mediterranean De-pollution Initiative Horizon /2006/436133/MAR/ E3 Mediterranean region EC Service Consultant Name: DG ENV / DIR. E / ENV.3 LDK ECO Consultants Address: B-1049 Brussels Belgium Off 21 Thivaidos str. Athens GR Greece Tel. no: +(32) (30) Fax no: +(32) (30) Contact person: Mr. Andrew Murphy Mr. Demetres Economides andrew.murphy@ec.europa.eu dec@ldkeco.gr Date of Report: December 2006

4 Contents 1. INTRODUCTION Objectives and description of the tasks of the study Scope and Methodology Structure of the report 2 2. CONTEXT FRAMEWORK Introduction European Union Framework Euro-Mediterranean Partnership/Barcelona Process European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) LIFE 3 rd countries Other EU Policy tools Initiative Horizon UNEP/MAP and Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development (MSSD) _ The Mediterranean Environmental Technical Assistance Programme (METAP) Multilateral and bilateral support Overview of involved actors & actions in the region DATA COLLECTION Data collection approach Contacting main stakeholders Other sources of information MEDITERRANEAN REGION REVIEW General background Key environmental issues related to urban and industrial pollution Urban wastewater and sanitation Municipal solid waste Industrial pollution Institutional and legal overview Institutional aspects Legislative aspects Opportunities / Challenges Urban wastewater Municipal solid waste Industrial emissions 51 LDK ECO SA i

5 5. COUNTRY REVIEW Algeria Major sources of pollution from urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions Institutional framework Legal environment Policy environment and action programmes Overview of completed and on-going projects Outcome of review Egypt Major sources of pollution from urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions Institutional setting Legal framework Policy environment and action programmes Overview of completed and on-going projects Outcome of review Israel Major sources of pollution from urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions Institutional setting Legal framework Policy environment and action programmes Overview of completed and on-going projects Outcome of review Jordan Major sources of pollution from urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions Institutional setting Legal framework Policy environment and action programmes Overview of completed and on-going projects Outcome of review Lebanon Major sources of pollution from urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions Institutional setting Legal framework Policy environment and action programmes Overview of completed and on-going projects Outcome of review Libya Major sources of pollution from urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions Institutional setting Legal framework Policy Environment and action programmes Overview of completed and on-going projects Outcome of review Morocco Major sources of pollution from urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions Institutional setting Legal framework Policy Environment and action programmes Overview of completed and on-going projects Outcome of review Palestinian Territories Major sources of pollution from urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions Institutional setting Legal framework 162 LDK ECO SA ii

6 5.8.4 Policy environment and action programs Overview of completed and on-going projects Outcome of review Syria Major sources of pollution from urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions Institutional setting Legal framework Policy environment and action programmes Overview of completed and on-going projects Outcome of review Tunisia Major sources of pollution from urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions Institutional setting Legal framework Policy environment and action programmes Overview of completed and on-going projects Outcome of review SUCCESSFUL EXAMPLES OF CONCRETE POLLUTION MEASURES 205 ANNEXES ANNEX I: List of ongoing and completed projects ANNEX II: Data Collection LDK ECO SA iii

7 ABBREVIATIONS ADA: AECI: AFD: AfDB: AG: AGCD: BAT: BB: BITS: BMF: BMZ: BTC: CA: CEDARE: CIDA: DAC: DANIDA: DFA: DFID: DGCS: DGDC: EC: EDUC: EEA: EIA: EIB: EMP: EMWIS: ENP: ENPI: EPER: EU WI: EU: FEMIP: FF: FG: FINNIDA: GDP: GEF: Austria Development Agency Spanish Agency for International Cooperation Agence Française de Développement African Development Bank Autonomous Governments Foreign Affairs, Foreign Trade & Development Cooperation Best Available Techniques Baseline Budget Swedish Agency for International Technical and Economic Cooperation Federal Ministry of Finance - Germany Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development Belgian Technical Cooperation Central Administration Center of Environment and Development of the Arab Region and Europe Canadian International Development Agency Development Assistance Committee Danish International Development Agency Department of Foreign Affairs - Ireland Department for International Development Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Italy, Directorate General for Development Cooperation Belgian Administration for Development Cooperation European Commission Ministry of Education, Culture & Sports, Spain European Environment Agency Environmental Impact Assessment European Investment Bank Euro-Mediterranean Partnership Euro-Mediterranean Information System on the know-how in the Water sector European Neighbouring Policy European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument European Pollutant Emission Register European Union Water Initiative European Union Facility for Euro-Mediterranean Investment and Partnership Finnish Fund for Industrial Cooperation Ltd Finnish Government Finnish International Development Agency Gross Domestic Product Global Environment Facility LDK ECO SA iv

8 GP: GPA: GTZ: ICO: ICP: ICZM: IE: IFC: IPPC: ISWM: JBIC: JICA : KfW : KfW: L.G.: LA: MAE: MAP: MC: MDG: MED: MENA: METAP: MFA: MINEFI: MISC: MoE: MOFA: MSSD: MUNIC: NAPs: NDA: NEAP: NES: NGOs: NIB: NIP: NORAD: OECD: Portuguese Government Global Programme of Action German Technical Cooperation (Die Deutsche Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit) Instituto de Credito Oficial Portuguese Cooperation Institute Integrated Coastal Zone Management Industrial emissions International Finance Corporation (IFC) Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Integrated Solid Waste Management Japan Bank for International Cooperation Japanese International Cooperation Agency Kreditanstalt fur Wiederaufbau (German Construction Bank) Kreditanstalt für Wiederaufbau Federal States & Local Governments - Germany Local Administration Ministry of Foreign Affairs (France) UNEP s Mediterranean Action Plan Mediocredito Centrale Millennium Development Goals Mediterranean Middle East and North Africa Mediterranean Environmental Technical Assistance Programme Ministry of Foreign Affairs Ministry of Economy, Finance & Industry, France Miscellaneous Ministry of Environment Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Japan Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development Municipalities National Action Plans National Diagnostic Analysis National Environmental Action Plan National Environmental Strategy Non-governmental Organizations Nordic Investment Bank National Indicative Programmes Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development LDK ECO SA v

9 POPs: RBOs: SAP: SD: SDC: SECO: SIDA: SMAP: SMEs: SPFF: SWM: TDA: UNDP: UNEP: USAID: UWW: WB: WSSD: WWTPs : YPEJ: Persistent Organic Pollutants Regional Branch Offices (of MSEA/EEAA) UNEP s Strategic Action Programme Sustainable Development Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation Swiss State Secretariat for Economic Affairs Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency Short and Medium Term Environmental Action Programme Small and Medium Enterprices Federal Public Service Finance (or Official federal Service of Finance) Solid Waste Management US Trade and Development Agency United Nations Development Programme United Nations Environmental Programme United States Agency for International Development Urban Wastewater World Bank World Summit on Sustainable Development Wastewater Treatment Plants Ministry of Foreign Affairs - Greece LDK ECO SA vi

10 1. INTRODUCTION LDK-ECO Environmental Consultants SA (LDK-ECO) has been awarded by the European Commission DG Environment the contract Support to DG Environment for the development of the Mediterranean De-pollution Initiative Horizon On the occasion of the 10 th Anniversary of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership the re-orientation of actions offered the opportunity to refocus attention onto the longstanding EU objective of reducing pollution of the Mediterranean region. It was considered an appropriate time to launch a major, highly visible and ambitious initiative Horizon designed to improve the quality of life of the average citizen, by the de-pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by The goal of the Initiative is to tackle all the major sources of pollution including industrial emissions, municipal waste, and particularly urban wastewater. This initiative will improve the prospects for the development of tourism, contribute towards stemming the decline in local fishery stocks as well as will provide safe drinking water to millions of citizens. With the strong support of the Finnish presidency of the EU, Euro-Mediterranean partners agreed on the declaration and endorsed the timetable of actions for the initial phase of Horizon 2020 up to 2013 at the 3rd Euro-Mediterranean Ministerial Conference on the Environment held in Cairo on 20 November Objectives and description of the tasks of the study Taking into account this interest, the objective of this contract is to provide support to DG Environment in the development of the roadmap for the Initiative Horizon 2020, which was presented for endorsement at the 3rd Euro-Mediterranean Ministerial Conference on the environment in Cairo on 20 November The required work in order to accomplish this objective will focus on assistance to ensure effective preparation of the de-pollution roadmap, organisation of related meetings and provision of ongoing and substantive input to the work of the initiative. More specifically: 1. Review of ongoing and completed activities 2. Elaboration, development and implementation of the roadmap 3. Organisation and facilitation of meetings 4. Other support required This report is the outcome of the first activity and provides: A list of ongoing and completed internationally and nationally funded activities and projects in the 10 Mediterranean countries The hot spot areas and the major pollution sources from the urban wastewater, the municipal waste and the industrial emissions in each Mediterranean country A gap assessment of the institutional arrangements and legal and regulatory instruments in each Mediterranean country The main priorities and challenges in each Mediterranean country LDK ECO SA 1

11 1.2 Scope and Methodology The work was focused on the Southern Mediterranean Partners covered by European Neighbouring Policy and more specifically on Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Palestinian Authority, Syria and Tunisia. Turkey has been excluded as it is involved in the EU enlargement process and Libya has been added in the investigation list, although it has the observer status since The work was focused on the major pollution sources from urban wastewater, municipal waste and industrial emissions and on the ongoing and completed internationally and nationally funded activities and projects in the countries. However, the team also looked at the main key environmental policy instruments and legal and institutional arrangements in each partner country in order to each effectively address the challenges and emerging priorities. The methodology for producing this report was based on: Extensive literature and web research Direct contacts and consultation with relevant agencies and experts 1.3 Structure of the report The remainder of this report is structured as follows: Section 2 Context framework: This provides an overview of relevant programmes, initiatives and activities operating in the Mediterranean region. Section 3 Data collection: This provides the methodology used for data collection, as well as the kind of information the team sought after and the type of sources used in the research. Section 4 Mediterranean region review: This provides an overview of the current status of the Mediterranean sea, it addresses its key environmental problems due to urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions, appraises the institutional and legislative arrangements concerning the three fields and identifies some priorities and challenges in the region. Section 5 - Country review: This provides an overview of the 10 Mediterranean partners in regards to the major sources of pollution from urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions, the institutional setting, legal framework, environmental policy and action programmes, completed and on-going projects, and finally some conclusions. Section 6 Successful examples of concrete pollution measures: This provides representative examples of projects that have been successful in tackling major environmental issues and managed to initiate concrete pollution reduction measures in the countries involved. LDK ECO SA 2

12 2. CONTEXT FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction There is a strong interdependence between the counties bordering the Mediterranean Sea with pollution not knowing frontiers. Efforts are needed by all relevant international and national actors working in the Mediterranean in order to ensure the proper management and protection of their shared environment. They have recognised their interdependence with regard to environment, the need for a regional approach, increased co-operation, better co-ordination of existing multilateral programmes, as well as the importance of reconciling economic development with environmental protection, of integrating environmental concerns into the relevant aspects of economic policy and of mitigating the negative environmental consequences which might result. This is reflected on the wealth of environmental activities and regional initiatives that are ongoing in the region. The major milestones taken in order to achieve sustainable development in the Mediterranean region can be summarised as follows: 1975: Countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea and the European Union cooperate to improve their common Mediterranean environment under the MAP by signing the Barcelona Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean. The Barcelona Convention was adopted on 16 February 1976 in Barcelona and entered into force on 12 February : The Barcelona Convention was revised and modified by amendments adopted on 10 June 1995 and entered into force 9 July The MAP s remit was widened to include sustainable development and to be more actionoriented (MAP Phase II). The amended Convention is recorded as Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment and the Coastal Region of the Mediterranean. Launch of the Barcelona Process / Euro- Mediterranean Partnership 1996: The Mediterranean Commission on Sustainable Development (MCSD) was established as an advisory body to MAP and as a forum for dialogue, for defining a regional sustainable development strategy for the Mediterranean. MAP Coordinating Unit acts as the Commission s Secretariat. 1997: The 1st Euro-Mediterranean Ministerial Conference on the Environment, held in Helsinki (28 November 1997), adopted the Short and Medium-Term Priority Environmental Action Programme (SMAP), a framework for policy in the field of environment in the Mediterranean region, linked with a funding scheme for activities in priorities areas. 2001: The MCSD Strategic Review is the first self evaluation of MAP and MCSD assessing the political and institutional progress made towards sustainable development. April 2002: The 5 th Euro-Mediterranean Foreign Ministers Conference held in Valencia reached agreement on an Action Plan to give a new impulse to the Barcelona Process. July 2002: The 2nd Euro-Mediterranean Ministerial Conference on the Environment (Athens, 10 July 2002) adopted a strategic framework for the environmental integration process in the perspective of sustainable development and decided to promote in Athens a joint approach to the Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development (Athens Declaration). LDK ECO SA 3

13 2004: Launching the European Neighbouring Policy, which reinforces the Barcelona Process April 2005: Launch the 5 year work programme to reinforce the EMP September - November 2005: 10 th Anniversary conference of the Barcelona Process. Adoption of the Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development. Launching the Initiative Horizon Celebration of the 30 th anniversary of MAP. November 2006: 3rd Euro-Mediterranean Ministerial Conference on the Environment, Cairo 20 November Agreement on the declaration and endorsement of the timetable of actions for the initial phase of Horizon 2020 up to This section will present the context framework in the Mediterranean region by providing an overview of the ongoing environmental initiatives in the region, including: 1. European Union framework The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (EMP) and its Short and Medium Term Environmental Action Programme (SMAP) European Neighbouring Policy (ENP) The EU LIFE 3 rd Countries Initiative Other EU policies Initiative Horizon UNEP s Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP), GEF and Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development 3. The Mediterranean Environmental Technical Assistance Programme (METAP) The section will then continue to identify and present the international bilateral and multilateral agencies active in the region, as well as their areas of activity and country in which they are active. 2.2 European Union Framework Euro-Mediterranean Partnership/Barcelona Process The Euro-Mediterranean, Conference which was held in Barcelona in November 1995, marked the starting point of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership (Barcelona Process), a wide framework of political, economic and social relations between the Member States of the European Union and Partners of the Southern Mediterranean. The Barcelona Process is a unique and ambitious initiative, which laid the foundations of a new regional relationship and which represents a turning point in Euro-Mediterranean relations. Its overall objective is to contribute through enhanced and regular dialogue, free trade and co-operation, to guarantee peace, stability and prosperity in the region. Accordingly, the Euro-Med encompasses three different aspects: i) a strengthened political dialogue; ii) the development of economic and financial co-operation; iii) greater emphasis on the social, cultural and human dimension. The sustainable development objective and its environmental dimension have been fully integrated in the new Euro-Mediterranean Partnership texts. The Euro-Mediterranean Partnership now includes 35 members - 25 EU Member States and 10 Mediterranean Partners (Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Palestinian Authority, Syria, Tunisia and Turkey). Libya has observer status since LDK ECO SA 4

14 The Euro-Med comprises two complementary dimensions, the bilateral dimension for activities carried out bilaterally with each Mediterranean partner and the regional dimension for cooperation encompassing the whole region. Each of these dimensions have recognised environment as one of the fields for increased cooperation and an important dimension for the achievement of sustainable development in the region and include an environmental component. I. Bilateral dimension. The EU carries out a number of activities bilaterally with each country: the Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreements that the Union has negotiated with the Mediterranean partners individually, and the bilateral co-operation based on financial payments and grants. They reflect the general principles governing the Euro-Mediterranean relationship, although they each contain characteristics specific to the relations between the EU and each Mediterranean Partner. With the conclusion of negotiations with Syria (October 2004), the grid of Association Agreements with Mediterranean Partners has been completed. Association Agreements are in force between the EU and Tunisia (since 1998), Israel (2000), Morocco (2000), Jordan (2002), Egypt (2004) and on an interim basis with the Palestinian Authority (1997). Agreements were signed with Lebanon and Algeria; the latter was being ratified in Although the provisions of the Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreements governing bilateral relations vary from one Mediterranean Partner to the other, all association agreements contain clauses dealing with political dialogue; the free movement of goods, services and capital; economic cooperation; social and cultural cooperation; financial cooperation and institutional arrangements. The status so far of the Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreements for the various partners is as follows: TITLE OF THE AGREEMENT STATUS ALGERIA COM (2002) 157 final Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreement Signed on Ratified Sept EGYPT COM (2001) 184 final Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreement Signed on In force since ISRAEL OJ L 147 Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreement Signed on In force since JORDAN OJ L 129/02 Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreement Signed In force since LEBANON COM (2002) 170 final Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreement Interim Agreement for Early implementation of trade measures Signed on In process of ratification In force since MOROCCO OJ L 70/00 Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreement Signed on In force since PALESTINIAN AUTHORITY OJ L 187/97 Interim Association Agreement, awaiting a Euro-Mediterranean association agreement Signed on In force since SYRIA (Final text will be soon published on the web) Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreement Negotiations concluded. Initialled Council to decide on signature. LDK ECO SA 5

15 TITLE OF THE AGREEMENT STATUS TUNISIA OJ L 97/98 Euro-Mediterranean Association Agreement Signed on Entry into force II. Regional dimension. Regional dialogue represents one of the most innovative aspects of the Partnership, covering at the same time the political, economic and cultural fields (regional cooperation). Regional co-operation has also a considerable strategic impact as it deals with problems that are common to many Mediterranean Partners while it emphasises the national complementarities. Regional cooperation is implemented by multilateral conferences and regional programmes. Euro-Mediterranean conferences take place at the level of Foreign Ministers (top steering body of the Barcelona Process), sectoral Ministers, government experts and representatives of civil society. The regional programmes cover a wide range of issues relating to all three chapters of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership. Under chapter 2 Economic and Financial Partnership the fields of environment and water are included. The Short and Medium Term Environmental Action Programme (SMAP) was adopted at the Euro- Mediterranean Ministerial Conference on the Environment, held in Helsinki on 28 November 1997, constituted the environmental component of EMP. The European Commission was entrusted in the Barcelona Declaration with the coordination of the preparation of the SMAP, which resulted through a participatory approach of all Partners, all related International Organisations and representatives of major Non-Governmental Organisations active in the area. SMAP programme ran from 1997 up to the Although SMAP network and SMAP as the regional component of Euro-Med is now finished and replaced by the initiative Horizon 2020, SMAP III will finish by the year 2008 and its project activities financed under the MEDA will carry on. The Euro-Mediterranean Programme for the Environment was based on the following principles and modus operandi that were to be applied for SMAP as a whole: Community funding should have a catalyst effect and financing efforts should be shared between Mediterranean Partners national budgets and bilateral or multilateral resources; Coherence and synergies should be ensured with decisions and orientations agreed at international level by the EU and its Partners; Public participation and civil society support should be sought in order to pave the way for sustainable development. SMAP was considered as a framework to give practical expression to the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership in the field of the environment on the basis of the policy orientations given by the Barcelona Declaration and its related Work Programme. It constituted an operational tool for the implementation of the policy adopted by all 27 Partners, and it formed the common basis for environmental purposes, at national and regional levels, as regards both policy orientation and funding in the Mediterranean region. Five fields of action were suggested, under which a number of most urgent actions were undertaken in each sector. Two of these fields covered major sectoral issues (water, wastes), one covered specific issues of an urgent nature (hot spots) while the fourth and fifth ones offered the opportunity of addressing inter-sectoral problems in an integrated way in specific - often sensitive or even vulnerable - geographical areas (coastal management, desertification). The important objective of protecting the biodiversity, having an inter-sectoral character, was dealt with under at least three of the selected fields of action. The fields of action were: 1. Integrated water management 2. Waste management 3. Hot Spots 4. Integrated coastal zone management 5. Combating desertification LDK ECO SA 6

16 In 2002, Euro-Med Environment Ministers reaffirmed their commitment to the SMAP through the adoption of the Athens Declaration. This declaration emphasised the importance of ensuring synergies between SMAP and other regional initiatives, including activities under the UN Barcelona Convention. Under SMAP I (starting in 1997 with duration 3 years), SMAP II (starting in 2001 with duration 4 years) and SMAP III (starting in 2005 with duration 3 years) a number of projects addressing a number of issues, covering fighting against desertification, marine and coastal protection, waste management, improved water management and air pollution control was launched. Another important regional programme is the Euro-Mediterranean Regional Programme for Local Water Management (MEDA WATER), started in 2001 with 5 years duration. The first ministerial conference on Local Water Management, (Marseilles, 1996) set out the general guidelines of a future water programme and also led to a decision to proceed with the establishment of the Euro- Mediterranean Information System on the Know-How in the Water sector (EMWIS/SEMIDE). Its strategic orientations are: to take stock of the water situation, to identify ways of reinforcing regional co-operation, to develop proposals for rationalising the planning and management of water resources, and to contribute towards the creation of new sources of water. The specific type of interventions were stipulated in the Ministerial Declaration and Action Plan of the 1999 Turin Euro-Mediterranean Ministerial Meeting on Local Water Management and on 7 June 2000 the Euro-Mediterranean Water Forum was set up to serve as a consultative body in the area of water policy in the Mediterranean/Middle East region. It assembles representatives of the 27 Euro- Mediterranean partners, and the Commission as well as NGOs and water agencies with observer status. During the Turin Euro-Mediterranean Ministerial Meeting, six areas of action and four horizontal themes for the implementation of regional programmes were identified. These are: Areas of Action: Integrated management of local drinking water supply, sanitation and sewage; Local water resources and water demand management (quantity and quality) within catchments and islands; Prevention and mitigation of the negative effects of drought and equitable management of water scarcity; Irrigation water management; Use of non-conventional water resources; Preparation of national and local scenarios for the period up to 2025 that enable precise objectives to be set and actions to be taken for sustainable water management. Horizontal Themes: Strengthening institutional capacities and training; Exchange of information and know-how; Transfer of know-how and technology; Awareness raising, mobilisation and promotion of commitment of the population. A call for proposals was launched in January 2002, and the nine projects selected have started actions in late 2003 and early The projects are carried out by universities, research institutes, specialised agencies and NGO s. The regional programme is the EMWIS / SEMIDE Euro-Mediterranean Information System on the Know-How in the Water Sector (Phase I started in 1999 with duration 3 years and Phase II started in 2004 with duration 3 years), is expected to act as a complement to the activities of the Euro- Mediterranean Regional Programme for Local Water Management towards the strengthening of Euro-Mediterranean but also as intra-mediterranean regional co-operation in the management of water resources. The EMWIS aims to: facilitate the access to water information in the Euro-Mediterranean region; develop the sharing of water information in the Euro-Mediterranean region; elaborate common outputs and co-operation programmes. EMWIS is conceived as an information exchange and dissemination tool among the countries members of the Euro-Mediterranean partnership in support of the implementation of the Turin LDK ECO SA 7

17 Action Plan defined at the Second Euro-Mediterranean Ministerial Conference on Local Water Management, Turin (18-19 October 1999). Currently, 13 countries, including 9 Mediterranean Partners, have joined and designated a focal point. Initiated in 1995, the MEDA Programme is the principal financial instrument of the European Union for the implementation of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership and its activities. The MEDA programme bilateral aid is granted to Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt, Jordan, Syria, Lebanon and the Palestinian Authority. The same countries as well as Israel and Turkey are also beneficiaries of the MEDA regional programme. The support it provides for these countries is used to attain three objectives: to strengthen political stability and democracy in a common area of peace and security; to create an area of shared prosperity and to support the creation of a free trade-area between the EU and the Mediterranean Partners by 2010; and to create closer ties between the peoples of these countries through cultural, social and human partnership. The MEDA II programme ( ) is the successor to MEDA I ( ). Under MEDA II an indicative amount of 5.35 billion will be made available compared to 3.4 billion under MEDA I. Under MEDA II much progress has been made in improving Euro-Mediterranean financial and technical cooperation. These grants from the Community budget are accompanied by substantial lending from the European Investment Bank (EIB): 14 billion between 1974 and 2003, and 10 million under FEMIP in the period Over MEDA II, around 90 % of the resources allocated to MEDA were channelled bilaterally to the eligible Partners for bilateral funding. Another 10 % of the resources were devoted to regional activities, all Mediterranean Partners and EU Member States being eligible to benefit from these activities. From 2007 onwards the MEDA and TACIS Programmes will be replaced by a single instrument - the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument (ENPI). This will be a much more flexible, policy-driven instrument. It will be designed to target sustainable development and approximation to EU policies and standards - supporting the agreed priorities in the ENP Action Plans The main areas of intervention and objectives of MEDA are directly derived from those of the 1995 Barcelona Declaration. The Regulation establishes the MED Committee to allow EU Member States to advise the European Commission in implementing the MEDA Programme. The Committee gives its opinion on the programming documents. MEDA resources are subject to programming: strategy papers covering a four years period are established at national and regional level. Based on these papers, three-year national indicative programmes (NIPs) are drawn up jointly for the bilateral channel through dialogue with the Mediterranean Partners, EU Member States and other donors, and a regional indicative programme (RIP) covers multilateral activities. Annually adopted financing plans are derived from the NIPs and the RIP. The strategy papers, NIPs and the RIP are established in liaison with the European Investment Bank. The European Commission s External Relations Directorate-General is responsible for drawing up the strategy papers and the three-year indicative programmes. Based on this input, the EuropeAid Cooperation Office establishes the annual financing plans and manages the projects and programmes from the identification to the evaluation phase. The annual appropriations for financial commitments and payments of the MEDA line in the EU budget are authorised by the budgetary authority (EU Council and European Parliament) on a proposal from the Commission within the limits of the financial perspective. The priorities for MEDA resources at the bilateral level are: support to economic transition: the aim is to prepare for the implementation of free trade through increasing competitiveness with a view to achieving sustainable economic growth, in particular through development of the private sector; strengthening the socio-economic balance: the aim is to alleviate the short-term costs of economic transition through appropriate measures in the field of social policy. LDK ECO SA 8

18 Bilateral activities benefit all Mediterranean Partners except Israel (due to its level of economic development), and apply to all three Chapters of the Barcelona Process. Of relevance to the Initiative s field areas, the bilateral programmes and projects under the 2 nd Chapter of Barcelona (Economic and Financial) include economic and commercial cooperation (Structural Adjustment, Sector Reform, Private Sector Development, and FEMIP), sectoral activities in various areas, and Support programmes for the implementation of the Association Agreements. More particularly: The Facility for Euro-Mediterranean Investment and Partnership (FEMIP), managed by the European Investment Bank (EIB), has played a very substantial part since its launching in October Lending under FEMIP has been of the order of 2 billion yearly. In addition, financial cooperation instruments funded under MEDA II are managed by the EIB on behalf of the European Commission: Risk capital operations; Interest rate subsidies; and the Technical Assistance Support Fund. Sector-based activities address Agriculture and Rural Development; Environment (interest rate subsidies linked to EIB investment projects); Transport Infrastructure (mainly in Morocco, Tunisia and the Gaza Strip); Water Infrastructures (one programme in Morocco and interest rate subsidies for EIB loans); and Social facilities. Support Programmes for the implementation of Association Agreements (AA) aim at bringing the public sector of those Mediterranean Partners having signed an AA with the European Union up to the standards that will enable them to fully implement the content of the Agreement. The main instrument to help reach that goal is the institutional twinning between public administrations of Med Partners and EU Member States, a formula that worked very effectively in the candidate countries that joined the EU in May The support programmes can theoretically touch on all three chapters of the Barcelona Process. At regional level, the regional cooperation is essentially a regional response to the opportunities and challenges resulting from the proximity of the Mediterranean area to Europe. Regional cooperation has a considerable strategic impact as it deals with problems that are common to many Mediterranean Partners while it emphasises national complementarities. The general aim of this form of cooperation is to promote closer integration between the 35 partners. More specifically, regional co-operation is intended: to be a catalyst to reinforce the effects of bilateral co-operation; to intensify "South-South" co-operation (i.e. co-operation among the Mediterranean Partners themselves starting, where appropriate, on a sub-regional basis); and to tackle issues that have a cross-border dimension (e.g. infrastructure interconnection or harmonisation of standards). Beside grants allocated on the basis of calls for proposals, funding for the environment can also be made available through loans from the European Investment Bank. Under the 2 nd Chapter of Barcelona Economic and Financial partnership, the objectives at a regional level are: to conduct a dialogue on the alignment of sectoral economic policies; to foster co-operation between non-governmental entities such as chambers of commerce, economic institutes and trade promotion bodies; to carry out regional projects which usefully complement bilateral measures; and to support the setting up of the Euro-Mediterranean Free Trade Area, including support to subregional free trade agreements. While the regional programmes are open to the participation of all Partners, they are implemented in a flexible way with individual activities often open to smaller groups of Partners (sub-regional or cluster approach). At the financial level, MEDA II s performance has vastly improved compared to MEDA I. This is illustrated by the ratio of payments and commitments which has increased from 29% under MEDA I LDK ECO SA 9

19 ( ) to 77% for MEDA II ( ). This has been a continuous process under MEDA II. This is mainly due to: the creation of the EuropeAid Cooperation Office in EuropeAid has introduced new working methods as a result of which implementation has become faster and more efficient; the devolution process in Specialised manpower has been re-allocated from Brussels to Commission Delegations in Mediterranean third countries. This has made it possible to speed up the implementation rate and to improve the quality of bilateral projects considerably; the implementation of a more coherent approach integrating all phases of a project, from programming to the final evaluation, has also contributed to a better articulation and a greater efficiency of the various instruments of co-operation; the better balancing of important projects, based on substantial reforms within the Mediterranean Partners, and more classical technical assistance projects has also greatly contributed to the improvement in the quality and results of the MEDA II programme; the extra emphasis given to partnership decision making has made it possible to ensure greater ownership for beneficiaries. This has also contributed significantly to better quality and improved results. Eighty per cent of MEDA financing is allocated to the implementation of bilateral programmes that the EU establishes with beneficiary countries. Total environment-related grants within these programmes rose from about 1.5 % in the period to about 11 % in the period Bilateral funding programmes in foresee significant funds for projects in the environment area NIP/RIP (mil EUR) Country Total Environment % Algeria Egypt Jordan Lebanon Morocco Palestinian Authority n/a n/a n/a Syria Tunisia Subtotal national Regional 60* Total Where 42 mil are for partially environmental programmes of which 20% equal to 8.4 mil destined to environmental component 2 Where 20% are for partially environmental programmes of which 20% equal to 2 mil destined to environmental component * Where 5 mil are for partially environmental programmes of which 50% equal to 2.5 mil destined to environmental component. Regarding SMAP, MEDA for the 3 successive phases of SMAP has contributed the following: BUDGET: 6 million (MEDA) 30 million (MEDA) START DATE: 1997 (SMAP I) 2001 (SMAP II) DURATION: 3 years 4 years 15 million (MEDA) 2005 (SMAP III) 3 years Within SMAP I the projects launched following the first call for proposals in 1999 were 6 addressing the conservation and management of biodiversity hotspots, the promotion of sustainable use of agricultural land, the urban solid waste management, the integrated coastal management, and raising awareness on water issues. Within the framework of the second European Commission contribution to SMAP ( SMAP II ), 8 project proposals were selected for the award of co-financing grants under the MEDA Regional budget and some of them are still currently ongoing. These projects address a number of issues, LDK ECO SA 10

20 covering fighting against desertification, marine and coastal protection, waste management, improved water management and air pollution control. A third contribution to SMAP, amounting to 15 million, was agreed by the EU in In the framework of the new programme (entitled SMAP III ) adopted in April 2004, a significant proportion of the budget ( 4 million) aimed to assist the Mediterranean Partners in the formulation of strategies and policies pursuing environmental and sustainable development goals, whereas 10.6 million will be allotted to the financing of integrated coastal zone management plans. The call was issued in early For the MEDA WATER Programme, 40 million have been allocated from MEDA during the programme s duration (5 years). A call for proposals was launched in January 2002, and the nine projects selected have started actions in late 2003 and early The projects are carried out by universities, research institutes, specialised agencies and NGO s. Regarding the EMWIS / SEMIDE Regional Programme, a total amount of 2.50 million has been allocated from MEDA and Member States for its First Phase. ( ). The first phase of EMWIS has been developed with the financial support of Spain, Italy and France, for an amount of 1.32 million and the European Commission/MEDA for 1.18 million. The second phase of EMWIS/SEMIDE has started in May 2003 with a total budget of 3.3 million ( 2 million from the European Commission/MEDA and the rest to be provided by France, Italy and Spain). This phase focuses on assisting the Mediterranean Partners to develop their own water intranets to allow them to have more coherent water planning. Therefore, regional MEDA programmes complement and reinforce bilateral programmes. They cover a wide range of issues relating to all three chapters of the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership. In addition to MEDA, the activities of the European Investment Bank (EIB) in the Mediterranean region are placed in the political framework of the European Union and are run in close co-operation with the European Commission and with other international financial institutions. The EIB appraisal and decision making bodies assure that the projects financed in the Mediterranean area contribute to a solid basis for a sustainable economic development of Mediterranean countries and territories (MPCs) 1. All these operations have to be seen in the context of the Economic and Financial Chapter of the Barcelona Process and are compatible with the development strategy of the beneficiary countries and coherent with the activities of other donors and other financing agencies. To give fresh impetus to growth in the MPCs, the Barcelona EU Council (March 2002) called for a major initiative for the Mediterranean Region, entrusting the EIB with the task of setting up a Facility for Euro-Mediterranean Investment and Partnership (FEMIP). The Council s decision was grounded in the EIB's 30 years' experience in the MPCs. Since 1974, the Bank has made available over 14 billion of loans in the Barcelona Process countries, spanning a wide array of sectors and financial instruments. EIB s lending in the Mediterranean Partner Countries is since provided under FEMIP. The Facility is a major step forward in financial and economic cooperation between the Union and the Mediterranean Partner Countries (MPCs). FEMIP s ultimate goal is to help the MPCs meet the challenges of economic and social modernisation and enhance regional integration in the run-up to the creation of a Euro- Mediterranean free-trade area planned for It foresees 8-10 billion of loans funding investments in the MPCs by The EIB has at its disposal funds under the existing Euro-Mediterranean mandates, risk capital resources coming from the MEDA Programme as well as technical assistance and investment aid funds also provided by MEDA. FEMIP s top priority is to bolster the proportion of financing it devotes to private-sector projects to 33% (especially SMEs and FDI). It places also emphasis on social-sector projects, particularly health, 1 Algeria, Egypt, Gaza and the West Bank, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Syria, Tunisia, Turkey LDK ECO SA 11

21 education and environmental protection, in the belief that this will make for social stability and encourage productive investment. Set up following the Barcelona European Council in March 2002, it was inaugurated in October Satisfactory results during its first year of operations led the December 2003 European Council in Brussels to further reinforce FEMIP. It was reinforced with new features mainly in support of private sector development: MPCs are closely involved in FEMIP s implementation with an enhanced role to the Facility s Ministerial Committee, set to become the Mediterranean ECOFIN Council, whose annual sessions are prepared by a high-level experts group meeting twice a year. Furthermore, the FEMIP has expanded its local presence by adding during 2004 two new offices in Rabat and Tunis to the existing Cairo office, inaugurated in September 2003, and by forging close links with the business communities in the Partner countries as well as in Europe. The EIB as the lending arm of the European Union is very active in the environment sector in the Mediterranean, lending a total of 2.6 billion for environmental projects in the period Many of the MEDA national programmes have included grants to subsidize these loans and therefore make them more attractive to the recipient countries. These MEDA-subsidised loans were targeted on projects in the fields of wastewater treatment, solid waste management, industrial de-pollution, drinking water and support for investments to reduce atmospheric pollution, improve urban transport or provide environmental protection in tourism resorts. MEDA programmes in 2003, 2004 and 2005 have also allocated grants to the EIB, in support of the bank's investment activities in the Mediterranean Partner Countries (MPC) and Turkey, though FEMIP. Over the period , up to EUR 105mil will be allocated for technical assistance activities European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) In 2004 the European Union launched the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), whose aim is to strengthen relations between the EU and its neighbours. Regarding Mediterranean region, the policy covers Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Palestinian Authority, Syria and Tunisia. This policy reinforces the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, while using all its institutions and mechanisms. The strengths of the ENP lie in: Integration: It provides a single, clear framework covering the neighbourhood as a whole in which to discuss and handle the whole range of issues between the EU and each partner. Joint ownership: The operational tool of the policy the ENP Action Plan is fully negotiated and mutually agreed at political level and it is not an imposition by either side, but an agreed agenda for common work. Correctness: The Action Plans, although broad and wide-ranging, are detailed. Experience with their implementation shows that this makes it much easier to discuss, agree and implement specific, timebound and measurable objectives. Better use of funds: the new European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument (ENPI) will allow Community assistance to partner countries to be explicitly policy-driven, drawing also on new forms of cooperation (cross-border cooperation, TAIEX, twinning), and with an increase in resources. Especially for those ENP countries thus far covered by TACIS, the ENPI will mark a major improvement, moving from technical assistance to fully-fledged cooperation. However, there are other areas of the ENP where there is considerable potential for further progress, and more specifically: Trade and economic integration, Mobility and migration, and Regional conflicts. The Commission has therefore identified a number of areas in which the ENP should be strengthened to ensure its success. In all these areas, this would mean an additional effort for the EU, but this would be outweighed by the political benefits. LDK ECO SA 12

22 Although development and reform in the partner countries is primarily in their own interest, and it is their sovereign responsibility, it is also in the interest of the EU to support partners in these efforts. Many of the tools required for this are in place, while others should be further strengthened, as set out below. 1. Enhancing the economic and trade component. Deeper economic integration with the ENP partners will be central to the success and credibility of the policy. 2. Facilitating mobility and managing migration. The Union cannot fully deliver on many aspects of the ENP if the ability to undertake legitimate short-term travel is as constrained as it is currently. 3. Promoting people-to-people exchanges. The ENP must have a human face, and citizens of the EU and of the neighbouring countries should have more opportunities to interact, and to learn more about each others societies and understand better each others cultures. On both sides of the borders, people should be able to see directly the impact of a stronger bond between the Union and its neighbours. 4. Building a thematic dimension to the ENP. Thus far, the ENP has been largely bilateral, between the EU and each partner country. This is essential due to the large differences between partners in terms of their political and economic situations, needs and aspirations. Such differentiation needs to remain at the heart of the policy. 5. Strengthening political cooperation. If the ENP cannot contribute to addressing conflicts in the region, it will have failed in one of its key purposes. 6. Enhancing regional cooperation. The ENP also offers great potential for dialogue and cooperation at regional level and concrete sectoral issues can be addressed through relevant initiatives e.g. mutually beneficial scientific cooperation underpinned by policy dialogue or fora. 7. Strengthening financial cooperation. From 2007, the cooperation with neighbouring countries will be funded under the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument (ENPI), together with the new lending mandate of the European Investment Bank. Both will represent a significant improvement on what has gone before. The key element of the European Neighbourhood Policy is the bilateral ENP Action Plans mutually agreed between the EU and each partner country. These set out an agenda of political and economic reforms with short and medium-term priorities. The ENP Action Plans include the environment component under sustainable development. The priorities identified in the Action Plans, agreed with the authorities of the country, are also useful in guiding the programming of assistance programmes including other donors and IFIs. The first eighteen months of implementation of the ENP have laid a substantial foundation for strengthened relations between the Union and its neighbours. There is a single policy framework, ENP Action Plans with eleven of the partners establishing concrete mutual commitments and an enhanced and productive dialogue with almost all partners. There is also a new financial instrument that will significantly improve the quality of assistance and provide more funds to support the partners reforms. Most of neighbouring countries have made progress during these last years. The implementation of the seven Action Plans (with Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, the Palestinian Authority, Tunisia and largely agreed with Egypt) has borne fruit as indicated in the respective progress reports. Their implementation is promoted and monitored through sub-committees and the Commission will report on progress in early In particular, these Action Plans have set clear shared priorities allowed to integrate diverse topics in a unitary dialogue, and enabled real progress even in sensitive areas. Finally, the entry into force of the Association Agreement with Algeria will allow work on a Country Report to begin. Since the ENP builds upon existing agreements (Partnership and Cooperation or Association Agreements or the Barcelona Process), the ENP is not yet activated for Libya or Syria since no such Agreements are yet in force (Libya would need to first become part of the Barcelona Process before LDK ECO SA 13

23 having an Association Agreement and eventually an ENP Action Plan. For Syria, the Association Agreement would have to be ratified before an ENP Action Plan could be considered). The following table presents in summary the state of play of ENP Action Plans for each Mediterranean country. ENP partner countries Entry into force of contractual relations with EC ENP Country Report ENP Action Plan Adoption by EU Algeria AA Sept Egypt AA Jun 2004 March 2005 Largely agreed autumn Adoption by partner country Israel AA - Jun 2000 May 2004 Agreed end Jordan AA - May 2002 May 2004 Agreed end Lebanon AA - April 2006 March 2005 Agreed autumn Pending Libya Morocco AA - Mar 2000 May 2004 Agreed end Palestinian Authority Interim AA - Jul 1997 May 2004 Agreed end Syria Tunisia AA Mar 1998 May 2004 Agreed end * AA: Association Agreement ** PCA: Partnership and Cooperation Agreement As it has already mentioned, ENP has been largely bilateral, between the EU and each partner country. Nevertheless, there are a number of cross-cutting themes where the EU and its ENP partners, share common interests and concerns and which could usefully be addressed in a multilateral context. In areas such as energy, transport, the environment, rural development, information society, research cooperation, public health, financial services, border management, migration or maritime affairs, problems are often not merely bilateral in nature and could benefit from common debate, action and cooperation between the EU and all or most ENP partners. These areas are important for durable growth, prosperity, stability and security. The list of topics for such ENP-wide themes would need to be explored and debated in depth. Some could be dealt with through relatively loose methods such as ad hoc or more regular ministerial or expert-level meetings. Others are likely to benefit from a more institutionalised or integrated set-up. Attention must be paid to the effective implementation of multilateral agreements and processes, whether existing or new. In the environment area, the action plans foresee cooperation in three key areas: environmental governance and strengthening of environmental administrative structures, improving environmental legislation and its implementation, and promoting global and regional environmental cooperation. Implementation of the national action plans will be discussed and monitored with each country inside the EMP environment subcommittees. In the field of the environment progress has been limited, reflecting the vast scale of the challenges in this sector (COM (2006) 726 final). Greater administrative and implementation capacity, coupled with enhanced resources, is essential, but is lacking in most cases. Good progress is being made in implementing international climate change commitments. Most partners have continued to adopt and establish the necessary procedures and structures, together with concrete investment projects, to promote the use of the flexible mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol. It is important that these countries also are engaged in international discussions on post-2012 climate action, which will be an important part of EU external policy in the next few years. LDK ECO SA 14

24 A number of partner countries have also taken steps to review (Jordan) and implement (Israel, Morocco, Tunisia) their overall environment strategies and action plans to promote a more strategic and targeted approach to environment protection. Jordan has also reviewed its framework legislation. Some progress can be noted in the adoption and implementation of issue-specific legislation, e.g. on environmental impact assessment in Tunisia and on the preparation of specific programmes and plans, most often in the field of water, such as in Morocco. In addition to water and a number of other environmental concerns, waste management is a particularly serious challenge for the majority of partners, with national strategies under preparation in Morocco and Tunisia. Certain partners have taken steps to enhance public access to environmental information and to promote participation in environment decision-making, in particular in Israel and Morocco. With some exceptions, partner countries have ratified many international and regional environmental conventions and protocols, and participate in various regional initiatives. However, implementation of these commitments remains a major challenge in most cases. As already mentioned from 2007, the cooperation with neighbouring countries will be funded under the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument (ENPI), together with the new lending mandate of the European Investment Bank. Until 2007, the Tacis, MEDA and Interreg programmes will be the main financial assistance instruments for EU neighbouring countries, until they are replaced by the ENPI. The ENPI, will be considerably more flexible than previous instruments (particularly so in comparison with TACIS), and will represent an increase in resources over what was previously available (an increase of some 32%, - approximately 12 billion- in constant prices, comparing with ). Funds allocated to individual country programmes will depend on their needs and absorption capacity as well as their implementation of agreed reforms. From 2007, the ENPI will provide grants for local development projects that target sustainable development and approximate EU policies and standards in countries that are direct neighbours of the enlarged EU, involving both EU member states and partner countries. Additional, the Economic Co-operation and Development instrument will address both regional and cross-border co-operation among partner countries. The objective of ENPI is to target sustainable development and approximate EU policies and standards in the neighbour countries. It follows agreed key areas in the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP) Action Plans (specific action plans for development), which are the cornerstones of the ENP. Funds are allocated to individual country programmes depending on their needs and their implementation of agreed reforms. The ENPI will be implemented via three types of programmes: 1. Country or multi-country programmes based on national action plans approved by the EC, covering a set of national priorities to bring the country closer to the EU. 2. Thematic programmes addressing one or more challenges common to several partner countries and relevant to one or more Member States (type TEMPUS, LIFE). 3. Cross-border cooperation programmes between nearby regions, in one or more Member States and one or more partner countries, which take place on the external border of the EU. Τhe κey areas of the ENPI are: Promoting political dialogue and reform Strengthening of national institutions and bodies responsible for the elaboration and the effective implementation of policies Promoting environmental protection and good management of natural resources Supporting policies aimed at poverty reduction Supporting policies to promote social development and gender equality, employment and social protection LDK ECO SA 15

25 Supporting cross-border cooperation to promote sustainable economic, social and environmental development in border regions Supporting policies to promote health, education and training Promoting and protecting human rights and fundamental freedoms and supporting the democratisation process Ensuring efficient and secure border management; Promoting cooperation in the field of justice and home affairs, and the fight against and prevention of terrorism and organised crime Promoting participation in Community research and innovation activities Promoting cooperation between the Member States and partner countries in higher education and mobility of teachers, researchers and students Promoting understanding between cultures, people-to-people contacts The global budget for this instrument will be 14.3 billion ( ). Calls will be announced from 2007 onwards by the national and regional authorities who will also be in charge of the project selection. The maximum rate of co-financing will be up to 75% of the total eligible costs, in most regions LIFE 3 rd countries The LIFE, a financial instrument, initiated in 1992 has been extended in 2000 for 5 more years. The 3rd component of LIFE (LIFE-3rd Countries) aimed to contribute to the establishment of capacities and administrative structures needed in the environmental sector and in the development of environmental policy and action programmes in third countries bordering on the Mediterranean and the Baltic Sea, other than central and east European accession candidate countries. The LIFE-3rd Countries finished in LIFE III-Third countries projects addressed one or more of the following types of actions: o o o o o o development or adaptation of legislation; development of technical tools, including technical guidelines, the transfer of know-how and the identification of best practice; training of staff; definition of planning processes including policies, strategies or action plans and creation or reinforcement of environmental management structures; awareness-raising. Support could be at local, national or regional level and can be focused on harmonisation with EU standards or legislation, or on implementation of existing EU environmental tools (including EMAS, Corine, Natura 2000, etc.). Priority was given to projects which will promote cooperation at the transfrontier, transnational or regional level. All the countries included in this report are eligible for funding from LIFE 3rd Countries. Around 80% of the LIFE-3rd Countries activities focused on the Mediterranean Partner countries. LDK ECO SA 16

26 2.2.4 Other EU Policy tools The EU itself has an extensive body of legislation, policies and programmes which contribute to the protection of the environment. This paragraph will give a brief overview of certain EU policies and regional initiatives that are directly or indirectly linked to the three fields of the Initiative Horizon These are: I. EU Marine Strategy The European Commission has proposed an ambitious strategy to protect more effectively the marine environment across Europe. Ambitious objectives have been set or proposed which should ensure sustainable and healthy seas and oceans and their ecosystems as well as a sustainable exploitation of their resources. Meeting these objectives requires an efficient development and effective implementation of a coherent set of measures founded on the application of an ecosystem based approach whereby each policy sector through impact assessment will contribute to sustainable development. This in turn requires a pragmatic co-operation and co-ordination of activities of all institutions and organisations, which are concerned with the protection and sustainable use of the marine environment. The Thematic Strategy on the Protection and Conservation of the Marine Environment aims to achieve good environmental status of the EU's marine waters by 2021 and to protect the resource base upon which marine-related economic and social activities depend. The Marine Strategy will constitute the environmental pillar of the future maritime policy the European Commission is working on, designed to achieve the full economic potential of oceans and seas in harmony with the marine environment. The overarching objective of the Marine Strategy will promote the sustainable use of the seas and conservation of marine ecosystems, including sea beds, estuarine and coastal areas, paying special attention to sites holding a high biodiversity value. If the EU is to achieve this ambitious objective, a new approach and principles to inform the design and implementation of a future EU strategy will be required, encompassing: A dual EU/regional approach setting at EU level common co-operation and approaches among Member States and third countries bordering EU oceans and seas, but leaving the planning and execution of measures to the regional level to take into account the diversity of conditions, problems and needs of marine regions requiring tailor-made solutions. A knowledge-based approach, in order to achieve informed policy-making. An ecosystem-based approach, whereby human activities affecting the marine environment will be managed in an integrated manner promoting conservation and sustainable use in an equitable way of oceans and seas. A co-operative approach, providing for broad engagement with all relevant stakeholders and enhancing co-operation with existing regional seas conventions. The Marine Strategy Directive will establish European Marine Regions on the basis of geographical and environmental criteria. Each Member State, in close cooperation with the relevant other Member States and third countries within a Marine Region, will be required to develop Marine Strategies for its marine waters. The Marine Strategies will contain a detailed assessment of the state of the environment, a definition of "good environmental status" at regional level and the establishment of clear environmental targets and monitoring programmes. Each Member State will draw up a programme of cost-effective measures. Impact assessments, including detailed cost-benefit analysis of the measures proposed, will be required prior to the introduction of any new measure. Where it would be impossible for a Member State to achieve the level of ambition of the environmental targets set, special areas and situations will be identified in order to devise specific measures tailored to their particular contexts. LDK ECO SA 17

27 The Marine Strategy is consistent with the Water Framework Directive from 2000 which requires that surface freshwater and ground water bodies (lakes, streams, rivers, estuaries, coastal waters ) achieve a good ecological status by 2015 and that the first review of the River Basin Management Plan should take place in II. EU Water Initiative (EU WI) and particularly its Mediterranean component (Med EUWI) The EU Water Initiative was launched in Johannesburg, in 2002, as a key contribution to the implementation of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) targets and Plan of Implementation and to assist achievement of the water-related Millennium Development Goals, providing a platform for strategic partnerships. In this context, Greece, which has traditionally strong linkages, social, cultural and economic, with South East European countries and countries bordered by the Mediterranean and SE Europe, has undertaken a leading role in promoting the European Union s Water Initiative in the sensitive areas of the Balkans and the Mediterranean, since Johannesburg, in 2002, seeking to make significant progress in poverty eradication and promoting a catalyst for peace and security in the region, a region with many transboundary waters that has also been characterised by political instability, representing the new EU neighbourhood. The MED EUWI is an integral part of the EU WI and shares its overall objectives. The Component gives particular emphasis to Mediterranean priorities, according to needs and strategies defined in partnership with governments, the Commission and major stakeholders, aiming to: assist design of better, demand driven and output oriented water related programmes, facilitate better coordination of water programmes and projects, targeting more effective use of existing funds and mobilization of new financial resources and, enhanced cooperation for project s proper implementation, based on peer review and strategic assessment Key areas of the MED EUWI include: Promoting water as a cornerstone of sustainable development Raising the programmatic profile of water in PRSPs and NSSDs of partner countries Coordinating funding for water in a better way among the partners of the Initiative Linking together the wide range of financing ideas, networks and mechanisms that currently exist for water in the Mediterranean and South-eastern Europe so as to cover gaps and needs in partner countries Supporting better project preparation facilities Supporting the elaboration of a wider range of models for water sector restructuring in addition to involving private sector participation by competent international operators. Τhe MED EU WI focuses on the following themes: Water supply and sanitation, with emphasis on the poorest part of the societies Integrated water resources management, with emphasis on management of transboundary water bodies Water, food and environment interaction, with emphasis on fragile ecosystems Non-conventional water resources while as horizontal themes are identified Transfer of technology, transfer of know how, capacity building and training Education LDK ECO SA 18

28 The Initiative is built on existing mechanisms, institutions and regionally led processes and initiatives in the Mediterranean (e.g. the Euro-Med Partnership, UNEP/MAP etc), as appropriate. Financial resources for carrying out the MED EUWI activities (including both horizontal and sectoral activities) are expected from the EU Commission, the Lead Country, other EU Member States and/or other international donors who have already or are anticipated to commit themselves to support suggested activities and functions or even propose more actions related to the MED EUWI scope. In this context, emphasis will be given on avoiding overlaps, on increasing coherence and on building synergies. After a design phase, the MED-EUWI entered into an implementation stage, with the development of regional and national activities scheduled in its 2005 work programme. A joint process between the water framework directive and the EU Water Initiative was initiated in This process is aimed at making Mediterranean partners benefit from the principles, approach and experience of the water framework directive, to improve integrated water resources management in the region. The joint process was endorsed by EU Water Directors in December 2004 and will be further developed in the coming years. III. EU Water Framework Directive The adopted Water Framework Directive establishes a framework for water policy based on the principle of integrated river basin management (Directive (2000/60/EC)), is currently in the initial phase of implementation in the Member States. The Water Framework Directive introduced a regime for management of river basins and adjoining coastal areas based on their drainage basins rather than administrative barriers. It introduces the principle of the combined approach whereby emission controls and quality objectives are both applied. The objective of the directive is the attainment or preservation of good ecological and good chemical status. This directive provides for the various monitoring, assessments and reporting requirements. This directive replaces some earlier legislation dealing with different types of water, but pre-existing legislation on nitrate pollution from agriculture, urban wastewater treatment, bathing water, integrated pollution prevention and control (IPPC) will be retained to address specific threats to water quality. IV. Urban wastewater Directive The objective of the Directive is to protect the environment from the adverse effects of discharges of urban waste water and of waste water from industrial sectors of agro-food industry. provide prior regulation or specific authorization for all discharges of urban waste water and industrial waste water from the particular sectors mentioned in the Directive, as well as for all discharges of industrial waste water into urban waste water systems; provide urban waste water collecting systems (sewerage) and treatment plants for all agglomerations above population equivalents (widely used measurement unit for the organic pollution of waste water equalling to the average pollution load of one person per day). ensure that by 31/12/2000 the industrial waste water from the mentioned sectors shall before discharge respect the established conditions for all discharges from plants representing population equivalent or more; provide before 31/12/1998 general rules or registration or authorization for the sustainable disposal of sludge arising from waste water treatment and, by the same date, to phase out any dumping or discharge of sewage sludge into surface waters; ensure that the urban waste water discharges and their effects are monitored; publish situation reports every two years and establish implementation programmes. LDK ECO SA 19

29 The sensitive areas must be designated according to certain criteria and the list of sensitive and less sensitive areas must be reviewed every four years. V. EU Policy on solid waste management The EU is aiming for a significant reduction in the amount of waste generated, through new waste prevention initiatives, better use of resources, and encouraging a shift to more sustainable consumption patterns. The European Union's approach to waste management is based on three principles: 1. Waste prevention: This is a key factor in any waste management strategy. If we can reduce the amount of waste generated in the first place and reduce its hazardousness by reducing the presence of dangerous substances in products, then disposing of it will automatically become simpler. Waste prevention is closely linked with improving manufacturing methods and influencing consumers to demand greener products and less packaging. 2. Recycling and reuse: If waste cannot be prevented, as many of the materials as possible should be recovered, preferably by recycling. The European Commission has defined several specific 'waste streams' for priority attention, the aim being to reduce their overall environmental impact. This includes packaging waste, end-of-life vehicles, and batteries, electrical and electronic waste. EU directives now require Member States to introduce legislation on waste collection, reuse, recycling and disposal of these waste streams. Several EU countries are already managing to recycle over 50% of packaging waste. 3. Improving final disposal and monitoring: Where possible, waste that cannot be recycled or reused should be safely incinerated, with landfill only used as a last resort. Both these methods need close monitoring because of their potential for causing severe environmental damage. The EU has approved a directive setting strict guidelines for landfill management. It bans certain types of waste, such as used tyres, and sets targets for reducing quantities of biodegradable rubbish. Another recent directive lays down tough limits on emission levels from incinerators The basic requirements are laid down in the Waste Framework Directive, and which specifies that disposal or recovery should not endanger man or the environment. The run off and land based discharges are addressed by the hazardous waste directive and the waste framework directive and specific instruments on waste oils, PCBs, batteries, sewage sludge, titanium dioxide and, on waste electric and electronic equipment. The Commission's integrated product policy aims at a reduction of the impact of products across the whole life cycle. VI. EU Policy on Industrial pollution (IPPC Directive) Industrial production processes account for a considerable share of the overall pollution in Europe (for pollutants such as greenhouse gases, acidifying substances, wastewater emissions and waste). The EU has a set of common rules for permitting and controlling industrial installations in the IPPC Directive of In essence, the IPPC Directive is about minimising pollution from various industrial sources throughout the European Union. About 50,000 installations are covered by the IPPC Directive in the EU. Operators of industrial installations covered by Annex I of the IPPC Directive are required to obtain an authorisation (environmental permit) from the authorities in the EU countries. New installations, and existing installations which are subject to "substantial changes", have been required to meet the requirements of the IPPC Directive since 30 October Other existing installations must be brought into compliance by 30 October This is the key deadline for the full implementation of the Directive. The IPPC Directive is based on several principles, namely (1) an integrated approach, (2) best available techniques, (3) flexibility and (4) public participation. LDK ECO SA 20

30 1. The integrated approach means that the permits must take into account the whole environmental performance of the plant, covering e.g. emissions to air, water and land, generation of waste, use of raw materials, energy efficiency, noise, prevention of accidents, and restoration of the site upon closure. The purpose of the Directive is to ensure a high level of protection of the environment taken as a whole. 2. The permit conditions including emission limit values (ELVs) must be based on Best Available Techniques (BAT), as defined in the IPPC Directive. To assist the licensing authorities and companies to determine BAT, the Commission organises an exchange of information between experts from the EU Member States, industry and environmental organisations. This work is coordinated by the European IPPC Bureau of the Institute for Prospective Technology Studies at EU Joint Research Centre in Seville (Spain). This results in the adoption and publication by the Commission of the BAT Reference Documents (the so-called BREFs). 3. The IPPC Directive contains elements of flexibility by allowing the licensing authorities, in determining permit conditions, to take into account: (a) the technical characteristics of the installation, (b) its geographical location and (c) the local environmental conditions. 4. The Directive ensures that the public has a right to participate in the decision making process, and to be informed of its consequences, by having access to (a) permit applications in order to give opinions, (b) permits, (c) results of the monitoring of releases and (d) the European Pollutant Emission Register (EPER). In EPER, emission data reported by Member States are made accessible in a public register, which is intended to provide environmental information on major industrial activities. EPER will be replaced by the European Pollutant Release and Transfer Register (E-PRTR) from 2007 reporting period onwards. The recent Directive on national emission ceilings for certain atmospheric pollutants introduced a new approach to improve air quality in setting upper limits on a country basis on SO 2, NO x and NH 3 emissions. These aim to reduce acidification and eutrophication. Directives on Large Combustion Plant, Waste Incineration and the previously mentioned IPPC address the point source approach Initiative Horizon 2020 At the 10th Anniversary of the EMP was launched a major, highly visible and ambitious initiative Horizon designed to improve the quality of life of the average citizen, by the de-pollution of the Mediterranean Sea by The goal should be to tackle all the major sources of pollution including industrial emissions, municipal waste, and particularly urban wastewater. This initiative would improve the prospects for tourism development, and contribute towards stemming the decline in local fishery stocks as well as providing safe drinking water to millions of citizens. With the support of the Finnish EU presidency, Euro-Mediterranean partners have agreed on the declaration and endorsement of the timetable of actions for the initial phase of Horizon 2020 up to 2013, issued at the 3rd Euro-Mediterranean Ministerial Conference on the environment held in Cairo on 20 November It should be underlined that as there is already much activity in the Mediterranean it will be important to clearly identify synergies, as well as to build on and strengthen existing forms of cooperation to deliver the necessary capacity-building and support at local level (including support for sustainable urban management and mobilisation of local actors), to transfer best practices (including in integrated coastal zone management), as well as to.finance major investments in environmental infrastructure. The European Commission is envisaging supporting this important goal through a concerted effort of relevant actors and institutions in the Mediterranean. Key building-blocks in this effort will be the work done under the Barcelona Convention and the Mediterranean strategy for sustainable development. Another important contribution will come from the EU thematic strategy for the protection and conservation of the marine environment aimed at promoting sustainable use of the seas and conserving marine ecosystems. The strategy will cover the LDK ECO SA 21

31 Mediterranean Sea and the commitment to contribute to it was taken by the 2003 Conference of the Parties of the Barcelona Convention. The initiative s grouping planned activities fall under four headings: 1. Infrastructure development: projects to reduce the most significant sources of pollution. The initial focus will be on industrial emissions, municipal waste and urban waste water, which are responsible for up to 80% of Mediterranean Sea pollution. The aim will be to develop a pipeline of projects in conjunction with WB and EIB through their discussions with local authorities 2. Capacity-building measures to help neighbouring countries create national environmental administrations that are able to develop and police environmental laws. 3. Using the Commission's research budget to develop greater knowledge of environmental issues relevant to the Mediterranean and ensure this is shared. 4. Developing indicators to monitor the success of Horizon The phases of the initiative are: Phase 1 Problem Identification: The main sources of pollution, the activities that produce it as well as the local hotspots would be identified and the magnitude of their contribution to the environmental impact assessed. Phase 2 Project Prioritisation: In this phase, the expertise and resources of the international organisations responsible for the financing of environmental infrastructure, the bilateral donors, along with the national authorities responsible for financial planning would be mobilised. The exercise would be to reduce the original priority lists down to those problems that appear to have solutions that can be realistically financed either through international assistance or own funds. Phase 3 Project development, implementation and evaluation: In this phase, the projects would be developed to the point where they can be financed by the International Financial Institutions or other donor groups and progress monitored. 2.3 UNEP/MAP and Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development (MSSD) The Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) was created in 1975 and is the spearhead of the United National Environmental Programme (UNEP) Regional Seas Programme. It is an effort involving 20 countries bordering the Mediterranean Sea as well as the European Community. Through the MAP, they are determined to meet challenges of environmental degradation in the sea, coastal areas and inland and to link sustainable resource management with development, in order to protect the Mediterranean region and contribute to an improved quality of life. Through the Barcelona Convention, established in 1976, and a number of landmark Protocols, the contracting parties prepared a comprehensive technical and legal system targeted at protecting the Mediterranean environment from all sorts of pollution. One of these legal instruments, the Protocol against landbased pollution (called LBS Protocol), entered into force in In 1996, it was revised mostly to expand its reach in order to cover the entire hydrographic basin as well as to rearrange the reporting system so as to include all polluting activities. The Programme for the Assessment and Control of Marine Pollution (MED POL) is the scientific and technical component of the MAP. It assists the countries to implement programmes and measures to assess and eliminate pollution. The MED POL Programme is in charge of the followingup of the implementation of the Land Based sources Protocol, the Dumping Protocol and the Hazardous Wastes Protocol. To combat more efficiently land-based pollution, the contracting parties of the Barcelona set up a Strategic Action Programme (SAP) in The SAP is an initiative of the MED POL Programme for the concrete implementation of the revised Land-based Sources Protocol in the next 25 years. Through a timetable schedule, the Mediterranean countries are implementing specific measures for the LDK ECO SA 22

32 elimination or control of priority land-based target groups of substances and activities that are of global concern. Through these actions the Mediterranean countries are also implementing the goals of the Global Programme of Action to address pollution from land-based activities (GPA) which was adopted in Washington in 1995 by 108 countries and the European Commission. To support the SAP, the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) Council approved a three year multi-donor Mediterranean Project that started in January SAP donors are the GEF, the French GEF (FFEM), UNEP/MAP, the UN Development Programme (UNDP), the World Bank METAP, ICS-UNIDO and Mediterranean countries. The Mediterranean GEF Projects included, among others, a large capacity building programme, provision for the implementation of pre-investment studies in pollution hot spots, identification of financial instruments for the ling term sustainability of SAP and the preparation of a strategic action programme for biodiversity. The key land-based activities targeted in the SAP/MED for the control of land-based pollution sources are linked to the urban environment, particularly municipal wastewater treatment and disposal, urban solid waste disposal and activities contributing to air pollution from mobile sources. Also land-based activities are link to industry, particularly at those responsible for the release of toxic, persistent and bio-accumulative substances into the marine environment, including trace metals and organics, and giving special attention to persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Also addressed are the release of harmful concentrations of nutrients into the marine environment, the storage, transportation and disposal of radioactive and hazardous wastes and activities that contribute to the destruction of the coastline and coastal habitats. The operational tong-term output of the SAP is the implementation of country specific National Action Plans (NAPs) to combat pollution from landbased activities. These are intended to follow on, in each Mediterranean country, all the targets and activities of the nationally relevant components identified in the SAP. Since the first step in the SAP is to achieve specific reduction of pollutants emitted into the sea by the year 2010, the NAPs included a priority list of actions to reach the SAP targets by this year. In all cases, the NAPs have to be interactive processes calling for the phased implementation of priorities within a cross-sectoral, participatory framework at national level. These are intended to be established by each Mediterranean country, in order to determine targets and identify activities among those included in the SAP/MED relevant to the national priorities, specifying the set of actions to be taken, the timetable for their implementation and the means of their financing. The process of preparing NAPs includes the development of concrete initiatives that: mobilize both stakeholders and resources, build upon a diagnostic analysis conducted at national level, are mainstreamed into relevant institutional, budgetary and policy frameworks and Incorporate lessons learnt through a cyclical process. The process, started in 2003 and mobilized a large number of national and local stakeholders representing the civil society, including NGOs, industrial associations, local authorities, etc., who have effectively participated in the process. After their completion, the NAPs were adopted at national level by competent authorities and received political endorsement by the Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention at their Meeting in Porto Ros (Slovenia) in November In the SAP, the general idea was to formulate Action Plans for each administrative region, targeting on the reduction/phasing out of specific pollutants. To prepare these Action Plans, the first step was to gather relevant information on the actual pollution problems through the preparation of a National Diagnostic Analysis (NDA) and a Baseline Budget (BB) Report, on administrative region level. With these documents, national authorities were able to identify: the nature and severity of problems; the contaminants; the physical alterations and degradation of habitats; the sources of degradation and the areas (spatial) of concern. Then the importance of these pollution sources were evaluated using an issue/impact matrix, the priority issues were identified through a participatory approach involving all national stakeholders (public authorities, local governments, civil society, private sector, NGOs, scientific community) and LDK ECO SA 23

33 taking into consideration national socio-economic and environmental priorities, the existing National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP), if available, and of course the SAP targets and commitments. Next step was the setting up of Sectoral Plans for all SAP designated sectors: urban sewage, urban solid wastes, air pollution, industrial wastewater, pollution caused by Hg, Cd and Pb and organohalogens. Sectoral programmes were meant to form the basis of the National Action Plans and were therefore prepared for all the priority areas for action to control pollution from land based sources identified in the SAP. Finally National Action Plans (NAPs) were prepared to reduce pollutant s releases in the administrative region. Targets and activities identified by SAP had to be respected as much as possible. In addition, national plan for action took into account national reports on "pollution hot spots and sensitive areas" as well as the provisions of the LBS Protocol. The NAP was used to set up a list of priority actions in order to meet the country s targets on pollutant s releases from land-based sources for the year As a result of this effort during the last 6 years, all 21 Mediterranean countries have approved NAPs with lists of priority actions for the year 2010, which are also compatible with national priorities, as well as the SAP targets for the reduction of pollutants emissions into the Mediterranean Sea. The NAPs are actually in the implementation phase, and some countries need to be supported to meet their plans. Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development (MSSD) Regarding the need to introduce sustainable development as the key development strategy for the region, the 21 Mediterranean countries and the European Community decided, at the 12th Conference of the Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention (Monaco, November 2001), in line with the decisions of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), to prepare a Mediterranean Strategy for Sustainable Development (MSSD). They requested the Mediterranean Commission on Sustainable Development (MCSD) of the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) to develop a draft of the Strategy. The 2nd Euro-Mediterranean Ministerial Conference on the Environment (Athens, July 2002) endorsed this initiative. Despite the progress made, there is a latent but growing awareness throughout the Mediterranean that current development trends are unsustainable. Mediterranean people are becoming increasingly aware that it is just not possible to keep using resources, building up coastal areas and developing industries, especially tourism, without an adequate integrated planning framework, a reduction of North-South disparities and the necessary policy reforms. The Mediterranean partners have already made much progress in this respect through the Barcelona Convention and the MCSD. The Strategy offers an excellent opportunity for these partners to make substantial advances towards sustainable development, based on genuine partnership and co-development. The Mediterranean Strategy is a framework strategy. Its purpose is to adapt international commitments to regional conditions, to guide national sustainable development strategies and to initiate a dynamic partnership between countries at different levels of development. By making a public and high profile commitment to sustainable development and to reporting on the progress achieved, countries as well as donors and the other partners concerned will help to produce and sustain a common dynamic in which much greater attention is paid to achieving harmonious growth throughout the region. The Strategy calls for action to pursue sustainable development goals with a view to strengthening peace, stability and prosperity, taking into account the threats and weaknesses in the region as well as its strengths and opportunities. It also takes into consideration the need to reduce the gap between developed and developing countries in the region. The MSSD is based on the Vision and Framework Orientations, which have already been endorsed by the MCSD and the Contracting Parties. In the development of the Strategy, valuable inputs were provided by the assessment and prospective documents prepared by various MAP components, as well as by other Mediterranean cooperation networks. The Strategy takes into account recent developments in regional cooperation, with particular reference to the Mediterranean Action Plan and the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership, the Arab Initiative for Sustainable Development and the EU LDK ECO SA 24

34 Sustainable Development Strategy. The EU Strategy directly concerns Mediterranean EU Member States and countries likely to become EU members. It also indirectly affects the EU s Mediterranean neighbours in setting the requirement that all Community policies must place sustainable development as their priority. The EU and developed countries on the northern shore will have an important role to play, through vigorous aid policies, in promoting the co-development of the North and the South. The EU and its Mediterranean partners will also have to work together to develop democratic processes, strengthen institutional capacities, improve governance and enhance the peace process in regions of conflict. The implementation of the Strategy through a Euro-Mediterranean Partnership and the new EU Neighbourhood Policy focussing on sustainable development will help Mediterranean countries to achieve these aspirations much sooner. The Strategy could, in particular, facilitate the goal launched by the EU commitments to de-pollute the Mediterranean Sea. The challenge for all Mediterranean countries is to use the Strategy as an opportunity to make coordinated and joint progress in the fields of human and economic development, environmental protection and cultural advancement. 2.4 The Mediterranean Environmental Technical Assistance Programme (METAP) METAP was founded in 1990, as a partnership between countries of the Mediterranean region and six multilateral donors: the World Bank (WB), the European Commission (EC), the European Investment Bank (EIB), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and the Finnish Ministry for Foreign Affairs and the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC). METAP also collaborates extensively with the Mediterranean action Plan (MAP) on a number of activities. It is a programme that addresses individual, country-level issues, from a regional perspective. Today, METAP operates in the following Mediterranean countries: Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Syria, Tunisia and Palestinian Authority. The objectives of METAP are: Strengthening the institutional and legal structure of environmental management Formulating environmental policies Developing pipeline of environmental projects METAP is divided into two main components which are Capacity Building and Project Preparation. Today, METAP projects and activities focus on: Water quality, Solid waste, Cost of environmental degradation, Trade and environment, Banking and environment, Environmental impact assessment and Knowledge management. The METAP approach to regional activity implementation under each pillar begins at the country level. Country consultations that include fact finding missions, diagnostics, and situation assessments are undertaken and country reports and profiles of specific sectors are produced. Based on the results of these assessments, a regional strategy is prepared for each pillar/sub-pillar followed by preparation of project proposals for possible funding and implementation. Each pillar or cross-cutting theme of METAP will be managed by an "anchor" agency. These agencies are chosen competitively from among qualified international and national agencies based in the region. This approach ensures capacity building, better utilization of regional expertise and cost effectiveness, and promotes the sustainability of METAP programmes. METAP Phases and Funding I- ( ) US$ million Sectors and Themes Integrated water resources mgt; Solid and hazardous waste mgt; Chemical pollution; Coastal zone mgt LDK ECO SA 25

35 II-( ) US$ million III-( ) US$ million IV-( ) US$ million Water; Urban environmental mgt; Institutional development and capacity building Integrated water and coastal zone mgt; Pollution hot spots; Capacity building Integrated water and costal zone mgt; Municipal and hazardous waste mgt; Environmental Policy tools The Partners have concluded to have a fifth phase of METAP ( ), which was launched in July The next phase of METAP will keep the existing pillars, plus one on climate change. For METAP-V Finland is expected to allocate US$ 1.5 million and Switzerland: US$ 2.1 million. All the countries considered in this study are eligible to participate in the METAP. 2.5 Multilateral and bilateral support Foreign assistance in the Middle East and North Africa region, focusing on the environment sector, is being carried out by a wide range of multilateral and bilateral donors. Apart from EC and EIB assistance, considerable donor support is being provided by World Bank, UN agencies and many other bilateral agencies such as USAID, Japan, and EU Member States (Germany, France, Sweden, Denmark, etc). The development policy areas are sometimes targeting on a specific environment subsector, e.g. water and sanitation, or sometimes under a broader priority area (e.g. sustained growth, environmental protection, or basic infrastructure, urban development), with great attention on specific target countries. Many bilateral donors/ lenders strive to develop partnerships with international organizations such as the EU and the World Bank to increase their influence in the region. A brief overview of the financial actors (apart from EC and EIB) in the Mediterranean region is presented below in alphabetical order. Donor/ Lender Brief presentation of cooperation for environment in the Mediterranean region Active assistance MED countries in urban wastewater, solid waste management and industrial emissions African Development Bank (AfDB) Arab Funds (AFESD) Austria (ADA) The African Development Bank (AfDB) is a multilateral development bank engaged in promoting economic and social development through loans, equity investments, and technical assistance in the African continent. AfDB beneficiary countries are Algeria, Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia. Environment and Water Supply and Sanitation are AfDB s project sectors. The Bank recognizes the high value of the partnership with the Global Environment facility (GEF) as this provides substantive opportunities to blend Bank lending for development projects (baseline financing) with grant and concessionary financing from GEF resources to protect the global environment. The Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development (AFESD) is an autonomous regional Pan-Arab development finance organization, ("the Fund"). Its membership consists of all states who are members of the League of Arab States, and for the Mediterranean region are Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Palestinian Authority, Syria and Tunisia. Its function is to assist the economic and social development of Arab countries in the infrastructure and productive sectors, which include the environmental dimension (sanitation, solid waste management). Austrian Development Agency (ADA) is Austria's bilateral aid agency. One of ADA's priorities is water, health & environment, with the majority of assistance to be delivered to Africa and South-Eastern Europe, and not in the Mediterranean region (Middle east and North Africa). Morocco Middle East (Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian Authority, Syria) North Africa (Tunisia) Palestinian Authority LDK ECO SA 26

36 Donor/ Lender Brief presentation of cooperation for environment in the Mediterranean region Active assistance MED countries in urban wastewater, solid waste management and industrial emissions Belgium (SPFF, DGDC, BTC) Canada (CIDA) Denmark (DANIDA) Finland (MFA, FINNIDA) France (MAE, MINEFI, AFD) GEF The Belgian Directorate-General for Development Cooperation (DGDC), which is part of SPFF, is the main player at federal level, tasked with preparing and coordinating co-operation programme, while BTC, the agency responsible for implementing Belgium s direct bilateral co-operation programmes, is DGDC s exclusive partner in that sphere. Belgian development cooperation provides technical assistance in the Environment / Basic Infrastructure /Water and sanitation. Priority areas include North Africa (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia) and the Palestinian Authority. The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) is Canada's bilateral aid agency. It has a mandate to support sustainable development in developing countries in order to reduce poverty and to contribute to a more secure, equitable, and prosperous world. CIDA s Europe, Middle East and Maghreb (EMM) Branch supports bilateral (country to country) and regional programming that addresses both the priorities and the challenges of individual North African and Middle Eastern countries (Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Palestinian Authority, Syria and Tunisia), as well as the regional issues these countries face together. Canada maintains relations with the region bilaterally (country-tocountry), through multilateral organizations and partnerships with Canadian non-governmental organizations. Some of the CIDA's priority areas are environment and water and sanitation, yet with a moderate presence in the region. The Danish International Development Agency (Danida) is Denmark's bilateral aid agency. Danida environmental assistance is under a sector-programme assistance (urban environment, industrial pollution, sustainable production and use of energy). In the Mediterranean region, Danida has given priority to Egypt. Special support may also be given to selected countries to support the environment Finland s aid programme is administered predominantly by the MFA. Finnish Government's Department of International Development (Finnida), within the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, is Finland's bilateral development agency. Finland s assistance is country-to country, including regional development programmes. Finland has long traditions in bilateral cooperation with some Mediterranean countries, in particular with Egypt. Finland has priorities in the fields of commercial and economic cooperation, environment protection and information technology. Internationally, Finland is cooperating with other international and bilateral agencies (WB, EIB, Germany, France, Japan). French aid system involves the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MAE), the Ministry for Economic Affairs, Finance and Industry (MINEFI) and the French Development Agency (AFD). French aid is very active in the Mediterranean region. Partners include Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Palestinian Authority & Tunisia. French development cooperation provides technical assistance in Environment and Sustainable development, with main focus on the water and sanitation sector for Morocco and Tunisia. GEF is an independent financial organization that provides grants to more than 140 countries for projects that benefit the global environment and promote sustainable livelihoods in local communities. Mediterranean partners include Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Syria and Tunisia. GEF focal areas are Biodiversity, Climate change, International Waters, Land Degradation, Ozone Depletion and Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs). GEF projects are managed by the implementing agencies UNEP, UNDP and WB. Palestinian Authority North Africa (Morocco, Tunisia) Middle East (Jordan, Palestinian Authority) North Africa (Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia) Middle East (Jordan) North Africa (Egypt) Middle East (Lebanon, Palestinian Authority) North Africa (Egypt) Middle East (Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian Authority) North Africa (Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia) Middle East (Jordan, Lebanon, Syria) North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia) LDK ECO SA 27

37 Donor/ Lender Brief presentation of cooperation for environment in the Mediterranean region Active assistance MED countries in urban wastewater, solid waste management and industrial emissions Germany (BMZ, GTZ, KfW) Greece (YPEJ) Islamic Development Bank (IDB) Italy (DGCS, MCN, MC, LA) The German development co-operation system involves the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) playing the central role and two implementing agencies: the Agency for Technical Co-operation (GTZ) and the KfW Development Bank. Internationally, KfW is cooperating closely with the World Bank and has become one of the World Bank's largest bilateral cofinanciers. In addition, KfW is also a member of the GEF s implementing agencies group (World Bank, UNDP & UNEP). Regarding environment, support is targeting on water & sanitation, basic infrastructure and environmental protection, with a dynamic presence in the MED countries, mainly Egypt, Morocco and Palestinian Authority (priority partner countries), as well as Algeria, Jordan, Syria and Tunisia. The core assistance is given to the water and sanitation sector. The Ministry of National Economy had previously the central co-ordinating role at official level within Greece s bilateral development co-operation programme. Within the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (YPEJ), Hellenic Aid (the Hellenic International Development Co-operation Department) had prime responsibility for the ministry's contribution to Greece's bilateral aid programme. Now, YPEJ has the political responsibility for Greece's bilateral development co-operation. Bilateral assistance is given to Egypt, Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Libya, Tunisia and Palestinian Authority in the fields of scientific research, technology, education, competency development and sustainable development. Greece s presence in the fields under study is rather limited. The Islamic Development Bank (IsDB) is a multilateral development organization designed to foster the economic development and social progress of member countries by providing equity capital, grant loans and financial assistance. Members in the Mediterranean include Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Palestinian Authority, Syria, Tunisia. IDB co-finances projects with a number of international organisations such as AFESD, SFD, KFAED, AFDB, OPEC, AfDB, UNDP, JICA and EIB. IDB s environment assistance is active in the Mediterranean region through infrastructure and urban development projects. Development co-operation in Italy is the shared responsibility of institutional entities essentially located in the government sector (ministries, implementation agencies) but increasingly includes a number of important groups outside of government (NGOs, private sector entities, academic institutions). The two key players in government are the MFA and the MEF. Actual implementation for Italian bilateral assistance is the responsibility of the Unità Tecnica Centrale (MTC), a specialised development unit housed in the DGCS. Space is given to collaboration with Italy's regions, autonomous provinces and local government. The DGCS has a special coordination structure set up for this purpose. Much of Italy's cooperation policy is implemented through collaboration with multilateral bodies. Contributions are made to bank capital and international development funds, participation in EU development assistance and financial contributions to the budgets and activities of international bodies, including the United Nations. Italy is actively engaged in assisting the Maghreb area (Algeria, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia) and relations with the European Union. Italy has also preseved its action to strengthen relations with Libya. Italy's cooperation with the countries of the Mashreq (Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Israel, Palestinian Authority and Egypt) are also marked by a high degree of confidence and co-operation. Assistance in the environment sector is focused on urban pollution, and mainly urban wastewater. Middle East (Jordan, Palestinian Authority, Syria) North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia) Middle East (Israel, Lebanon) North Africa (Egypt, Tunisia) Middle East (Lebanon, Syria) North Africa (Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia) Middle East (Jordan, Israel, Lebanon, Palestinian Authority) North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia) LDK ECO SA 28

38 Donor/ Lender Brief presentation of cooperation for environment in the Mediterranean region Active assistance MED countries in urban wastewater, solid waste management and industrial emissions Japan (MOFA, JICA, JBIC) Kuwait Funds (KFAED) Netherlands (MFA) Norway (MFA, NORAD) Portugal (MFA, ICP, CP) Japanese development co-operation in the Mediterranean region involves three ministries, MOFA, MOF and METI, of which MOFA has a core co-ordination role through the Middle East and North Africa Bureau, and two agencies (JICA and JBIC) play major roles in implementation. Japan s presence in the Mediterranean region is highly active, including the environment sector under the priority policy areas of sustained growth, infrastructure development, improvement of living conditions, and environment protection. When providing such assistance, Japan seeks to work closely with such international organizations as the EU and the World Bank. Japanese assistance has a dynamic presence in Egypt, the eighth largest recipient of Japanese bilateral aid and the largest in the Middle East and North Africa, followed by Tunisia, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian Authority, Morocco and Algeria. The Kuwait Fund for Arab and Economic Development (KFAED) was established on December 31, 1961, as a mechanism through which the State of Kuwait could extend loans and aid to Arab and other developing countries. The Fund has placed emphasis on financing the agriculture, irrigation, transport, communications, energy, industry, and the water and sewage sectors. KFAED is active in the Arab countries of the Mediterranean region, focusing on infrastructure and sanitation projects. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Department for Development Cooperation (Minbuza) is responsible for the Netherland's bilateral aid. Minbuza provides assistance to the environment sector under the theme water and sanitation. Assistance countries include Egypt and Palestinian Authority. The planning, execution and administration of Norwegian development cooperation are under MFA. Responsibility for the implementation of development programmes is delegated to Norwegian embassies. NORAD continues to be a separate directorate with major responsibility for providing technical advice to the MFA and the embassies and assisting them in assuring the quality of Norwegian development co-operation. Priority areas are social and economical development, under which falls the environment sector. Norway s presence in the Mediterranean region is rather limited, focusing on the water and sanitation in the Palestinian Authority. Responsibility for Portugal s foreign policy, including development co-operation, lies with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Portuguese Cooperation Institute (ICP) is responsible for co-ordinating Portugal s highly decentralised aid programme spread over 15 different ministries plus universities, other public institutions and 308 municipal governments. In February 1, 2003, Portugal has created one main body for development cooperation within the MFA, the Portuguese Development Support Institute (IPAD), a merge of ICP and APAD. Portugal directs most of its development aid though bilateral channels. Portuguese environment assistance is focused on Morocco in urban pollution projects. Middle East (Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian Authority, Syria) North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia) Middle East (Syria, Lebanon, Palestinian Authority) North Africa (Egypt, Tunisia) Middle East (Lebanon, Palestinian Authority) North Africa (Egypt) Palestinian Authority Tunisia Morocco LDK ECO SA 29

39 Donor/ Lender Brief presentation of cooperation for environment in the Mediterranean region Active assistance MED countries in urban wastewater, solid waste management and industrial emissions Spain (MFA, AECI, ICO) Sweden (SIDA) Switzerland (SDC, SECO) Spanish development co-operation can be characterised as a system involving a wide range of diverse actors. In the MFA, the SECIPI is responsible for the management and co-ordination of international co-operation policy. The Agencia Española De Cooperación Internacional (AECI), is the main executing agency in the Spanish aid system. ICO manages two now traditional financial instruments on the State's account so as to provide backup for the foreign sector: the Development Aid Fund, or Official Development Aid (Spanish initials, FAD), and the Reciprocal Interest Adjustment Contract, or Interest Make-up System (Spanish initials, CARI). Spanish development cooperation in the Mediterranean region (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Palestinian Authority, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon) is active through a programme on sustainable development, environmental protection of and conservation of the natural resources. Priorities of action are land and preservation, sustainable management of water, renewable energies and the efficient use of energy, sustainable tourism, sustainable production, environmental sanitation and environmental planning and management. Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) is Sweden's bilateral development assistance agency. Sida's environmental commitment rests squarely on the idea that all development cooperation it finances is to contribute in some way to sustainable development, mainly through the development of rural areas and to the improvement of living conditions there, which involves helping to raise levels of income, health, education, influence and security. Sida is continuing its long history of supporting rural development, which also land management, the supply of water and sanitation, coastal development and marine environments, general natural resource management and biological diversity. Sweden is one of the most forceful drivers behind elevating the environment on the international agenda, and is an active and dedicated participant in international environmental work and in the global environmental debate. Development cooperation with the Middle East and North Africa has, with a few exceptions, been rather limited to date. The MENA region includes the following countries: Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Palestinian Authority, Syria and Tunisia. The Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC) and the State Secretariat for Economic Affairs (SECO) develop the overall framework of the Swiss contribution to development co-operation. SDC is responsible for the overall co-ordination of development activities, whereas SECO is the competence centre for sustainable economic development. SDC s activity in Middle East is carried out through the offices in Amman (for Jordan, Syria and Lebanon) and Gaza (for Palestinian Authority). SDC is also present in North Africa (Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia and mainly Algeria). SDC's broad mandate in the region is desertification and establishment of official structures and good governance, including environmental protection. Current activities in the region are rather modest and focused on urban pollution. SECO s policy areas in the environmental field are basic Infrastructure (sustainable development, streamlining of the sectors, a technology transfer) and environment-friendly trade and technology. SECO s assistance is given to Jordan, Tunisia and Egypt, but is rather modest, focusing on activities related to the promotion of cleaner production. Middle East (Lebanon, Palestinian Authority) North Africa (Egypt, Morocco) Middle East (Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian Authority, Syria) North Africa (Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia) Middle East (Jordan, Lebanon) North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia) LDK ECO SA 30

40 Donor/ Lender Brief presentation of cooperation for environment in the Mediterranean region Active assistance MED countries in urban wastewater, solid waste management and industrial emissions United Nations (UNDP) United Kingdom (DFID) USAID USTDA WB (IBRD, IDA, IFC) The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the development arm of the United Nations, is a multilateral agency active in helping development countries to use aid effectively. One of the focal areas of UNDP is energy and environment for sustainable development. UNDP helps Mediterranean region through the Regional Bureau for Arab States (RBAS) and UNDP s country offices, strengthening their capacity to address these challenges at global, national and community levels, seeking out and sharing best practices, providing innovative policy advice and linking partners through pilot projects that help poor people build sustainable livelihoods. UNDP's involvement in the energy and environment areas addresses six priority areas: (1) Strategies for sustainable development; (2) Water governance; (3) Sustainable energy; (4) Land management, (5) Biodiversity and (6) Chemical management. UNDP s partners include governments, other UN agencies, the international financial institutions (e.g. WB, AfDB), bilateral agencies, the private sector and civil society. As GEF implementing partner, UNDP also manages the GEF Small Grants Programme on behalf of the GEF family, which has implemented over 6000 community-based projects in 80 countries, including MED countries. The Department for International Development (DFID) is the United Kingdom's bilateral agency for development cooperation. DFID s work is guided by the policies of other donors in the region, notably those of the EC and the World Bank. DFID s involvement in the region is now increasing and realigning the financial and human resources it allocates to this region. DFID s Middle East and North Africa Department was created in 2002 and works in Egypt, Jordan, and Palestinian Authority. The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) is the bilateral agency responsible for development cooperation. USAID supports long-term and equitable economic growth and advances U.S. foreign policy objectives by supporting in the environment sector the adoption of clean and efficient technologies and policies that encourage positive relationships between economic growth and environmental protection. USAID operates in five countries and territories in the Middle East and North Africa. USAID provides assistance mainly on urban wastewater with a focus on Egypt. Unites States TDA is mainly focusing on assistance to feasibility studies for environment (urban wastewater and solid waste management). The World Bank Group is a multilateral development bank comprised of five multilateral agencies, the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), the International Development Agency (IDA), the Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency (MIGA), the International Finance Corporation (IFC), and the International Center for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). Lending and technical assistance to the environment sector is provided by IBRD, IDA, and the IFC. IFC in particular, is the World Bank Group s agency for private sector development, giving technical assistance to the companies to improve corporate governance and compliance with environmental related issues. Detailed information is given in separate paragraph. Middle East (Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian Authority, Syria) North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia) Middle East (Palestinian Authority) North Africa (Egypt) Middle East (Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian Authority) North Africa (Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia) Middle East (Lebanon) North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Morocco) Middle East (Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian Authority) North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia) Note: in bold, main assistance countries LDK ECO SA 31

41 The main financial actors activities in the Mediterranean region are more analytically presented in the below paragraphs. World Bank The World Bank is one of the key promoters and financiers of environmental upgrading, covering all the countries of MED region. Only seven of them are currently active borrowers, Algeria, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Morocco, Palestinian Authority and Tunisia and one is inactive borrower, Syria. The Bank is working with the countries to address the environmental challenges through a comprehensive Environment Strategy, as updated in 2001, based on a variety strategic and operational activities completed in the region since 1995 (NEAPs, environment & sector studies, internal, external and web consultations). The strategy focuses on four specific areas (a. enhancing the quality and effectiveness of countries environmental and social assessment programmes for all development actions, not just Bank projects; b. demonstrating the economic importance for a clean environment; c. Integrating environment components into targeted sectoral projects, e.g. wastewater management sector, solid waste sector; and d. developing monitoring and evaluation systems and indicators to measure progress) to be undertaken in the following strategic priorities: I I I I I I I Improving water resource management; Managing land, coastal zones and natural habitats; Reducing urban pollution; Strengthening the capacities of environment institutions, local communities and NGOs; Strengthening the capacity of the private sector; Continuing the support for its regional initiatives (like METAP); Integrating global environment issues into Bank's operations. Efforts will also be made to integrate global environment issues into the Bank's operations, including the protection of biodiversity in natural resources management and community development projects, and the reduction of greenhouse gases in transport energy and waste management projects. Financing these environment components will be part of loans with leverage for the Global Environment Facility (GEF). At the country level the Bank will participate in or convene a donor-country coordination group on environment to achieve a greater integration of efforts and reduce overlaps. New measures were adopted for enhancing activities with clients in the environmental field, through fostering linkages and strengthening the cooperation between the Ministry of Environment and other sector ministries and institutions instead of working exclusively with the Ministry of Environment or separately with each of the sector Ministries. The World Bank Group works in partnership with the development agencies of individual countries to better coordinate aid and to more effectively achieve development goals such as ADA, CIDA, DANIDA, AFD, Finland, GTZ, JBIC, JICA, KFW, NORAD, SIDA, DFID, USAID. At the regional level, the Bank will seek cooperation between the Mediterranean Environmental Technical Assistance Programme (METAP) activities and other regional organizations and NGO networks. The Bank's involvement in three region programmes - METAP, the MENA Regional Desertification Initiative, and the MENA Regional Water Initiative will continue. During the first five years of the strategy s implementation, the main accomplishments in implementing the strategic actions in the water sector were financing projects in improving management of water scarcity in Jordan and Palestinian Authority, and co-financing, with EIB and KFW, water resources and irrigation projects in Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia. The Region has also witnessed an increased participation of the private sector in the management of urban water utilities in Jordan, Morocco, and Palestinian Authority. Controlling industrial pollution is on-going in Algeria LDK ECO SA 32

42 and Egypt, and reducing urban pollution is being implemented in Lebanon, Tunisia and Yemen. Strengthening environmental institutions as well as encouraging public participation is also taking place in Algeria, Egypt and Morocco. Moreover, the IFC has established an environment fund for MENA countries, to finance projects with strong environmental components. GEF The Global Environment Facility (GEF), established in 1991, is a financing mechanism helping developing countries fund projects and programmes that protect the global environment in four areas: - reduction in emissions harmful to the climate - protection of the biodiversity - protection of international waters - protection of the ozone layer The countries participating in the restructured GEF are 176, including MED countries except Palestinian Authority. The three 'implementing agencies', the World Bank, UNDP and UNEP, are responsible for carrying out the GEF's projects. They can in turn delegate the implementation to other institutions serving as 'executing agencies'. Through them, the GEF has quickly amassed a diverse project portfolio serving the developing world, Eastern Europe, and the Russian Federation - more than 140 countries altogether. Moreover, GEF teamwork by these partners reinforces their individual efforts to mainstream or incorporate global environment concerns into all of their policies and programmes. Seven other international organizations, known as GEF Executing Agencies, contribute to the management and execution of GEF projects: AfDB, ADB, EBRD, IDB, IFAD, FAO and UNIDO. The GEF maintains also partnerships with many bilateral aid agencies. Currently within the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP), the SAP-MED (Strategic Action Programme to Address Pollution from Land-Based Activities in the Mediterranean Region) is ready for implementation through the preparation of National Action Plans (NAPs). German Aid The German development co-operation system is multi-organisational. The Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ) plays a central role and has been reorganised in 2003 to better integrate bilateral, multilateral and sectoral responsibilities. It relies principally on two implementing agencies: the Agency for Technical Co-operation (GTZ) and the KfW Development Bank. German bilateral development cooperation projects are implemented by the KfW and technical cooperation projects are mainly carried out by the government-owned GTZ. Sustainable water management sustains the regional strategy for the Mediterranean Region, an important area for German development policy. Bilateral cooperation is based on the priority area strategy papers which were developed in an intensive dialogue between the partner governments. Regarding environment, support is targeting on water & sanitation, basic infrastructure and environmental protection, with a dynamic presence in the MED countries, mainly Egypt, Morocco and Palestinian Authority (priority partner countries), as well as Algeria, Jordan, Syria and Tunisia. The core assistance is given to the water and sanitation sector. GTZ is active on behalf of a number of international clients, such as the EU, World Bank or UN organisations, in addition to its work in bilateral development cooperation for the German Federal Government through BMZ. Priority area on behalf of BMZ is the water sector, including urban wastewater and solid waste management projects. As Lebanon is no longer a formal partner country of German bilateral Development Cooperation, GTZ is bringing the present portfolio to a close on LDK ECO SA 33

43 behalf of the Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ), but not for the environment sector. The KfW Development Bank provides assistance to developing countries with investments in the environmental protection and resource conservation in line with Germany s development policy. For instance, the prevention of ecological risks through sustainable environmental and energy concepts is of global importance. All these activities are devoted to help to improve the living conditions of people in developing countries - directly or indirectly. Bilateral assistance is mainly given to Tunisia and Palestinian Authority, followed by Jordan, Morocco and Egypt. KfW is also cooperating intensively with bilateral agencies, multilateral organizations such as the World Bank or regional development banks, playing a complementary role or, for parallel activities, coordinates the conditions and objectives of the projects. In so doing it supports international efforts to apply the support funds that are available in a targeted manner and to enhance development-policy effectiveness. Internationally, KfW is cooperating closely with the World Bank and has become one of the World Bank's largest bilateral co-financiers. In addition, KfW is also a member of the GEF s implementing agencies group (World Bank, UNDP & UNEP). French aid French aid system involves the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MAE), the Ministry for Economic Affairs, Finance and Industry (MINEFI) and the French Development Agency (ADF). CICID is coordinating the cooperation system. The priority solidarity zone (ZSP), the area of development assistance (2002), covers the following MED countries: Algeria, Lebanon, Morocco, Palestinian Authority, and Tunisia. Environment and sustainable development is one of key priorities of French aid, focusing on the water and sanitation sector. In the MED region, France has undertaken a wide range of commitments, been involved in urban and peri-urban water and sanitation systems. AFD has a twofold character: it is a specialist financial institution, a development bank, like its bilateral or multilateral opposite numbers. It comes under the joint supervision of MINEFI and MAE. It is also an essential operator in the France development co-operation mechanism. Present in the MED Region since 1992, the AFD Group stands as a development partner in this region. This is particularly the case in Morocco and Tunisia and, to an increasing extent, in Algeria, mainly due to the Agency's substantial financial commitments and recognised expertise. Since 1998, it has been operating in Lebanon and the Palestinian Authority, where its actions remained steadfast in Lately, the group was authorized to operate in Jordan and Egypt. The Agency is also developing financial and intellectual partnerships with other donors (e.g World Bank, EIB) and strives to increase French influence in the area of development. AFD s actions in favour of economic growth and preservation of the environment fall directly within the framework of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), priority development objectives that were set out in the year 2000 by the United Nations and which seek to reduce poverty by half by the year Environmental assistance is mainly focused on the water sector, among AFDs major areas of intervention, especially the management of inland waters, drinking water supply and sanitation, financing also the technical efficiency and reliable services, through the assertion of community ownership and the involvement of private sector. In addition, through its subsidiary, Proparco, the AFD is pursuing a strategy to provide finance for modernising and developing industrial enterprises, as well as private operators' infrastructures, which include activities related to the enhancement of the industries environmental profile. Japanese aid Japanese development co-operation in the Mediterranean region involves three ministries, MOFA, MOF and METI, of which MOFA has a core co-ordination role through the Middle East and North Africa Bureau, and two agencies (JICA and JBIC) play major roles in implementation. LDK ECO SA 34

44 Of the two implementation agencies, Japan International Cooperation Agency is the largest ODA institution in terms of the size of the staff and is the only institution to be entirely specialised in development co-operation. Founded in 1974, JICA is an implementation agency for technical assistance, focusing on institution building, organization strengthening, and human resources development that will enable developing countries to pursue their own sustainable socio-economic development. A second, somewhat smaller implementation agency (but not in terms of its funding responsibility) is JBIC. It was formed in 1999 as the result of a merger of the former OECF and JEXIM. The International Financial Operations Division of JBIC promotes Japanese trade and international economic cooperation, while the Overseas Economic Cooperation Operations Division provides assistance and loans to developing countries to promote private and financial sector development. To Japan, strengthening the relationship with countries in the vicinity of the EU and the political stability in the former conflict zones have become even more important than before. In the Mediterranean region, priority tasks are sustained growth, infrastructure development, industrial development, water resources management and environmental protection. When providing such assistance, Japan seeks to work closely with such international organizations as the EU and the World Bank. In the environment sector, Japanese assistance has a dynamic presence in Egypt, the eighth largest recipient of Japanese bilateral aid and the largest in the Middle East and North Africa, followed by Tunisia, Syria, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian Authority, Morocco and Algeria. The majority of activities are focused on urban pollution (wastewater and solid waste) that fall under the priority area of foundation of sustained growth through the improvement of the living environment and environmental conservation, mostly in urban areas where the effects are the greatest. Aid activities on industrial pollution are also concentrated to Egypt. USAID The United States aid (USAID) is an independent federal government agency that receives overall foreign policy guidance from the Secretary of State. United States work supports long-term and equitable economic growth and advances U.S. foreign policy objectives by supporting economic growth, agriculture and trade; global health; and, democracy, conflict prevention and humanitarian assistance. USAID provides assistance from its field offices in four regions of the world including Middle East and North Africa countries: Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian Authority and Tunisia. USAID environmental assistance in the Mediterranean region has been targeted mostly on water and wastewater sector development. Within this sector, some of its aims are to improve utility services, to support wastewater management and to help constructing sewerage networks and wastewater treatment plants. USAID takes advantage of public-private alliances that bring together the ideas and resources of governments, businesses and civil society to increase the incomes of the poor while conserving the environment. USAID is mostly active in Egypt in the wastewater sector. USAID has also assisted Egypt to support the development and implementation of strategic plans, and strengthen environmental policies and institutions, through the implementation of a large part of the Egyptian Environmental Policy Programme (EEPP). LDK ECO SA 35

45 2.6 Overview of involved actors & actions in the region From the review undertaken with regards to the involved actors in the region, it is apparent the large number of different organisations and donors contributing to the developmental efforts of the Mediterranean partners and more specifically to the protection of the environment. The substantial resources available to the region, along side EC financial support, include funds from the bilateral aid programmes of the EU member states, US and other governments, from international financial institutions (i.e. IMF, European Investment Bank, and World Bank, Regional Development Banks), various United Nations agencies and some Arab countries. The EU is the region s major donor and, within that, the European Commission provides the lion s share, through its EuropeAid Cooperation Office (MEDA programme). The EC is by far the most substantial player in terms of regional co-operation. Under the MEDA programme EU has set up for the region ambitious bilateral and regional co-operation activities, as well as has concluded Association Agreements with virtually all the countries involved. To that amount EIB contributes with significant lending to the region, which is rapidly increasing. Other (limited) regional activities are being essentially that of UNEP, or of the World Bank. All donors have their own procedures and policy directions, with regards to the selection of country(ies) they have allocated their financial aid and the priority areas they address. Their development policy areas are sometimes focused on a specific environment sector, e.g. water and sanitation, or on a broader priority area (e.g. sustained growth, environmental protection, or basic infrastructure, urban development), under which certain actions and projects are carried out. Some donors pay particular attention only to a country in the region (e.g. Finland), while others pay attention to specific target countries (e.g. France, Germany, Switzerland, etc.). Regarding bilateral cooperation, all the former 15 EU MS, Switzerland, Norway and USAID and Canada have development cooperation with the Mediterranean partners and have adopted in their development policies specific environmental objectives mostly in the areas of urban wastewater and urban solid management. Other important actors in the region (multilateral donors) include the World Bank which aims to promote environmental improvements as fundamental element of its developmental assistance. The GEF, which helps the partner countries fund projects and programmes that protect the global environment and grants support projects related to biodiversity, international waters, land degradation, the ozone layer, and persistent organic pollutants. The UNDP helps countries strengthening their capacities to address environmental challenges at global, national and local level. In addition to these organisations there are also the Regional Development Banks (e.g. AfDB, IDB), each having its own environmental integration strategy. It is also noted that many bilateral donors seek to develop partnerships with international organizations such as the EU and the World Bank in order to increase their influence in the region. In addition multilateral organisations, such as the WB group, works in partnership with the development agencies operating in a specific country such as ADA, CIDA, DANIDA, AFD, Finland, GTZ, JBIC, JICA, KFW, NORAD, SIDA, DFID, and USAID to better coordinate aid and to more effectively achieve development goals, as well as it seeks a regional cooperation with METAP. Regarding the donors actions in the region, it has been noted that through the years certain lead roles and division of labour between the donors in the region have been emerged. The World Bank and the European Investment Bank have taken the lead role in infrastructure development, but are also active in economic restructuring and private sector development, whereas the EC through its bilateral programmes has been focusing on economic transition and socio-economic adjustments. The urban and industrial wastewater is the predominant field of action in the region, whilst urban solid waste has lately received increased attention and emphasis as key development issue in the region. Lastly, industrial emissions (air emissions) are one issue addressed segmentally by the partner LDK ECO SA 36

46 countries and virtually only GEF deals with under the umbrella of persistent organic pollutants and climate change in some MED partner countries. An overview of the varied actors involved in the region s development arena with their actions in each country is presented in the following table. Actors African Development Bank (AfDB) Arab Funds (AFESD) Austria (ADA) Belgium (SPFF, DGDC, BTC) Canada (CIDA) Denmark (DANIDA) EIB EU (MEDA) Finland (MFA, FINNIDA) France (MAE, MINEFI, AFD) GEF Germany (BMZ, GTZ, KfW) Greece (MoFA) Islamic Development Bank (IDB) Italy (DGCS, MCN, MC, LA) Japan (MOFA, JICA, JBIC) Kuwait Funds (KFAED) Netherlands (MFA) Norway (MFA, NORAD) Portugal (MFA, ICP, CP) Spain (MFA, AECI, ICO) Sweden (SIDA) Switzerland (SDC, SECO) United Nations (UNDP, UNIDO) United Kingdom (DFID) USAID USTDA WB (IBRD, IDA, IFC) * horizontal activity - training ** urban wastewater-uww, municipal solid waste -MSW and industrial emissions -IE) Algeria Egypt Israel Jordan Lebanon Libya Morocco x Palestinian Authority Syria Tunisia Activities ** UWW, IE x x x x x UWW, MSW, IE x * x x x UWW x x x x UWW, MSW, IE x x UWW, MSW x x x x x x x x x UWW, MSW, IE x x x x x x x x x UWW, MSW, IE x x x UWW, MSW, IE x x x x x x UWW, MSW, IE x x x x x x x x UWW, MSW, IE x x x x x x x x UWW, MSW, IE x x x x UWW x x x x x UWW, IE x x x x x x x x UWW, MSW, IE x x x x x x x x UWW, MSW, IE x x x x x UWW, IE x x x UWW, MSW x x x UWW, IE UWW, MSW x x x UWW, MSW, IE x x x x x x x UWW, MSW x x x x x MSW, IE x x x x x x x x x UWW, MSW, IE x x UWW, MSW x x x x x x UWW, MSW, IE x x x x UWW, MSW x x x x x x x UWW, MSW, IE LDK ECO SA 37

47 3. DATA COLLECTION This section presents the methodology used for data collection on the major sources of pollution and their magnitude and on the ongoing and completed activities and projects in the Mediterranean region. This task was accomplished by direct contacting and consulting with the relevant agencies and experts and by extensive literature and web research. 3.1 Data collection approach The data collection procedure was mainly based on two parallel activities: 1. Direct contact and consultation with relevant agencies and experts 2. Extensive literature and web research The aim of the data collection was to: overview and assess existing environmental policy, legislation and enforcement practices in the 10 Mediterranean countries in relation to the three fields; identify hot spot areas in the region and major sources of pollution in regards with urban wastewater, urban waste and industrial emissions and assess them according to their magnitude; identify existing priorities and challenges in the region; identify completed and ongoing activities and projects in the region The various agencies and organisations were categorised in two main groups: the donors (bilateral and multilateral) and the various stakeholders. For the purposes of this project a central address was set up under the name of Horizon2020@ldkeco.gr acting as a port of communication. 3.2 Contacting main stakeholders The various agencies were categorised in two main groups: 1. the donors (bilateral and multilateral) and 2. the various stakeholders including: o o o o o o the national local authorities (Ministries of Environment); the EC delegations in the partner Med countries; the focal points of programmes and initiatives operating in the Med region (SMAP, MAP- MED POL, MEDEU WI); the secretariat / coordinating unit of other organisations (EMWIS, MedWet, INBO, IUCN, CEDARE, etc.); the industrial and business associations in the Med region; and the NGOs. LDK ECO SA 38

48 Direct contacts with donors and stakeholders had the intention to: inform them of the initiative Horizon 2020 and ask them if they wish to participate in the data gathering phase; update information and data, complete any missing gaps, and clarify any shortcomings encountered in the literature and web research; enquire about any actions they consider successful because they managed to initiate concrete pollution reduction measures and indicate the factors that enabled these measures to be launched. From these entities information were mainly requested for the ongoing and completed internationally and nationally funded actions and projects, as there was plethora information for the hot spot areas and the major sources of pollution from existing reports produced by EU (EEA), UNEP/MAP, METAP, the NEAPs and State of Environment Reports of the involved countries and other related reports (ERM). Initially a request letter was drafted and e mailed to all the above mentioned donors and stakeholders. A complete first round list of them is presented in Annex II. From this round the responses received by both groups were considered poor, apart from major donors. A second round of s and reminders was forwarded mainly to Ministries and MAP-MED POL focal points. In order to facilitate their input and comments a document including ongoing and completed activities in their country was attached. In parallel, telephone communications were established with some of them in order to further motivate them. The same procedure was followed with some donors. Certain updated information and clarifications on various issues was also asked. Further to that, during the meeting of the countries representatives for the evaluation of SMAP and the preparation of the Ministerial Declaration of Cairo (14-15 Sept. 2006), personal contacts were established with nearly all the participants and pointed out to them the need and significance to receive their input. Some of them had the requested information in hand which helped the team to clarify certain points. An overview of the responses received from the various donors and stakeholders with useful input is given below: Donors (bilateral and multilateral) Austrian Development Agency Austrian MoFA Belgian Administration for Development Cooperation Dept. of International Cooperation-UK EuropeAid AIDCO European Investment Bank MoFA-Finland MoFA-Ireland USAID World Bank Middle East & Africa National Authorities Ministry of Environment, Israel Ministry of Environment, Jordan LDK ECO SA 39

49 EC Delegations EC Delegation in Egypt EC Delegation in Israel EC Delegation in Jordan EC Delegation in Morocco EC Delegation in Syria Focal points of programmes and initiatives operating in the Med region Med EU WI SMAP MAP-MED POL focal point in Syria MAP MED POL focal point in Tunisia Secretariat / coordinating unit of other organisations CEDARE ASCAME Institute Mediteraneen de l eau (IME) Instituto Agronomico Mediterraneo International Development Research Centre, Canada Industrial and business associations Belgian Technical Chamber NGOs Fiends of the Earth The direct contact with the various stakeholders and donors and the received information is very helpful and useful as it gives a very clear idea on the real conditions prevailing in each country, the work already in progress in all Mediterranean countries, as well as the commitments endorsed by the countries to reduce pollutants emissions according to specific targets. It also helped the team to verify and complete the ongoing and completed activities in the region. 3.3 Other sources of information Α) Data on major sources of pollution Information for the existing situation of the marine environment of the Mediterranean Sea was extracted from the EEA s Report No 4/2006 Priority issues in the Mediterranean environment. Information on the state of the environment and the pressures to the Mediterranean from land-based pollution sources were drawn from the National Diagnostic Analyses, prepared by the countries under the supervision and technical support of UNEP/MAP and the financial support of GEF, in the frame of the Strategic Action Programme (SAP), the State of Environment Reports and Africa Environment Outlook. Information on the development and related environmental problems from urban effluents, municipal solid wastes and industrial effluents, were extracted from the Sectoral Plans, prepared by the countries under the supervision and technical support of UNEP/MAP and the financial support LDK ECO SA 40

50 of GEF, in the frame of the Strategic Action Programme (SAP), the State of Environment Reports, and any other national strategic and sectoral document.. Information on the policy, legislative and institutional framework, the prioritisation of actions to reduce the discharge of pollutants to the sea and the proposed actions to be implemented by 2010, in order to reach the SAP targets for the control of land-based pollution, was taken from the National Action Plans (NAPs), prepared by the countries under the supervision and technical support of UNEP/MAP and the financial support of GEF, in the frame of the Strategic Action Programme (SAP), the National Environmental Strategies, the National Environmental Action Plans, the National Agendas, the National Development Action Plans, the EU Joint Action Plans drawn with each Mediterranean partner country in the frame of European Neighbourhood policy and any other strategic document produced by each country. The information in the above mentioned documents was precious because it provided detailed information on the countries analysis of their problems and the countries proposals for the necessary actions to be implemented in order to reduce pollution from urban wastewater, urban solid waste and industrial emissions. Particularly useful information on the prioritisation of necessary actions was identified in the NAPs, because these were compiled through a participatory approach (public authorities, central and local governments, the industrial sector, NGOs and the scientific community), enhancing the ownership feeling of the NAP. Finally, the NAPs (and the list of priority actions) were adopted by the competent national authorities (Ministers of Environment or inter-ministerial bodies) and were endorsed by the Contracting Parties to the Barcelona Convention at their Meeting in Porto Ros (Slovenia) in November Therefore, the data provided is recent ( ), has a high degree of accuracy (are the result of national reports), has a high degree of ownership of the national stakeholders in every country and has been officially adopted by the national competent authorities. B) Data on completed and ongoing activities With the view of collecting and compiling all the data needed for the completed and ongoing actions and projects implemented in the Mediterranean region and countries under investigation, apart from the direct contacts, supplementary information was gathered through literature and internet research., including: - EU Programmes (MEDA, SMAP, LIFE 3 rd countries) - EC Delegations - Multilateral and Bilateral Agencies - METAP - National and local authorities of the concerned countries The intention was to collect and compile data from all available sources, and conclude on any shortcomings or missing information which would be further clarified and finalised from direct contacts. In order to acquire information on the EC s regional and bilateral activities, the websites of SMAP, MEDA and LIFE 3 rd countries programmes were visited. Both SMAP and Life 3 rd countries programmes provided detailed presentation of the projects either ongoing or completed, whereas information from the EU bilateral activities (MEDA) was rather disperse and not detailed given. Data on the latter was enriched either through annual and evaluation reports or by using information directly displayed at the EC Delegations websites, which occasionally provided useful information on EIB activities and MS bilateral relations as well. SMAP reports were also useful input for the EU and EIB bilateral activities in the region. Significant was also the information presented by the SMAP Clearing House, which provided a first list of the significant activities in the concerned countries from various financial actors. The basic information on all the donors active in the region and their activities derived from the databases of DAC / OECD and Aida Gateway, though the data was only limited to the commitment year, the project title and the donor contribution, thus, requiring further investigation. By screening LDK ECO SA 41

51 the data from the above databases and by crosschecking it with the individual donors web sites a thorough compilation of the assistance given from the various multilateral and bilateral donors was realised. This also helped in concluding on the development cooperation areas and the targeted countries each donor was active. In case of an available database, as for World Bank, GEF, EIB, KFAED, USAID, CIDA, GTZ, AECI, UNDP, etc, detailed information on the project description, financing and implementation status was usually obtained. Other agencies provided only information on the ongoing activities (e.g. EIB), while some others presented a list of projects based on the approval year (e.g. AFD) without clarifying the implementation status. In many other occasions, the available data contained too limited information, without referring to the project description, budget, co-financing, or even the status; for instance a list of projects title per fiscal year was identified in JICA, MOFA. At this point it should be noted that as bilateral cooperation is usually monitored through the embassies of the donor countries (e.g. US, Canada, Japan, Netherlands, Finland), this proved to be quite helpful in obtaining information on the bilateral relations and assistance, which improved the already collected data. The monitoring and evaluation reports, along with the country strategy papers and cooperation reports of the aforementioned institutions and agencies, were particularly useful, if available, for verifying, cross-checking and supplementing the projects data. Data from the various corresponding authorities of the concerned countries (e.g. Ministries of Environment, Planning, and Economy, local authorities, various associations and organisations) was also gathered. For instance the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency, the Ministry of Environment of Lebanon, the Ministry of Planning of Palestinian Authority, the Jordan Devnet Organization, and the Office National de l Assainissement (ONAS) of Tunisia. The provided information was quite useful, improving and/or supplementing the list of projects, though limited information was available on national funded projects. Reports on the state of environment and legal framework constituted useful input for the country review. Finally, information on projects was derived from various other websites including local organizations and agencies taking part in the implementation of the projects. As already indicated above, despite the great number of available sources, the information collected was not always helpful and often needed extensive processing. In most cases, the agency mentioned only its contribution without clarifying the percentage of co-financing or national contribution, making thus quite difficult the cross-checking and verification of the data. Differences in the title of the projects were another encountered problem in identifying the identity of the project and inevitably duplications may still exist. Limited or incomplete information was also led to shortcomings in defining the relevance of a given project (this is the case for the majority of urban wastewater projects, because the project was usually under the broad category of water and sanitation sector). The same applies for the project implementation status, as the commitment or approval year was often the only available information. After collection of the above data and in conjunction with the input received from various direct contacts, all necessary effort was realised to the consistency, coherence and completion of the data on the ongoing and completed activities in the concerned countries. The complete list of sources used for the data collection of the activities is presented in Annex II. LDK ECO SA 42

52 4. MEDITERRANEAN REGION REVIEW 4.1 General background Middle East and North Africa (MENA) region is one of the oldest, richest regions with the most diverse cultural traditions. It is not only the cradle of civilization, but has been as well the cross road between civilizations, which has left numerous important legacies of human history. The region is characterised by an arid and semi arid environment. Three quarters of the land is arid, making the region the driest in the world. It is considered as one of the most diverse areas on earth. The vertical and the horizontal variation from north to south create high biological diversity. The marine components in the region also reflect great diversity, centred on the Mediterranean Sea, but including the Atlantic Ocean and Red Sea. The region is disproportionately endowed with natural resources, being among the richest of the world in oil and gas reserves and one of the poorest in water resources. It is defined largely by drought and desert, and suffers from the scarcity of fresh water, uneven availability, a growing gap between supply and demand, deteriorating water quality, and dominance of agricultural water use. Jordan and the Palestinian Authority are among the countries which have the least water resources in the region. Water shortages are compounded by quality deterioration from pollution and increasing salinity. Pollution is caused by point sources such as the discharge of sewage or leakage from unsanitary landfills, and non-point sources such as fertilizer and pesticides due to unsustainable practices in agriculture. Increasing salinity of groundwater can be caused by seawater intrusion or by overexploitation of inland aquifers. Surface water salinity increases due to drainage and wastewater return flows and because of low flow conditions in the lower reaches of rivers caused by upstream abstraction. Furthermore, in many countries in the region, untreated municipal and industrial sewage is released into the environment, either into the sea or into the beds of wadis, as it is the case in the West Bank, Lebanon, and Morocco. In some cases, untreated or inadequately treated sewage is reused for irrigation in an uncontrolled manner, which obviously entails substantial health risks. Treatment is often inadequate, because treatment plants are not well maintained. Unsanitary landfills are another source of pollution, with the potential to seriously impact the quality of aquifers that are used as a source of municipal water supply. The coastal zones of the region are found to be under various degrees of stress as a result of major demographic shifts from rural to coastal urban areas suggesting that coastal areas are of utmost importance to support the country s economy. Therefore, rapid urbanisation coupled with unsustainable development of tourism in the Mediterranean Sea s coastline is among the reasons for significant environmental and health problems. The 135 million tourists visiting the area in 1996 are expected to soar to million in the next 20 years. The human pressures to the Mediterranean marine environment include agricultural wastes, airborne particles and river run-off, carrying nutrients, pathogens, heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants, oil and radioactive substances. All these pollution sources affect the most productive areas of the Mediterranean marine environment, including estuaries and shallow coastal waters. At the same time, physical changes to its 46,000 Km coastline from human activities are threatening Mediterranean coastal and marine habitats of vital importance in maintaining a healthy ecosystem. Focusing on human activities, 131 pollution hot spots have been identified by the countries in the frame of the Strategic Action Programme (SAP) of UNEP (Figure 4.1.1, UNEP/WHO, 2003). These hot spots are point pollution sources or coastal areas, which may affect human health, ecosystems, biodiversity, sustainability, or economy. From these hot spots, 26 % are urban, 18 % industrial and 56 % mixed (urban and industrial) (UNEP/MAP, 2003). LDK ECO SA 43

53 Additionally, 59 sensitive areas (marine areas under threat to become pollution hot spots), have also been identified along the Mediterranean coastline. All these pressures have led to the degradation of environmental quality in certain coastal areas, while the impact on the open Mediterranean Sea environment is still uncertain. Summarising, MENA countries share the following long-standing environmental issues, which only differ by magnitude and severity between the countries: a) Water scarcity and quality b) Land and coastal degradation and desertification c) Urban and industrial pollution d) Weak institutional and legal framework and inadequacy of the management and operational capabilities e) Scarcity of financial resources Figure 4.1-1: Pollution hot spots along the Mediterranean coast (Source: UNEP/MAP, 2004) 4.2 Key environmental issues related to urban and industrial pollution Urban wastewater and sanitation Environmentally efficient management of urban sewage is recognised as a priority issue in most Mediterranean countries. The urban water and sanitation sector in the region has faced formidable challenges over the last decades. High overall population growth and even higher urban population growth have not only increased pressure on water resources, but they also created a tremendous additional demand for urban water and sanitation infrastructure. In some cases such as in Jordan after the Gulf War this situation was exacerbated by massive influxes of refugees. While the additional demand for urban wastewater infrastructure investments was largely met despite difficult challenges often with substantial assistance from international donors the operation and maintenance of urban wastewater systems by public utilities in many cases remained unsatisfactory. Efforts by utilities to increase their performance were usually thwarted, often because of the constraints to which public utilities are subjected, such as restrictions on tariff setting, salary levels, and staffing. The limited capacity of most public water and sanitation utilities lies at the heart of the largely inadequate response to the daunting water problems in the region. The disappointing performance of most public water and sanitation utilities can be explained to a large extent by the administrative and political environment in which these utilities have to operate. Some important factors affecting the performance of utilities are beyond their own control. For example, tariff increases are usually LDK ECO SA 44

54 decided at the cabinet level. They are often postponed for political reasons such as upcoming elections, sometimes leading to a steady decline in real tariff revenues. Another issue is arrears by public entities, which sometimes have insufficient budgetary allocations to pay their water bills. More important, public utilities are often expected to contribute to the alleviation of unemployment by hiring and keeping on their payroll a large number of low-qualified staff, some of whom are not essential to maintaining operations. Many urban water and sanitation utilities are overstaffed compared to international benchmarks, and cost recovery is low, with many utilities not even covering their operation and maintenance costs. The number of employees per 1,000 water connections is between 5 and 10 in utilities in the region, while it is 4 to 6 in Western Europe and in well-run utilities in developing countries. At the same time, utilities are subject to civil service salary rules, severely restricting their ability to attract, motivate, and maintain qualified staff who are essential to successfully perform key technical and managerial functions. Although much has been accomplished in providing people access to improved water supply and sanitation facilities, about 45 million people (16 percent of the region s population) still lack adequate access to safe drinking water and more than 80 million people lack safe sanitation. Although most of them are in rural areas, some inhabitants of poor urban neighbourhoods also do not have access to adequate water supplies from piped connections or standpipes, and have to rely on water vendors. Some countries (in European Union and Israel) have already established extended sewer networks and WWTPs (secondary treatment) for most coastal cities with population above 100,000. Furthermore, many smaller coastal towns with population above 10,000 are already connected to such treatment units. On the other hand, a very important part of urban effluents generated in the cities of North Africa, Eastern Mediterranean and East Adriatic coasts are no treated at all before being released to the sea or surface waters. A part of the coastal population of these areas is connected to primary treatment units (and few secondary treatment plants), but a large part of the generated urban effluents are discharged untreated into the coastal marine environment, affecting negatively human health, the stability of the marine ecosystem and the economy of the coastal zone (impact on tourism and fisheries). The rate of sewerage connection varies, with impressively high rates (more than 70 percent) in some cities, such as in Amman and Tunis. A high connection rate should not, however, be interpreted as an indicator of successful performance, since treatment plants are often inadequately operated (see above) and sewerage is a costly alternative, while on-site sanitation technologies are a viable solution for some urban locations. In many countries in the region, such as Morocco and Algeria, more than half of the wastewater treatment plants are not functioning properly due to lack of maintenance. This situation will either lead to negative environmental impacts and health hazards from the agricultural reuse of insufficiently treated wastewater, or to the unavailability of this increasingly important water resource for irrigation. Investment needs in urban sanitation are likely to exceed those for water supply, if sewerage systems are to be extended to cover an increasing share of the urban population. Furthermore, it is crucial that wastewater be adequately treated if it is to be used in agriculture without health risks. Should sanitation continue not to receive sufficient policy attention, there is a danger that high costs will be incurred with dismal results, as increasing quantities of wastewater are unable to be used in agriculture, or even worse if they are used and increase the incidence of disease. Treated wastewater is currently being reused only to a limited extent in part because of the low cost of alternative sources of water supply for irrigation. For example, groundwater can be pumped at very low cost from a shallow aquifer in Gaza Strip; and the tariff for surface water provided by the public irrigation system in the Jordan valley is only $0.02/m3. Under these circumstances, there is little incentive to use reclaimed wastewater, with its attendant risks (real and perceived) to health and the marketability of agricultural produce. Practically all countries of the region reuse at least some of their wastewater. In some countries especially in Israel a substantial share of the water supplied for municipal and industrial uses is reused in agriculture, for public parks and golf courses after treatment. However, in some countries LDK ECO SA 45

55 the share of reused wastewater is still low because of inadequate wastewater treatment and of concerns about the marketability of agricultural product irrigated with wastewater. Notable progress has been achieved in treated wastewater recycling, especially in severely water scarce countries. Several Arab countries (e.g., Egypt, Jordan), have integrated wastewater reuse into their national water schemes with emphasis on recycling industrial cooling water and reuse of treated municipal liquid waste for irrigation purposes. In support of these efforts, wastewater reuse regulations have been adopted. Modest results have been achieved in providing sanitation facilities in rural areas in the Arab region. However, the maintenance of these facilities is oftentimes neglected due to lack of funds and appropriate machinery for rural use. Nonetheless, several countries have expanded access to services through government spending and partnership with the private sector. Affordability of service varies, but social and political considerations still govern the pricing system, and separate tariffs are set for different users. As secondary cities emerge and decentralize urbanization, new investments in sanitation are being diverted from primary to secondary cities. The major pollutants related to municipal effluents are organic matter (measured as BOD 5 and COD), suspended solids, nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) and pathogenic micro-organisms, while other pollutants such as heavy metals and petroleum and chlorinated hydrocarbons, are also present in the effluents. In sheltered marine water bodies, such as harbours and semi-enclosed bays, the accumulation of nutrients and suspended solids may well lead to enhanced primary production and eutrophication (in the former) and formation of deposits rich in organic matter, metals and other pollutants that can act as secondary pollution sources for many pollutant (in the latter). The increase of nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) supply to a marine ecosystem enhances primary production and may lead to eutrophication of the water body, a phenomenon having as side effects proliferation of planktonic biomass, discoloration of the water, reduction of water transparency, reduction of dissolved oxygen in deeper waters and, in extreme cases, occurrence of toxic algae species. The permanent population on the Mediterranean coast is in the order of 150 million inhabitants, but it could be doubled during the summer period, as the area is one of the most frequented tourist destinations of the world. Along the Mediterranean coast, 601 cities with a population above inhabitants were reported from 19 countries, having a resident population of 58.7 million (Figure 4.2.2) (UNEP/MAP/MEDPOL/WHO, 2004). Of these cities, 69 % operate a wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), 21 % do not posses a WWTP, while 6 % are actually constructing a plant and 4 % have a plant out of operation for various reasons. Secondary treatment is mostly used (55 %) in Mediterranean WWTPs, while 18 % of the plants have only primary treatment. The distribution of treatment plants is not identical in the different Mediterranean areas, the northern Mediterranean coast having a greater part of its urban population served by a WWTP than the southern coast. Also, due to increasing population in cities and failures in the treatment plants operation, some WWTPs cannot produce effluent of an adequate quality as initially planned. Therefore, a large proportion of the population living in the Mediterranean coastal zone is not served by WWTPs. LDK ECO SA 46

56 Figure 4.2-1: Mediterranean coastal cities (Red dots pop. >100,000, blue dots 10, ,000 Source: EEA, 2006 based on UNEP/MAP/MEDPOL/WHO, 2004) Municipal solid waste Coastal cities population grows continuously during the last decades in all Mediterranean countries for economic and social reasons. Although waste collection may be satisfactory in some countries of the northern Mediterranean coast, inefficient collection is been recorded in almost all other areas. In MENA countries, uncollected solid waste may represent more than 30% of all generated waste in some cities, leading to continuous littering of streets and countryside and to potential health hazards for the population. In these areas, a special problem is related to the littering with plastic bags, which due to their resistance to degradation and light weight may be scattered to large areas around the cities. It is generally recognized that there is little environmental conscience for the protection of public space from littering and the solution lays in the improvement of the collection efficiency, as well as the raising of the environmental awareness of the population. In the region, deposition of collected solid waste is done on sanitary landfills, official dumping sites without any sanitary measures, or on unofficial wild dumps. In most Middle East and North Africa countries, no real sanitary measures are taken during solid waste deposition leading to serious environmental stress. In most cases, solid waste dumps are generating bad smells, as well as toxic fumes due to self ignition. Since no soil cover or compaction is practiced in most cases and no fences are erected, lighter wastes (such as plastic bags and paper) fly away because of the wind littering great areas around the dumps. A special problem in relation to the marine environment is encountered in the southern and eastern Mediterranean coasts, where dumps are located on the coastline (Al Hoceima [Morocco], Al Bassa [Syria], Tripoli [Lebanon], Saida [Lebanon], Ganfuda [Libya]). In most of those cases, solid wastes enter into the sea littering the marine environment, while leachates contaminate coastal seawater. Unofficial scavenging for the recuperation of valuable materials from solid wastes is been traditionally performed in many countries of the southern and eastern Mediterranean coasts, usually without any protection of the workers. On the other hand many countries have established compost plants to produce organic fertilizer from municipal solid wastes. Although this investment seems very promising because it combines waste minimization and production of organic fertilizer valuable to the increasing farming activity, it was not always very successful. The plants in some cases did not operate at their nominal capacity, but the main drawback was the bad quality of the product which contained glass fragments and other sharp pieces, as well as pieces of plastic, because of poor LDK ECO SA 47

57 segregation of waste to be composted. As a result, farmers, which were initially interested in using the organic fertilizer, they gradually became disinterested in using it on their fields. On the other hand with the exception of few countries, very little has been done until now for the recycling of valuable material at source. In all countries people s awareness campaigns are foreseen in relation to the establishment of an efficient recycling system for collection of valuable materials from solid waste. Some countries include in the NAP for 2010 priority actions the construction of Recycling and Compost plants Industrial pollution Urbanisation, industrialisation, and energy production are the main driving forces leading to air pollution problems. The main sources of air pollution in the region are energy and industrial production and vehicular emissions, which tend to expand with economic growth. Stationary sources, such as outdated power generation stations, refineries, fertilisers plants, cement manufacturing, and power plants also significantly contribute to air quality deterioration, especially where low fuel quality power is used. As the Mediterranean region is characterised by heterogeneity, contrasts and limited natural resources the industrial structure is likewise heterogeneous in terms of sectors and size of enterprises. The sectors stretch from extraction activities, iron and steel, cement works and petrochemicals to agricultural activities, leather, paper and agribusiness. As a result of this diversity, there are large, mostly public enterprises side by side with micro, family or traditional craft businesses that in many cases do not use modern production methods. Industry frequently coexists with tourism, coastal overpopulation and proximity to large cities. Industry is even frequently located within the actual urban nuclei. Industrial pollution is generated on wide scale along the Mediterranean coastline, as most industrial activity is concentrated along the coastline. Most of the countries try to control pollution from this source by issuing legislation on Effluent Limit Values (ELV) for specific industrial sectors and/or specific pollutants, as well as Environmental Quality Standards (EQS) for the receiving water bodies. Compliance monitoring of industrial discharges, linked to a discharge permit system is also in operation in some countries, as well as application of economic instruments to encourage industrial investments for the introduction of cleaner technology, BAT and the construction of wastewater treatment plants. However, in the greater part of the Mediterranean coastline, no such measures are effectively operating, mainly because of gaps in the legislation and/or lack of proper enforcement of the existing legislation. Industrial activity is widespread along the coastal zone of South and East Mediterranean, including important industrial centres in Alger, Skikda and Annaba (Algeria), Alexandria (Egypt), Beirut and North Lebanon (Lebanon), Abu Kamash (Libya), Tangiers and Tetouan (Morocco), Banias and Jableh (Syria) and Sfax and Gabes (Tunisia). 4.3 Institutional and legal overview Institutional aspects In all countries in the region dedicated environmental authorities have been established, often with the encouragement and financial assistance from multilateral and bilateral development agencies. In most cases these authorities have been given powers under a framework environmental law, which enables the implementation of more specific laws and regulations. In general, the key institution is the Ministry of Environment (MoE), which in many countries has been established over the past few years (in Algeria, Jordan, Lebanon, Palestinian Authority and Syria, MoE were founded between 2000 and 2003). Environmental Ministries or specialized authorities are responsible for policy setting and legislative development, environmental monitoring, the designation and management of protected LDK ECO SA 48

58 areas, and also for administering Environmental Impact Assessments. However, other institutions are also involved in environmental protection. The Ministry of Health is often involved in setting standards and monitoring water quality and the Ministry of Interior, through the local authorities of communities, is usually involved in solid waste management. The Ministry of Industry may also be involved in issues related to industrial pollution control. As a result of the involvement of many institutions in environmental issues, a lack of clarity with respect to the division of responsibilities between ministries stands out as a limiting factor for the effective implementation of legislation. Environmental responsibilities are generally divided among a large number of institutions and cooperation is weak, leading to duplication of efforts and wasting of resources. High level of bureaucracy is a common problem. Furthermore, because Environment Ministries are newly founded in many countries, they usually lack power in the Government and they cannot assure necessary public funds to implement their plans. Furthermore, decisions on the environmental works to be financed by public or international funds are often taken by other institutions, such as the Ministry of Finance, the Ministry of Housing and Public Works, or the Ministry of Interior, without always taking into consideration the priorities set by the Ministry of the Environment. In the region, with some few exceptions (Israel, Tunisia) quantity and some times quality of human resources at national or local level are not adequate to deal with the increased environmental problems they face. As a result, environmental institutions often present serious weakness on monitoring, accountability and regulatory enforcement Legislative aspects Very few countries (such as Algeria, Israel and Tunisia) have environmental legislation dating back to the early 1980s, while other countries have relatively new environmental legislation (within the last decade). In Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and Palestinian Authority, and more recently in Libya and Morocco, the principal environmental legislation consists of a major framework law, which makes general provisions for environmental protection. Specification of the law provisions is made through the promulgation of Decrees. However, in most cases implementing regulations and orders are still missing for many issues, creating obstacle to the successful implementation of the laws. On the other hand, Israel has a well developed environmental legislation, which makes use of all forms of legislative instruments (laws, regulations, administrative orders and bylaws) for all sectors including air, water, wastes, EIA, public participation and biodiversity. Also the laws are enforced through administrative, civil and criminal defences. Currently, Lebanon, Libya and Syria are the least developed countries in terms of environmental legislation. Environmental legislation in the region is often characterised by contradictions and overlapping authority between different ministries and organizations. Also, environmental quality standards, economic measures, the role of the public in environmental decision-making are elements that are often lacking in the legislation. Water and wastewater legislation seems to be most developed in the region, probably because clean drinking water is the most pressing problem in almost all countries. Water legislation in most countries also covers water quality management issues, such as wastewater treatment, effluent disposal, water quality standards, emission standards and receiving body quality standards. Solid waste legislation is not well developed in most countries, although it is acknowledged as a priority problem throughout the region. General principles for waste management are usually laid out in the environmental framework laws but the required regulations are often missing. Israel has comprehensive waste legislation which uses a similar approach as the EU system. In some of the countries, such as Algeria and Tunisia, specific waste legislation exists but its implementation is poor. In Jordan and Morocco, new waste legislation is currently under development. Specific legislation for industrial pollution or integrated pollution control does not exist within the region. However, in many countries sector-specific laws are in place for specific industries. Systems for Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) and permitting procedures are currently under LDK ECO SA 49

59 development in the region, either in specific EIA laws or within the environmental framework laws. Draft EIA legislation is waiting to be approved in Lebanon, Jordan, and Syria. Overall, with the exception of Israel, enforcement of the environmental legislation is very week in the region. This is related to the lack of specificity in the enforcement laws, the political weakness of the Ministry of the Environment, as well as its internal weaknesses (restricted human and financial resources). Therefore, although the legislative framework in the countries of the region needs further up-grading, no legislative improvement per se will achieve pollution reduction targets, unless it is completed with a clear and powerful enforcement plan by the competent authorities. 4.4 Opportunities / Challenges Urban wastewater All Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries face the problem of intense urbanization especially along their coastal zone. The continuous increase of coastal cities population is so fast, that sanitary infrastructures (sewage networks, wastewater treatment plans), which were already deficient, cannot cope with the increased quantity of generated effluents. As a result untreated domestic wastewater is discharged into the sea leading to the degradation of the Mediterranean coastal marine environment. Furthermore, all of the MENA countries face a water shortage problem, therefore discharge of urban effluent in inland water courses or the land, affects negatively the quality of the precious surface or ground water resources. It is therefore no surprising that environmentally efficient management of urban sewage (collection, treatment and recycling) is recognized as a priority issue of concern for all MENA countries. However, with the exception of Israel, where secondary treatment plants have been in operation in almost all cities and a great part of wastewater is been reused for irrigation and river restoration purposes, no integrated water strategy is applied within the region. In most cities, urban effluents are only partially collected and are discharged usually without any treatment to the closest receiving body (dry river beds, rivers, the sea, or the land). On the other hand, at the vicinity of many Mediterranean coastal cities, tourist development plans are been implemented, but the degradation of the marine environment because of urban effluent discharges endangers these investments and affects the quality of life of the permanent population. Urban effluents are actually a serious environmental problem but they could become a valuable resource, if necessary actions are taken. As it was demonstrated in the case of Israel, after proper treatment urban effluents can be used as a water source in the arid MENA region, for irrigation of agricultural land or replenishment of groundwater resources. Therefore, there is a big challenge, as well as an opportunity to invest on that strategy in the near future. Already many countries plan to improve their urban effluent collection infrastructure (construction of sewage networks) and their wastewater treatment capabilities (construction of WWTPs). In the frame of the Strategic Action Programme (SAP) of UNEP/MAP, at least 50 Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) are planned to be built until 2010 along the MENA countries coastline and many more plants is planned to be upgraded (more advanced treatment, increase of treatment capacity, updating of equipment and process, etc). More efforts are needed in order to include wastewater reuse in future priority plans and to persuade decision makers and financing bodies on the environmental and economic profits of such a strategy. Although general environmental legislation is in place in all countries, often there are no dedicated laws in place for the control of water quality, or for promoting integrated wastewater management. Water and wastewater standards need to be introduced in the legislation of some countries but in almost all cases the major problem is the lack of efficient implementation of existing legislation by well organised institutions with a clear mandate, as well as the lack of necessary funds to cope with the continuously increasing demands. Therefore, in order to support the effort for the adequate treatment and potential reuse of urban effluents, the legislative framework of most countries needs to be improved. Also water and wastewater legislation of all Mediterranean countries should be LDK ECO SA 50

60 harmonised, as far as possible, with EU legislation, in order to create a better legal environment for cooperation and technical support Municipal solid waste The increase of urban population in the MENA countries has resulted to increased generation of municipal solid waste, which is usually un-efficiently collected. People s mentality in relation to littering of public places is an important parameter of the problem, since there is generally little environmental conscience for the protection of public space from littering. The problem is recognized in most countries and the solution lays in the improvement of the collection efficiency and the raising of environmental awareness of the population. To increase solid waste collection efficiency, two general policies are applied in the area: Public service for street cleaning and solid waste collection (applied in Libya, Tunisia and Syria) Contracting of private companies to do the job. Already such contacts are in operation in Beirut and Saida (Lebanon), Tangiers and Nador (Morocco) and Alexandria (Egypt). In most cases, deposition of collected solid waste is done on official or un-official dumping sites without any sanitary measures. All countries recognise the need to terminate the soonest possible the use of uncontrolled dumps and they consider of high priority the creation of new sanitary landfills and the closure and rehabilitation of the uncontrolled ones. However, because of the magnitude of the solid waste disposal problem only few uncontrolled dumps have been closed and rehabilitated up to now. In most cases the existing official dumps are planned to continue to be used in the future, after taking necessary measures for their proper operation. It is not clear how the hundreds of unofficial dumps will be closed and rehabilitated in the near future. Plants for the production of organic fertilizer from solid wastes operate already in most countries, with questionable or poor results so far. However, it is recognised that creation of recycling units, mainly for the production of organic fertilizer, is a good way to achieve waste minimisation and valorisation in the region. Almost all countries propose such projects as supplementary measures in their solid waste management strategy. Legislative framework for solid waste management is very weak and specialised legislation is missing in many countries (only Israel, Algeria and Tunisia have already such legislation). Although solid waste management is mentioned in the general environment framework legislation, required regulations and/or secondary legislation are usually missing. Therefore, one of the primary tasks to be implemented in order to improve the legal environment is the creation of specific laws and regulations for the environmentally sound management of solid wastes. Furthermore, even in countries where such specified legislation exists, implementation is often hindered by problems in the efficient application of the laws, related to the restricted human and financial resources of the competent authorities, as well as the policy priorities within the countries. A major problem is the lack of needed funds for financing the works, as well as the lack of necessary economic instruments to support the operation of private of public solid waste management systems Industrial emissions Industrial pollution is generated on wide scale in the MENA countries and is usually concentrated in the coastal zone and at the vicinity of large cities. There is no specific legislation for controlling industrial pollution or promoting integrated industrial pollution control within the region, although in some countries there are few sector-specific laws that set emission limits for discharges into the receiving bodies. As a result of this gap in the legislation of most countries, compliance monitoring of industrial discharges, linked to a discharge permit system, is in operation only in very few countries (such as Israel and Tunisia). Also, almost no country applies economic instruments to LDK ECO SA 51

61 encourage industrial investments on cleaner technology, best available techniques, or the construction of end-of-pipe treatment systems. There is a great deal of improvement that can be made on this issue, with the introduction of adequate standards on industrial emissions, as well as on the quality of the receiving water bodies. Furthermore, a competent monitoring and self-monitoring system could greatly improve environmental performance of industries, especially if combined with a policy of economic incentives for the private sector. To that goal environmental authorities have to be sufficiently well funded in order to employ reasonable numbers of inspectors, with clearly defined responsibilities for monitoring and enforcement. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) legislation to control industrial pollution is in place in most countries (in Jordan, Lebanon, Libya and Syria, EIA legislation is still in the development phase). Furthermore, the application of EIA in the countries possessing such legislation is not on the same level. In some countries EIA studies are prepared for few large industrial development projects (i.e. in Egypt, EIA is mainly used for oil, gas and chemicals industrial sectors), while in all the countries of the region EIA legislation is implemented with very limited or even no public participation. Lack of available funds is characterising the small and medium-size enterprises, which represent a large part of the industrial activity in the region. These enterprises face often capital shortage and lack specialised technical staff. As a result they are very reluctant to proceed to investments for improving their environmental record. They need to be assisted, as well as controlled by the competent environmental authorities of the countries. Also country specific economic instruments have to be introduced to allow these enterprises to conduct environmental investments while sustaining their profit margins. Also, because some times Mediterranean industrial activities may be similar and therefore competitive (i.e. phosphoric acid and fertilizers production from phosphate rocks in Lebanon, Morocco and Tunisia) it is necessary to act on a Regional level to ensure that environmental investments will not hinder fair competitiveness among the different companies. LDK ECO SA 52

62 5. COUNTRY REVIEW 5.1 Algeria Algeria is bordered by Morocco to the west and Tunisia to the east. It is the second largest country in Africa and the largest in the Arab Maghreb Union. Algeria is divided into 48 provinces (wilayah). Given the country's varied climate and topography, Algeria's population of over 30 million is concentrated mainly in the northern part of the country, where the majority live in urban centres, mostly located in the coastal zone. The fossil fuels energy sector is the backbone of Algeria's economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues and 30% of GDP. Uncontrolled urbanization that has taken place in Algerian cities, and past focus on the development of publicly owned and operated heavy industries along with the lack of enforceable requirements for pre-treatment of industrial and domestic effluent and improper management of solid and hazardous waste are the key environmental concerns. The problems are mostly concentrated in Algeria s coastal zone (a coastal band with a width of 40 km) represents 1.8% of the country s surface and hosts approximately 12.5 million people (1998) representing 45% of the country s population, while during the summer months tourists increase the permanent inhabitants. Algiers, Oran, Annaba, Ghazaouet, Mostaganem, Arzew, Bejaia, Skikda are the most important coastal cities, while high numbers of tourist increase coastal population during summer months at Bejaia, Mostganem, Tlemcen, Ain Temouchent, Chleff, Tipaza and Boumerdes. Most of the urban effluents are discharged untreated directly into the sea. Although 17 treatment plants for urban effluents have been constructed in the Algerian coastal zone, only five are in normal operation representing approximately 25.6 % of the total treatment capacity. Faecal micro organisms are present in most Algerian bathing beaches, which are not in accordance with the necessary sanitary standards. Industrial activity is also concentrated on the coastal zone and industrial effluents are discharged into the coastal marine environment. The most important industrial sectors are metallurgy, chemicals, petrochemicals and construction materials, minerals and agro-food industries. Also petroleum hydrocarbon pollution is very common along the Algerian coastline because of maritime oil traffic lines that pass close to the Algerian coast. The areas of major concern are: Bay of Algiers: urban and industrial effluents, cadmium, copper, mercury, lead and zinc in sediments; Oran: urban and industrial effluents (oil terminal and refinery, tanneries); Skikda: urban and industrial effluents (natural gas, mercury production, oil terminal and refinery, chemical industry), heavy metals; LDK ECO SA 53

63 Annaba: urban and industrial effluents (fertilisers, chromium); Ghazaouet: urban and industrial effluents (zinc and sulphuric acid); Mostaganem: urban and industrial effluents; Arzew: urban and industrial effluents, liquefied gas, oil spills, fertilisers; Bejaia: urban and industrial effluents (oil pipeline) Major sources of pollution from urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions Urban wastewater Urban effluents are considered to be the most important cause of environmental degradation. Though efforts have been made to connect population to the sewage network, which is now serving above 90% of the urban population, in most cases effluents are discharged without any treatment to the sea and dry river-beds (wadis). Almost all existing wastewater treatment plants either do not operate or they treat partially the effluents they receive. The El-Harrach wadi, which is the main river in the capital, is the most affected by waste from Algiers and neighbouring towns. In western Algiers and other big cities the main wadis have become channels transferring waste into the sea and threatening the environment. During the last decades, 50 WWTPs have been built with a total capacity of 4,000,000 equivalent inhabitants, but actually only 15 of these plants are still in operation. On a capacity basis only 25.6 % of the coastal treatment plants with a capacity of 1,723,000 equivalent inhabitants, are in operation (NDA Algeria, 2003). To solve the urban effluent problem, WWTPs have to be built in 33 agglomeration located at the coastal zone of Algeria Municipal solid waste Municipal solid waste management is an important environmental problem in Algeria, because the greater part of the generated refuse is disposed of at uncontrolled dumps without any sanitary measures. Uncontrolled dumps are located all over the country, as well as at the vicinity of urban centres, creating potential health hazards for the population. All urban centres in the country face solid waste problems, including the larger cities of Algiers, Oran, Annaba, Arzew, Skikda, Bejaia, Mostganem, Tlemcen, Ain Temouchent, Chleff, Tipaza and Boumerdes. To deal with the problem, solid waste management plans have already been prepared for the cities of Oran, Annaba, Skikda, Boumerdès, El Tarf and Jijel. Also organised dumping sites are in operation at Skikda, El Tarf, Jijel, Chlef and Annaba, while works are in progress for the construction of organised dumping sites at Tlemcen and Mostaganem. In the study phase are the organised dumping sites of Oran, Blida, Tizi- Ouzou, Tipaza, Boumerdes, Ain Témouchent, Béjaia and Algier Industrial emissions Industrial activity is a major contributor to the global pollution load that reaches the coastal marine environment. Since the 70s Algeria invested consistently in industry, resulting to the rapid development of the sector. Approximately 240 large public industrial plants are in operation (1994) in various sectors including petrochemicals, chemicals, metallurgy and mining. Most than half of the industrial plants of the country are located at the Mediterranean coastal zone and at the vicinity of big cities (Algiers, Bejaia, Oran, Annaba, Arzew and Skikda). Industrial units are often located within the city limits, affecting the urban environment. On the other hand they constitute an attraction pole for people, since they offer jobs, contributing thus to urban population growth. LDK ECO SA 54

64 The greater part of the organic load of industrial effluents originates from the agro-food sector (55%) and the textile sector (22%). A part of industrial wastewater is treated together with urban effluents, usually after appropriate pre-treatment. However, the greater part of generated industrial effluents (estimated 85%) is discharged into the sea and neighbouring wadis without proper treatment. Also partly treated effluents are discharged from most of the existing industrial WWTPs, because many such units do not operate efficiently. Industrial solid wastes (including dangerous or toxic wastes) are generated in high quantities and in general are badly managed (temporary stockpiles without proper environmental measures or dumping on wild dumps without sanitary measures), creating potential hazards to the health of population. Along the Algeria s coastal zone, 60 industrial plants are classified as activities of high risk (fire, explosion, toxic gazes), because of the nature of their materials or/and products (natural gas, oil refineries, chemicals as chlorine). The industrial zones of Skikda and Arzew are the locations with the higher density of dangerous industrial plants Institutional framework In 1995, the Directorate General for the Environment (DGE) became the national environmental agency, along with the creation of Inspectors of the Environment for each Wilaya in the country. The Ministry of Land Use Planning and Environment (MATE) was established in 2000, and extensive legislative and institutional reforms have been proposed by then, including a new structure for the ministry. The Directorate General for the Environment, which is now under the MATE, has the primary responsibility for environmental protection in Algeria. However, other ministries have also delegated responsibilities including: the Ministry of Water Resources; the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs; the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development; the Ministry of Fisheries; the General Directorate for Forests, (DGF); and the Ministry of Energy and Mining. Urban Wastewater The Ministry of Water Recourses has the major responsibility which is planning and undertaking all major programmes of water sanitation and construction of WWTPs in urban agglomerations. The municipal sewerage network is managed by the wilayas (communities), but it is badly maintained because they are lacking the necessary human, technical and financial means to fulfil their mandate. To solve this problem, the newly established Sanitation Office (ONA) is taking the responsibility for all sanitation infrastructure management. Municipal Solid Waste The key institution for the management of municipal solid wastes is the Ministry of the Land Use Management and Environment (MATE), which is assisted by the National Agency of Solid Wastes (AND) created by the Decree no of May Other involved agencies are the National Observatory for the Environment and Sustainable Development and the National School of Environmental Formations (CNFE). At local level, the wilayas are responsible for the collection and disposal of solid wastes. A system for the collection, recycling and valorisation of solid wastes (ECO JEM) has been established by the Decree no (2004). Funding structures include the National Agency of Development and Investment (ANDI), which finances projects on waste collection in cities (mainly in Algiers), the National Agency for the Support of the Employment of Youth (ANSEJ), with finances the creation of small private enterprises of solid waste collection and transport and the National Fund for the Environment and De-pollution (FEDEP), which finances solid waste management projects. Initiatives are underway to coordinate the actions of ANDI, ANSEJ and FEDEP. LDK ECO SA 55

65 Industrial pollution The Ministry of Land Use Planning and Environment (MATE) is the responsible authority for controlling industrial pollution. It is assisted by the National Agency of Solid Wastes (AND) and the National Centre of Cleaner Production Technologies (CNTPP) Legal environment Algeria s new law for general environmental protection was set out in 2003 (Law n o replacing the older law n of 5 February 1983). This law aims at implementing a national environment protection policy in the frame of sustainable development. It sets the fundamental principles and the regulations for environmental management directed at protecting, restructuring and making best use of natural resources, restoring damaged environments, preventing and fighting against any form of pollution and nuisance and improving the conditions and quality of life, promoting the rational use of available natural resources. The law sets prescriptions for the protection of biological diversity, the air and the atmosphere, water and aquatic environments, the land and soil, desert environments, the sea and the frame of life. It is also setting prescriptions for the protection from nuisances (chemical substances, sounds). The Law n o of 4 September 2005 is the basic legislation on water, which sets up the rules for the use, management and sustainable development of water resources, including the treatment of domestic and industrial effluents. The Law n o of 12 December 2001 is the basic legislation for Municipal solid waste management. A number of executive Decrees have also been issued lately to implement the Law for industrial emissions (gas and liquid), as well as industrial dangerous wastes. Also enforcement of environmental legislation is been strengthened by Executive Decrees such as: the Decree n o on the designation of environmental audit and inspection at industrial installations; the Decree n o of 31 May 2006 on the setting of rules applicable in listed industrial establishments for planning, inspection, authorization/permitting. Previously promulgated Decrees on law enforcement include the Decree n on the funding, organization and functioning capacity of environmental inspectors; the Decree n and Decree n on the creation of environmental inspectors for the wilayas. The main regulations related to urban wastewater, solid waste management and industrial emissions are summarized below: Laws -Law relative to environmental protection in the frame of sustainable development (repealing the law 83-03) -Law n on water for the use, management and sustainable development of water resources, including the treatment of domestic and industrial effluents (repealing the law of 16 July 1983 on the water code) -Law n of 14 July 2004, modifying and completing the law on land use planning and urbanism. -Law n of 12 December 2001 relative to the management, control and elimination of solid wastes, introducing the strategic principles of integrated solid waste management, hazardous and non hazardous - Law n of 5 February 2002 on the protection and valorisation of the marine coastal zone, defines the framework for interventions in this zone Decrees EIA -Executive Decree n of 27 February 1990 relative to Environmental Impact Assessment Studies. - Executive Decree no of 21 April related to EIA in land use planning Solid waste - Executive Decree of 11 November 2002 and the, on the creation of a public system of reclamation, recycling and valorisation - Executive Decree of 19 July 2004, on the packaging wastes. Institution of a system for collection and valorisation (ECO- JEM) LDK ECO SA 56

66 - Executive Decree no of 11 September 2005 on the process for declaring special dangerous wastes - Executive Decree no of 28 February 2006 on the nomenclature of wastes, including dangerous wastes Industrial emissions - Executive Decree n of 10 July 1993 setting rules for the discharge of oils and lubricant oils in the natural environment - Executive Decree n o of 3 November 1998 on the management of plants of high risk - Executive Decree n of 7 November 1999on the composition, organisation and functioning of the commission for the survey and control of listed plants - Executive Decree n o of 28 June 2005 on the designation of environmental audit and inspection in industrial installations - Executive Decree of 11 September 2005 on the grouping of the establishments generating and/or stockpiling of special wastes - Executive Decree n o of 15 April 2006 on the setting of limits for atmospheric emission of gas, fumes, particles and their control (repeals the Decree no ) - Executive Decree n o of 19 April 2006 on setting limit values for discharged industrial effluents (repealing Decree no ) - Executive Decree n o of 31 May 2006 on the setting of rules applicable in listed industrial establishments for planning, inspection, authorization/permitting (repeals Decree n o ) Although Algeria s law for general environmental protection was recently reinforced and amended, and many executive regulations have been developed, the country does not have a long history of effective environmental legislation. However, in the last few years this has begun to change, through the establishment of various programmes and action plans. The government has also modified all legislation in this area by adopting the "polluter-pays" principle and by urging for sound management of industrial zones Policy environment and action programmes The integration of environmental protection and sustainable development into national policy and regional planning is a recent acquisition for Algeria and which was supported through the development of a national report on the status of environment in 2000 (RNE 2000) adopted by the Council of Ministers in August 2001 and the recently updated RNE Based on the RNE results and in the course of sustainable development, Algeria proceeded to the development of a ten year national environmental strategy (SNE), with the objectives to: o stimulate the economic growth on a restructured and widened basis, in order to reduce poverty and to create jobs; o preserve sensitive and limited natural resources (water, grounds, forests, biodiversity,...) for a bearable development in the long run; o ameliorate public health of citizens through a better management of waste, cleansing and air emissions A National Action Plan for Environment and Sustainable Development (PNAED /NEAP-SD) has been adopted by the Council of Ministers in 2002 in order to implement the strategy. The plan has in its forefront agenda the reinforcement of legal framework, the introduction of economic and financial instruments, and the improvement of environmental governorship to support a priority investment plan ( ). Thus important investments were authorized by the country to improve management of the industrial and domestic waste, the control of industrial pollution and the conservation of the littoral through in particular, the implementation of specialised national programmes: the national programme of municipal waste management (PROGDEM); the national programme of special waste management (PNAGDES); the national scheme of regional planning (plane SNAT); coastal planning (PAC); air quality monitoring network (SAMA SAFIA); control of industrial pollution in the Northern area with the support of the World Bank (CPI); and contracts of performance by several industrial polluters. In 2005, a National Action Plan has been adopted to prevent pollution of the sea from land based activities in the frame of the Strategic Action Programme (SAP/MED) of the UNEP/MAP. LDK ECO SA 57

67 In the frame of Social and Economic Development Programme of the country (PSRE), aiming to attenuate the negative effects of a deep crisis and create the conditions propitious for a genuine longlasting development strategy, the authorities have came up with a plan ( ) focusing in areas such as the modernisation of infrastructure and services, the restructuring of public enterprises, the development of human capital and the raising living conditions. The greater part of the complementary PSRE ( ) targets at improving living conditions and developing infrastructure. PSRE also includes investments of many actions on environmental protection from urban effluent, municipal solid wastes and industrial emissions, outlined in the sectoral programmes and the national action plan. 1. National Programme for Environmental Action and Sustainable Development (NEAP-SD) In the frame of NEAP-SD, adopted in 2002, several priority actions relative to urban effluents, solid wastes and industrial emissions are planned. Strategic objectives Improving sanitation public services Proper management of the municipal solid wastes and special wastes Industrial pollution control Reinforcing environmental governance Institutional accompanying measures Follow-up of the programme of rehabilitation of the malfunctioning wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) Introduction of a system to assign the management of WWTPs Reinforcement of the management capabilities in the field of sanitation (national and local levels) Implement the law for solid waste management Reinforce the National Agency of Solid Wastes (AND) Implement the conclusions of the national strategic study on municipal solid waste management Implement a successful system for cost reclamation Introduction of an assignment system Continuation of the interrupted programme for the city of Algiers Generalising the education programme targeting local communities and other stakeholders Elaboration of a national plan for the management of special Elaboration of a study for the recycling of oily wastes and other wastes from cement factories Elaborate a study on the management of hospital wastes Publish the Law relative to environmental protection Finalise the decrees relative to EIA, the procedures (selfcontrol and self-monitoring according to the quality standards of the receiving water bodies) Implement and test the contracts of environmental performance Elaborate environmental management tools adapted to the small and medium enterprise Implement the Fund for Environment and De-pollution (FEDEP) Reinforce environmental education in small and medium enterprises Creation of a National Centre for Cleaner production Creation of National Schools for Environmental Occupations Creation of a National Observatory for the Environment and Sustainable Development Creation of Environmental Information System Implementation of programme of environmental sensitisation Elaboration and Implementation of a Community Environmental Chart Investments Building of lagoon systems Building of WWTPs to protect the oued of Cheliff) Closure of the wild dumps and introduction of controlled dumping practices Pilot operations for the collection and recycling of packaging wastes Creation of a centre of sanitary landfill for special wastes Collection of used lubricating oil Conditioning of the sludge from refineries Pilot project on the management of hospital wastes Elimination of pollution in hot spots : Elimination of SO2 pollution from the plant of Zinc electrolysis in Ghazaouet Treatment of pollution created by the plants of paper and cellulose group of industries Corn plant of Maghnia De-pollution of the units of Hamiz- El Harrach units (Boumerdes- Alger) LDK ECO SA 58

68 Strategic objectives Protection of the coastal zone Institutional accompanying measures Publishing of the law relative to the coastal zone Creation of a National Observatory of the Coastal Zone Elaboration of a cadastre for the occupation of the coastal zone Reinforcement of the Operational Centre of the National Committee «Tel Bahr» for the prevention and fight against accidental marine pollution Reactivate the project MEDPOL Elaborate a study for the re-actualisation of SNAT Elaborate a study for the identification of the sites with material for substituting sand of the beaches and the oueds Apply EIA on zones for tourist expansion Elaborate a study on the aquaculture and coral-culture potential Investments Programme for coastal zone conservation De-pollution of the beaches: Tizi Ouzou, Bejaia and Tipaza 2. Sectoral Programmes Specialised national environmental programmes have been established to control pollution from land based activities, such as: National Water Supply and Sanitation Plan Urban Effluent Treatment Programme Programme for the management of Municipal Solid Wastes (PROGDEM) National Plan for the management of special wastes (PNAGDES) Programme for the coastal planning of the Algeria zone (PACMA): coastal wilayas of the Centre: Algiers, Boumerdes, Blida and Tipaza. Programme of coastal planning of the metropolitan zone of Oran (PACMO): coastal wilayas of the West: Oran, Mostaganem, Ain Temouchent and Tlemcen Programme of coastal planning of the metropolitan zone of Annaba (PACMAN): coastal wilayas of the East: Annaba, El Tarf Industrial voluntary agreements 2.1. National Water Supply and Sanitation Plan The National Water Supply and Sanitation Plan has been established aiming to maximize the development of water supplies (surface and groundwater, desalinated water and treated wastewater). The target is to increase water availability to cover 95% per cent of the country s needs by The major components of this plan are: Regulation in the recovery of industrial effluents. Use of treated wastewater in agriculture. Integrated pollution control and the application of environmental management norms. Redefining the tasks and responsibilities of the various agencies. Improving the efficiency of the management. Capacity building. Developing prioritised programme for the rehabilitation of treatment plants. Raising awareness about pollution Urban Effluent Treatment Programme ( ) The Ministry of Water Resources has elaborated a programme for urban effluent treatment at short, medium and long term, including 33 agglomerations located at the coastal zone. During the period , three major priorities have been identified: LDK ECO SA 59

69 1 st Priority: Agglomerations with population above 100,000; agglomerations located upstream from water exploitation dams; agglomerations locate on water exploitation fields or in the drainage basins of such fields. 2 nd Priority: Agglomerations located upstream from water exploitation dams under construction. 3 rd Priority: Coastal agglomerations acting as pollutions sources for the marine coastal environment 4 th Priority: Remaining agglomerations with a population below 100,000. In the frame of this Programme, 18 new WWTPs are planned to be constructed in coastal willayas, in addition to the already existing WWTPs, which will be rehabilitated. Studies for the rehabilitation of 10 WWTPs are already prepared and rehabilitation works are in progress Solid wastes management programme (PROGDEM ) The main programme for the management of municipal solid wastes (PROGDEM) was initiated in 2001 by MATE and is the key national instrument for strategic planning in the solid waste sector. The programme targets at the improvement of solid waste management covering 70 cities and communities, initiates the closure of the existing uncontrolled dumps and the construction of sanitary landfills, the introduction of new Solid Waste Management systems, recycling promotion, gradual adoption of municipal waste taxes and improved tax collection. Already in the frame of PROGDEM actions are planed or/and have been implemented in 26 cities Special waste management Programme (PNAGDES) The National Plan for the Management of Special Wastes (PNAGDES) is the main programme for environmentally sound management of industrial solid wastes. Its target is to eliminate industrial special wastes though conventional methods (collection, incineration) or through co-incineration in cement factories and valorisation Programmes for the coastal zone management The table below summarises the actions for the protection of coastal zone in 7 wilayas: Tipaza, Oran, Bejaia, Jijel, Tizi Ouzou, El Tarf and Mostaganem, included in the Programmes PACMA, PACMO and PACMAN. Oran Mostaganem Tipaza Tizi Ouzou - De-pollution upstream of the cornice of Ain Turk (through treatment of beaches from Roch to Cap Falcon) - Protection of the Naval Base of El Kébir from wastewater - Cleaning of the west zone (Salamandre) and treatment of urban effluents - Study of the aerated lagoon of the city Fournaka Kdadra - Study of the aerated lagoon of the city Ouissi Beni Yahi - Construction of the collector and pumping station of the ZET «les sablettes» - Improvement and re-enforcement of the system of dunes in 150 ha (Mostaganem) - Fixation of the dunes in 100 ha - Rehabilitation of the inter-community outfall of Hatatba - Works for the enforcement of the sea bottom - Rehabilitation of the shore of Ain Tagourait - Study of the direction plan for the rehabilitation of the coastal «zone EST» - Rehabilitation of the coast «EST» - Management of the public dumping sites for solid wastes of the communities of Tigzirt, Mizrana and Iflissen - Management of the public dumping sites des sites for solid wastes of the communities of Azzefoun and Ait Chaffa - Protection of the isle of Tigzirt - Building of a treatment plant (monobloc type) at Tgzirt and rehabilitation of the principal collector - Building of a treatment plant (monobloc type) at and rehabilitation of the principal collector - Treatment of urban effluents of rural agglomerations of the communities of Azzefoun Ait LDK ECO SA 60

70 Bejaia Jijel El Tarf Chaffa, Aghribs andt Akerou - Treatment of urban effluents of the communities of Tigzirt, Iflissen and Mizrana - Building of the principal collector of Souk El Tenine (Béjaia) - Building of the principal collector and pumping station of Béjaia - Rehabilitation of 7 pumping stations at Tichy and Aokas - Protection of the west coastal zone of the city of Jijel from the discharge of urban effluents - Renovation and extension of the sewerage network of El Kala - Arrangement of the Boulevard Front de Mer - Modernisation of the accessing roads to the beaches of Messida, Cap Rosa, Draouch, Hennaya, Vieille Calle, Juvéniles Industrial voluntary programme A major tool for the protection of environment from industrial pollution is the Contract for Environmental Performance, which is signed between the industria sector and the Ministry of Territorial Planning and the Environment. Under this contract, the industry voluntarily agrees to proceed to necessary measures to protect the environment. Seven (7) such contracts have already been signed by industries located at the coastal zone, while more contacts are in negotiation. 3. The National Action Plan in the frame of the Strategic Action Programme for the protection of the Mediterranean from land-based pollution sources (UNEP/MAP) In the frame of the SAP, Algeria has prepared a National Action Plan (2005), proposing actions to be implemented by the year Planned actions are compatible with other existing National Programmes (sectoral programmes and NEAP-SD Programme). For urban effluents the general scheme is to built between 2005 and 2013, 18 new treatment plants with a total treatment capacity of equivalent inhabitants (Oran, Arzew, Ain, Termouchent, Beni Saf, Mostagenem, Ghazaouet, Tenes, Akbou, El Kseur, Tazmelt, Sidi Aich, Bordj Menael, Azazga, Tipaza, Skikda, Collo, Jijel, Annaba), with a total cost of 26,650 million Algerian Dinars - AD). For urban solid wastes the approach is to close 21 wild dumps and to create sanitary landfills for all major coastal wilayas. For the industry, the intention is to sign performance contract with all major industries, to remediate hot spots and to organise environmental sound management and destruction of the special (toxic) industrial solid wastes. Urban effluents (first phase -2009) Treatment plant at Marsat El Hadjadj Lagoon in the greater area of Marsat El Hadjadj Treatment plant at Arzew Treatment plant at the agglomeration of Beni Saf Treatment plant at the agglomeration of Bouzedjar Desalination plant at Sidi Djelloul Purification of the effluents of Terga beach Treatment plant at the agglomeration of Marsa Ben Mhidi Lagoon for the agglomeration of Honaine Treatment plant at Gazaouet Desalination plant at Sidna Youchâa Municipal solid wastes Elaboration of a general scheme for the management of the solid wastes of the Algerian Metropolitan Region Elaboration of general schemes for the management of the solid wastes in communities Building of 3 transfer stations Creation of Sanitary Landfills, which were programmed for the wilayas of Blida, Alger, Boumerdes and Tipaza Creation of inter-community Sanitary Landfills grouping the following agglomerations: wilaya of Algiers: LDK ECO SA 61

71 Staoueli Zeralda ; wilaya of Tipaza : Hatatba-Bou Ismail-Khémisti-Ain Tagourait-Bouharoun ; wilaya of Boumerdes : Corso-Tidjelabine-Thénia-Boudouaou El Bahri-Ouled Hadjadj-Rouiba-Réghaïa ; wilaya of Blida : Soumâa-Bouarfa-Ouled Iaïch-Béni Mered-Chréa-Boufarik-Guerrouaou-Bouinene. Engage gradually the rehabilitation and/or the closure and decontamination of wild dumps in parallel to the creation of sanitary landfills. Priority will be given to the 21 dumps located at the borders of the following oueds (dry river beds): wilaya of Algiers : Staoueli ; wilaya of Blida : Bouroumi, Chiffa, Haloua, Magrounat et Djemaa ; wilaya of Tipaza : Sidi Rached, Douaouda, Khemisti, El Hachem, Imekraz, Hattatba ; wilaya of Boumerdes : Bouarous, Ghouraf, Djemaâ, Boukessoua, Isser, Ben Hamza, Hamiz, Sidi Slimane et Kharrouba). Closure of the dump of Oued Smar and creation on its place of an urban park. Modernising the management of solid wastes in the agglomeration. Determining the ultimate treatment mode for the solid wastes of all the region of the Centre. Initiate the system «ECO-JEM» for the recuperation and recycling for the profit of micro- enterprises with the support of the mechanisms of ANDI and ANSEJ Enforce the tax on the collection of Municipal Solid Wastes (TEOM) Investigate other techniques for the management of solid wastes in Algiers. Industrial Pollution Control Signing performance contracts with the industries: Algiers (Groupe GIPEC, Hospitals Mustapha and Kouba, paper Baba Ali, Bourouba), Skikda (Ciment Hadjar Soud, Petrochemical Complex CNPK, Liquified Natural Gaz, Plastics, Company for the management of the industrial zone, SONATRACH), Annaba (Paper and Cellulose GIPEC, ASMIDA Fertilizers, Iron ISPAT), Mostagenem (Tannery Hadj Sahroui, paper Baba Ali), Tiemcen (ENCG animal and vegetal oils De Maghnia, ALZINC Zink electrolysis, Tannery of Tafna) Special Wastes collection and transport Compiling Stocking of ultimate solid wastes Remediation of hot spots of Azzaba Remediation of hot spots of Azzaba ALZINC Ghazaouat Incineration (two units) Installation of an incineration pilot plant Physicochemical treatment Management of PCB-bearing wastes Management of cyanide wastes Co-incineration of toxic wastes in cement plants Valorisation of used lub oil Installation of incinerator Special health care wastes Incinerator without smoke treatment (100 Kg/h) Smoke treatment unit Incinerator with smoke treatment (100 Kg/h) Sterilisation of solid wastes ( t/an) Mobile Sterilisation plant ( Kg/h) 4. Actions on MDGs In June 2005, the Algerian Government, in cooperation with the United Nations launched the report describing the country s progress toward achieving the Millennium development Goals (MDGs) on the basis of statistics and data published by national sources like the government departments, National Statistics Office and the Economic and Social National Council. Of relevance is Goal 7 Target 11: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers. The sanitation sector is in continual improvement: in 2000, nearly 73% of the population is connected to the sewerage system. These good results hide important disparities between the urban and the rural population. In 2000, more than 40 points of percentage separate the rates from the two mediums as regards access to the sewage network. The tendency is however the reduction of the disparities (the variation in 1988 was more than 51 points). LDK ECO SA 62

72 5.1.5 Overview of completed and on-going projects In Algeria, a variety of activities has being financed by foreign donors, mainly World Bank, Germany (BMZ, GTZ) and EU, while a large number of projects are implemented by national funds through the Programme for Economic Development. National environmental policy is strengthened by two key activities of foreign assistance. Under the framework of regional approach of actions in the Mediterranean, Algeria has participated in the elaboration of priority actions for SAP, initiated by UNEP and funded by GEF. An ongoing GTZ funded activity, will support the integration of Algerian environmental policy and management by involving all the actors (national, regional and local level) coming to an agreement upon strategies as well as provide technical assistance and training in carrying out measures for environment protection, pollution reduction and rational use of natural resources. In addition, a past activity of LIFE 3 rd countries programme has contributed to the elaboration of municipal environmental plans in Algeria. Through the ongoing activities carrying out under SMAP III, the integration of coastal zone management is anticipated, which also involves actions related to the protection from urban and industrial activities. Regarding sanitation activities, a variety of activites were launched the last years so as to improve sewerage network and to renovate existing wastewater treatment plants. Foreign assistance is noted mainly for basic infrastructure and is given by World Bank and bilateral agencies (Japan, Germany, Italy). Past WB activities, under the framework of supporting low-income housing and social safety net, have also contributed to either the rehabilitation or the construction of sewerage networks, along with a separate major activity focusing on the rehabilitation of a number of existing wastewater treatment plants and the creation of self-financing water utilities through private sector participation, in line with the government s strategy on water supply and wastewater sector reform. Under the recent Programme of Economic development, MATE is currently undertaking various activities on urban wastewater sanitation, either infrastructures or upgrading of existing systems, which are concentrated on seven coastal communes, Tipaza, Oran, Bejaia, Jijel, Tizi Ouzou, El Tarf and Mostaganem. For municipal solid wastes, the priority phase of PROGDEM has allowed the establishment and validation of solid waste management plans for the first 26 cities. Management plans have already been completed for Aran, Annaba, Skikda, Boumerdes, El Tarf and Jijel. The sanitary landfills of Skikda, El Tarf, Jijel, Chlef and Annaba have been competed, while in the implementation phase are the landfills of Tlemcen and Mostaganem. In study phase are the landfills of Oran, Blida, Tizi-ouzou, Tipaza, Boumerdes, Ain Temoucent, Bejaia and Algiers. Within the PROGDEM framework, a UNDP project has been launched in 2004 for the development of solid waste management plans in at least 10 large cities, including capacity building and awareness activities of all involved stakeholders. A MEDA-EIB funded solid waste management (collection, treatment, landfilling) of 5 cities: Oran, Tipasa, Bouira, Boumerdes, Blida, is under realisation. Activities on landfilling are also running in the frame of the Programme of Economic Development for the aforementioned seven coastal communes. Foreign assistance for industrial depollution is sponsored mainly from WB (IBRD, IFC) and MEDA/EIB seems rather disperse. A WB funded project has contributed in the strengthening of institutional setting and regulatory framework to effectively manage industrial pollution control, monitoring and enforcement, having also funded the norms for the activation of the National Environment Fund. A past LIFE 3 rd countries regional programme has also helped to the adaptation of eco-management and a GEF funded activity implemented by UNIDO supported the government to the introduction of national plan for the reduction of POPs. Other activities were individual industry projects, with the aim of supporting specific various enterprises (petrochemicals, pesticides, steel, pharmaceuticals) in environmental improvements and rehabilitation, the major of which are located in the northern part of Algeria (Annaba, Skikda, Tizi Ouzou). LDK ECO SA 63

73 The following table is a brief presentation of the major past implemented and ongoing projects in Algeria, grouped by focal area. A complete list of these activities is annexed, containing detailed information on each project. Activities Funding source Status Urban Wastewater Rehabilitation or construction of sewerage networks/ outfalls: - Renovation and extension of the sewerage network of El Kala in El Tarf National Funds - Rehabilitation of the inter-community outfall of Hatatba in Tipaza National Funds - Rehabilitation of the principal collector in Tizi Ouzou National Funds - Rehabilitation or construction of sewerage networks through low income housing project (Ministry of Housing) and social safety net project (Ministry of Labour) - Sewage system for Algiers & avoidance of the slip zone of the intercommunal collector of Algiers WB Italy (MC) Rehabilitation or construction of WWTPs: - WWTPs of Tipaza and Tiemcen (rehabilitation) National Funds - WWTP for Jijel, Oran, Skikda and Annaba (construction) National Funds - WWTP for Mostaganem (construction) National Funds - WWTP at Tgzirt (construction) National Funds - Rural agglomerations of Azzefoun Ait Chaffa, Aghribs, Akerou, Tigzirt, Iflissen and Mizrana in Tizi Ouzou (construction) National Funds - Study of the aerated lagoon of the cities Fournaka Kdadraand Ouissi National Funds Beni Yahi in Mostaganem - Sidi Abdellah (construction of two large WWTP- feasibility Study) USTDA - Rehabilitation of a large number of existing WWTPs and creation of self financing water and sanitation utilities Protection of the Naval Base of El Kébir from wastewater in Oran Protection of the west coastal zone of the city of Jijel from the discharge of urban effluents Municipal solid waste Capacity building of all involved authorities in solid waste management; public awareness activities; Elaboration of waste management system in at least ten large cities WB National Funds National Funds UNDP/ SDC Improvement of solid waste management system: - in Aran, Annaba, Skikda, Boumerdes, El Tarf and Jijel (management plans). National Funds - in Oran, Tipasa, Bouira, Boumerdes and Blida MEDA/EIB Sanitary landfills: - construction for Tlemcen and Mostaganem National Funds - study for Oran, Blida, Tizi-Ouzou, Tipaza, Boumerdes, Ain Temoucent, National Funds Bejaia and Algiers - construction for Skikda, El Tarf, Jijel, Chlef and Annaba National Funds Management of the public dumping sites of the communities of Tigzirt, Mizrana, Iflissen, Azzefoun and Ait Chaffa in Tizi Ouzou National Funds LDK ECO SA 64

74 Activities Funding source Status Regional Solid Waste Management Project in METAP Mashreq and Maghreb Countries: Promotion of the adoption of sustainable ISWM practices through strengthening policy, legal and institutional frameworks, clarifying financing and cost-recovery options and methods, opportunities for private sector participation and defining public awareness and community participation strategies. Project activities are carried out at both regional and national levels. At national level, "Municipal Solid Waste Cost Recovery system in Algeria": to improve the level of costs coverage for municipal solids wastes management, mainly through the design and implementation of a practical system for determination of the tax basis and the recovery of the household wastes collection fee and any other fees as for, for example, the treatment or the elimination of wastes. Industrial emissions Pollution reduction measures/improvements in environmental management: - of three industrial plants, l Entreprise Nationale des Engrais et Produits Phytosanitaires (ASMIDAL), l Entreprise Nationale de Sidérurgie (ENSIDER) etde l Entreprise Nationale des Industries Pétrochimiques (ENIP), on north-east coast at Skikda and Annala EC-SMAP II/ METAP MEDA-EIB/ WB - of Fertial facilities in Annaba and Arzew WB (IFC) n/a - of the pharmaceutical products manufacturing plant near the city of Tizi WB (IFC) n/a Ouzou, east of Algiers. - of the steel plant of Ispat/Annaba company in Eastern Algeria WB (IFC) n/a - Investment project for phasing out the use of CFC-11 as blowing agent and of CFC-12 as cooling agent for the production of domestic refrigerators and freezers of ENIEM in their factories in Algeria UNIDO n/a Adaptation of eco-management in enterprises in Maghreb and Mashrek countries (DELTA project) LIFE 3rd countries Industrial Pollution Control: strengthening of the institutional and legal framework, including institution building; enhancement of the regulatory framework; design and implementation of a system for monitoring and enforcement; and activating of the National Environmental Fund Training and Technology Transfer for the Arab States Capacity Building for the Implementation of the Basel Convention Enabling Activities to develop and formulate a National Implementation Plan (NIP) and thereby strengthen national capacity and enhance knowledge and understanding amongst decision makers, managers, the industry, and the public at large on POPs;Maximize government commitment and facilitate ratification of the Stockholm Convention. Horizontal Support to Algerian environmental policy and capacity building at national, regional and local level Assistance and institutional strengthening, promotion of integrated coastal zone management (SMAP III Technical Assistance project) WB Finland (MFA) GEF/UNIDO Germany (GTZ) SMAP III Determination of Priority Actions for the Further Elaboration and GEF/UNEP Implementation of the Strategic Action Programme for the Mediterranean Sea Municipal environmental plans in Algeria (demonstration project) LIFE 3rd countries completed activities; ongoing activities; n/a: not available data n/a LDK ECO SA 65

75 5.1.6 Outcome of review Algeria has made considerable efforts to protect the environment, adopting a number of environmental protection initiatives and establishing a comprehensive legislation and institutional set up. The political will for actions on the improvement of the environment is evident; however, these measures face serious obstacles, including political and economic turmoil and frequent institutional changes which work against the effective implementation. The relatively new Ministry of the Land Use Planning and Environment (MATE), the key institution of environmental protection, needs support to improve its technical capacity in order to manage integrated environmental management systems and technologies. The scattered authority between existing institutions is still a limiting factor for effective policy implementation and legal enforcement and it has been identified as a bottleneck for achieving the targets set out in the National Environmental Action Plan. The collaboration of MATE with other institutions needs to be strengthened, as for instance with the Ministry of Water Resources, for integrated management of water and wastewater on drainage basin level. The last years several environmental programmes have been established and are already in their implementation phase, such as the various Sectoral Programmes (National Water Supply and Sanitation Plan, Urban Effluent Treatment Programme, the Programme for the management of Municipal Solid Wastes [PROGDEM], the National Plan for the management of special wastes [PNAGDES] and the Programmes for coastal planning PACMA, PACMO and PACMAN), the National Programme for Environmental Action and Sustainable Development (PNAE-DD) (2001), the Programme for Economic Development ( ) and the National Action Plan in the frame of Strategic Action Programme of the UNEP/MAP (2005). All these programmes address similar issues and have more or less similar priorities. I I I I Regarding urban effluents, it is recognised that more efficient collection of the generated effluents are needed in the larger cities, giving priority to the coastal area. Furthermore, the construction of treatment plants is high priority for a vast number of cities. Some of the works are already in progress, but because of the amount of necessary funds, more financial support is necessary to complete the planned sanitation activities In the municipal solid waste sector, immediate priorities include the closure of 21 uncontrolled dumps in the Mediterranean coastal region and the organisation of sanitary landfills for all major coastal wilayas. More work is needed to be made on an integrated solid waste management scheme. For the industry, the existing programmes propose to sign performance contracts between the authorities and all major industries, in order to achieve improvement of the industrial effluent quality. The new law on environmental protection and the accompanied Decrees relative to industrial air and liquid effluent emission standards, dangerous wastes and environmental audits and inspection procedures, constitute a very promising legislative framework for effective industrial pollution control. However, legislation enforcement has a bad record in the country and institutions have to be supported for the effective implementation of their new mandate. Additionally, economic incentives have to be introduced by the competent national authorities (such as the Ministry of Finance and the Ministry of Industry) to support the investment of private industries which meet emission environmental standards. For hazardous industrial wastes relative legislation is been lately promulgated and proposals have been made in the National Environmental Action Plans for the organization of an environmentally sound system for the efficient management and destruction of such wastes. No action has been initialised yet. Finally, raising environmental awareness among the people and the key stakeholders, as well as the establishment of a participatory methodology on the decision making process for environmental issues, are considered very important priorities for the successful planning and implementation of the environmental policies in the country. LDK ECO SA 66

76 5.2 Egypt Egypt is located on the north-eastern coast of Africa, and borders the Mediterranean Sea between Libya and the Gaza Strip. Egypt is basically a desert nation; only four percent of the country's total land area of 1 million km2 is arable, while is the most populous nation in the MENA region, with over 70 million inhabitants. Egypt s economy is unstable due to rapid demographic growth and limited arable land. Environmental concerns as they affect agriculture are important. Given the country's geography and the concentration of population and economic activities in the Nile Valley and the Nile Delta (almost 99%), Egypt faces environmental pollution problems, affecting the health of the population, and the poorest sections are exposed the most. Inadequate sewage disposal, uncontrolled industrial effluents, extremely uneven population distribution, shortage of arable land, have created major water pollution problems. The pressure on the environment of the coastal zone of Egypt is very intense, as it combines intensive socio-economic activities and urbanized areas. Along the Mediterranean coast of Egypt, there are eight coastal governorates. These are from west to east Matruh, Alexandria, Behaira, Kafr El-Sheikh, Damietta, Daqahliya, Port Said, and North Sinai. The enormous urban population and adjacent agricultural areas, all contribute to the pollution load reaching coastal waters. These derived either directly from coastal cities discharge points; the Rosetta branch of the River Nile, the Mahmudiya and Nubariya irrigation canals, drainage canals discharged directly to the sea, such as "El-Tabia and El- Ummum", or from coastal lagoons "lakes" Maryut, Idku, Burullus and Manzala. These sources discharge about 8 billion m 3 /y into the Mediterranean. This includes heavy loads of pollutants from various sources. The maritime transport in the eastern Mediterranean, including oil tankers, commercial ships and passenger ships, affect the coast to a large extent. The entire beaches are frequently polluted by oil lumps, litter and plastic debris; even in the very far remote areas of the coast where there are no related activities. Large parts of the Nile Delta suffer from severe coastal erosion, although adequate protection and mitigation measures have been considered. Most of the coastal lagoons "lakes" are however in crisis, suffering from the excessive discharge of industrial, agricultural and domestic sewage flow. Large parts of the Nile Delta suffer from severe coastal erosion, although adequate protection and mitigation measures have been considered. Most of the coastal lagoons "lakes" are however in crisis, suffering from the excessive discharge of industrial, agricultural and domestic sewage flow (EEAA, 1996 and UNEP/WHO, 1999). The coastal area may be roughly divided into three units, in accordance to the presence of the hot spots, sensitive areas and main geomorphologic characterization. The main unit is the central unit between Alexandria (west) and Port Said (east), including the Nile Delta, coastal lakes (lagoons) and wetlands, and stretched along the boundaries of six governorates. The second unit, to east from the central unit, extends from Port Said to Rafah (north Sinai Governorate), while the third unit, extends from Alexandria westwards to Sallum (Mersa Matruh Governorate). Associated with the Nile Delta are the coastal lakes and wetlands, which represent another important feature of the Mediterranean coast of Egypt. These lakes and wetlands cover a total area of at least 280,000 hectares, representing more than 25% of all natural and semi-natural wetlands of the entire Mediterranean region. LDK ECO SA 67

77 5.2.1 Major sources of pollution from urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions Major environmental problems are caused by untreated urban and industrial effluents, while intense urbanisation has caused coastline degradation. Sensitive areas and hot spots include: Alexandrian coast: It presents critical wastewater problem because of high population growth and rapid industrial development. The maritime transport in the eastern Mediterranean includes oil tankers, commercial ships and passenger ships, affect the coast to a large extent. The entire beaches are frequently polluted by oil lumps, litter and plastic debris; even in the very far remote areas of the coast where there are no related activities. Alexandria coastal waters have been subjected for several decades to pollution stress from land-based activities. Mex Bay and Abu-Qir Bay: The Mex Bay is a semi-enclosed water body located west of Alexandria. The Bay receives agricultural, industrial and domestic wastewaters from several effluents. The Western harbour contributes about 3.1 million m 3 d -1 from its water to Mex Bay. Total BOD5 load entering the Bay is estimated to be tonnes/year from urban sources and tonnes/year from industrial sources. The water shows high eutrophication signs, while high metal concentrations are detected in the sediment. Lake Maryut: Lake Maryut is situated in the northwestern corner of the Nile Delta. The lake has no direct connection to the Mediterranean Sea and its water level is 2.8 m below sea level. Pumps discharge water from the lake into the sea. It has a maximum length of about 13 km and its present area is about 61 km 2 which is considerably smaller than its former area. Large areas of the lake have been drained and reclaimed for agriculture. Due to the close proximity of Alexandria, the lake suffered intensively from pollution. Water from the Alexandria drainage system is mixed with industrial wastes and sewage, discharge into the southeastern part of the lake through the Qalaa drain. The Umum drain supplies the western side of the lake with drainage water from the Behira province The Alexandria to Mers Matruh coastline suffers intense urbanisation leading to the destruction of the natural calcareous ridges Urban wastewater The percentage of the population with access to municipal water supplies has increased due to major investment in the water sector. Cairo has the best sewage services in the country, with about 77% of its population connected. The constituents of the domestic and urban input to wastewater are pathogens, nutrients, suspended solids, salts, and oxygen-demanding materials. Trace metals can exist at concentrations high enough to cause concern in sewage sludge. The lack of sewage systems or effective on-site disposal has led to widespread surface pounding of wastewater and the contamination of drainage channels. The situation is especially critical in the rural Delta areas where high population densities, impervious soils and high ground water level make the application of low cost, on site sanitation options difficult. The collected effluents of the Mediterranean coastal cities of Egypt are finally reaching the Mediterranean Sea, either discharged directly into the sea, or via the Delta coastal lakes, or occasionally through the Rosetta and Damietta branches of the Nile. Data generated from the Coastal Water Monitoring Programme of the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EIMP/CWMP, 2000; 2001), show high concentrations of nutrients in some localities, creating eutrophication conditions. The discharge of untreated or partly treated sewage effluent into the sea also results in a widespread microbial pollution along the Egyptian Mediterranean coast. According to (UNEP/MAP/MED POL/WHO; 2004) a total of 12 coastal cities with a resident population of 5,161,000 inhabitants was reported (2003), most of them concentrated to the cities of Alexandria and Port Said. The number of cities with a wastewater treatment plant is 6, or 50% of the total. However, according to the available information, the coastal city of Alexandria seems to produce large quantities of primary treated wastewater (74% of the connected population is served by wastewater LDK ECO SA 68

78 treatment plant). Out of the six treatment plants reported, one has primary treatment (Alexandria) and the remaining secondary treatment. Two additional secondary treatment plants were reported as being under construction (areas of Baltim and Rashid). With respect to the treated wastewater discharge, predominant site of discharge is at the mainland or freshwaters, while there is no direct discharge of treated sewage into the sea. Regarding the untreated sewage there is no adequate information on either quantities or way of discharge. In Behira Governorate 13 WWTPs are in operation with a total capacity of m 3 /day, discharging into drains and finally into the Mediterranean. Port Said city is served by sewer network and a secondary WWTP with a capacity of 190,000 m 3 /day. Effluents from the WWTP are discharged into Lake Manzalah connected to the Mediterranean through El Gamil outlet. Two WWTPs are under construction to serve Port Fouad district (37,000 m 3 /day) east of Suez Canal, and El Garabaa-El Manasra area west of the city. WWTP is under construction also in the industrial zone south of Port Said Municipal solid waste Municipal solid waste pollution is a major problem in some areas along the Egyptian coastline. However, in the city of Alexandria, a new, highly effective management system has been developed and put into action. The new solid waste management system improved the situation in the city. Solid waste management of summer resorts is not adequate in many places. Although collection and transportation of domestic solid waste from these resorts is often very well conducted, the disposal of the collected waste result major environmental problems within the coastal zone. The first sanitary landfill was established to the west of Alexandria. This landfill will be complemented by recycling activities which will improve the solid waste management of the city and its surroundings. In Behira, although large quantities of solid wastes are produced no sanitary landfill is in operation and solid wastes are deposited of at dumps Industrial emissions Industrial activity is very intense in the Alexanria Governorate. Industrial effluents are discharged to Abu Qir Bay, a semi-circular basin located about 36 km east of Alexandria. The southwestern area of the bay receives a mixture of untreated sewage and industrial wastes amounting to 2 million m 3 /day. This waste is dumped into the bay through the Tabia Pumping Station. Industrial wastes include fertilizers, textiles, chemicals, dyes, food processing and paper mill effluents. Sewage is introduced into the basin from the household activities of the nearby towns. Abu Qir Bay also receives a huge amount of the industrial wastewaters and industrial pollution loads from: Abu Qir complex that pump its water directly into the Bay (Fertilizer, Electricity, Rakta and National Paper, Kaha Factories); Kafr El-Dawar complex (Textile Factories).which dumps its wastes in El-Amia drain; El- Siouf discharged its wastewater indirectly into the Bay through El-Gharbi drain which transfers the wastewater to El-Amia drain then to Abu Qir Bay. At the lake Maryut several industries used to discharge their wastewater leading to anaerobic condition with odors of hydrogen supplied. In addition, concentrations of heavy metals in sediments and biota are high. Industrial activity at Behira is substantially smaller, while at Port Said, industrial activity is developed include metallurgical, textiles, petrochemicals and natural gas liquefaction, chemical (detergents, paints and cosmetics) and ceramic. At Port Said, all industrial plants (mainly textile and food) discharge their effluents into Lake Manzalah, which is eutrophic. LDK ECO SA 69

79 5.2.2 Institutional setting There are 17 environment-related institutions in Egypt. These can be classified in the following three categories: (a) the national environmental organization represented by the Minister of State for Environmental Affairs (MSEA), the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) and its eight Regional Branch Offices (RBOs) which are charged with overall monitoring and regulatory coordination; (b) institutions with specific operational functions on environment which are performed by environment units in line ministries, and by environment management units (EMUs) in the governorates; and (c) institutions with environment support role. These are the universities and research institutes. According to the Law 4/1994 for the Protection of the Environment, the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) was restructured with the new mandate to substitute the institution initially established in At the central level, EEAA represents the executive arm of the Ministry. The principal functions of EEAA include: - Formulating environmental policies. - Preparing the necessary plans for Environmental protection and Environmental development projects, following up their implementation, and undertaking Pilot Projects. - The Agency is the National Authority in charge of promoting environmental relations between Egypt and other States, as well as Regional and International Organizations. Following the MSEA policy directives, and in meeting its responsibilities at the regional and local levels within Egypt, EEAA is continuously developing the capacities and partnerships necessary to strengthen its presence in the Governorates. This is achieved through the expansion and the consolidation of its network of Regional Branch Offices (RBO's), and the development of the capacities of the Environmental Management Units (EMU's) of the governorates. At the sector level, many line ministries have a department or unit mandated with environmental management issues. These environmental departments/units vary in terms of their capacities and experiences. However, except for the environmental units of Ministry of Health and Population, and Ministry of Industry, they all share two common features: they are relatively newly-established or mandated with environmental concerns, and accordingly have limited environmental management capacity and experience. The main ministries relative to urban wastewater, solid waste and industrial emissions are presented below: - Ministry of Health & Population (setting environmental health policy and regulation, prevention and control of environment-related problems and diseases through environmental health officers, operating the national air pollution and the river Nile water quality networks, monitoring drinking and domestic water quality; monitoring municipal and industrial effluents); - Ministry of Water Resources & Irrigation (protecting all public water resources, regulating and controlling sources of water pollution; issue regulations setting water quality standards and discharge limits; operating groundwater and surface monitoring networks); - Ministry of Local Development (overview the privatisation process of solid waste management services in the Governates); - Ministry of Housing Utilities and Urban Communities (provision of water supply, sewage collection and treatment and solid waste management, planning and construction of new industrial sites); - Ministry of Tourism (licensing tourist establishments and regulating use of beaches and Nile cruisers); - Ministry of Industry (regulation of industrial emissions, and setting requirements for waste minimization and conservation of production inputs); - Ministry of Petroleum (environmental regulations for drilling, refining, transportation and distribution of petroleum products). The National Committee for Integrated Coastal Zone Management The EEAA was given specifically the authority to participate with the concerned agencies and ministries in the preparation of a National ICZM Plan for the Mediterranean Sea and Red Sea coasts. With this mandate the EEAA has initiated the coordination of ICZM planning, in which the first step was to establish the National Committee for ICZM (NCICZM). A Ministerial Decree constituting the LDK ECO SA 70

80 establishment of the NCICZM was issued in 1994, amended in 1996 and The function of the committee is not only to draw-up a consistent policy and strategy for future development, but also to resolve conflicts between users interests. The NCICZM comprises from top rank representatives of all concerned ministries (interministerial), NGO s and major stakeholders Legal framework The Law No. 4 of 1994 on the protection of environment constitutes the main legislative body in the field of environment to formulate the general policy and prepare the necessary plans for the protection and promotion of the environment. The law provides for the use of environmental management mechanisms, which include command and control measures such as the setting of appropriate standards, the application of the polluter pays principle (through the implementation of penalties and fines) and the use of environmental impact assessments (EIAs). There are also other laws and regulations which deal with specific environmental issues, complementing the environmental law 4/1994: Water pollution Law 93/1962: details responsibilities and authorities of General Organizations for Sanitary Drainage in licensing and limitations of discharges to public sewers (Ministry of Housing and Public Utilities, local authorities) Law 38/1967: General cleanliness and sanitation (Local Authorities) Law 27/ 1978: Regulates public water resources for drinking and domestic use Ministry of Health and Population) Law 57/1978: Sets measures for treating ponds and marshes (Ministry of Housing and Public Utilities, Ministry of Local Development) Law 48/1982: Regulates the discharge of wastewater into the River Nile and other waterways (Ministry of Health and Population, Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation). The standards of the law specifies water quality of fresh water bodies receiving industrial effluents, limitations of treated industrial effluents discharged to fresh water, quality of drainage water mixed with fresh water bodies, and quality of sewage and industrial effluent discharge to drains and brackish water bodies Law 12/1984: Regulates irrigation, water distribution, groundwater management in the Nile Valley and Delta, and the establishment and maintenance of drainage canals (Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation) Law 231/ 1984: Amends articles in Law 213/1984 (Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation) Law 874/1996: Prohibits the use, import, handling and preparation of potential carcinogenic pesticides (Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation) MD 44/2000: Regulates the discharge of wastewater into public sewers (Ministry of Housing and Public Utilities, The Local Authorities) Sea Water protection Law 280/1960: Regulates activities within the ports and the regional waters (Ministry of Defense) Law 79/1961: Determines measures to be taken in case of marine disasters (The Port and Lighthouse Administration, Ministry of Defense) PD 1948/1965: Establishes a permanent committee for protecting the sea from oil pollution (Located on the Ministry of Defense) PD 45/1983: Signs the Protocol for the protection the Mediterranean from land based pollution sources (EEAA, Port Authorities) Ministry of Transport Decree 5/1991: Prohibits disposal of waste in the regional water, the Egyptian ports and waterways (All Port Authorities) Law 4/1994, PD 421/ 1963: Protect sea water from oil pollution, ratification of the Convention for the Protection of Pollution of the Sea by Oil, London (EEAA, the Port and Lighthouse Administration) MD 64/1996: Sets the water specifications of bathing coasts (Ministry of Health and Population) Solid Waste Management Law 38/1967 and its amendment 31/1976 regulates collection and disposal of solid wastes. No specific rules were delineated for handling hospital and other hazardous wastes (Ministry of Local Development and its departments, Department of Civil Defence) LDK ECO SA 71

81 MD 134/1968: Implements Law 38/1967, and provides the specifications for dumping sites (Ministry of Local Development) PD 284/1983: Establishes the Cairo and Giza Beautification and Cleaning Authorities. Their mandates include the collection and disposal of garbage and solid waste (Ministry of Housing and Public Utilities) Hazardous Waste Management Law 48/1967: Requires employers to inform their employees that they are dealing with hazardous waste (Ministry of Manpower) Law 137/1981 Requirements for labour safety and health in workplaces (Ministry of Manpower) Law 4/1994 Handling and management of hazardous waste (EEAA, Ministries of Industry and Technological Development, Health and Population, Agriculture and Land Reclamation, Electricity and Energy, Interior and Petroleum) Air pollution Air Pollution prior to issuing the environmental law was regulated by 10 decrees that lacked specification and penalties for violation. Standards for ambient air quality (52 gaseous and 31 particulate components) have been formulated based on similar standards of the developed countries The Ministry is currently undertaking necessary measures to review the provisions of the law 4/1994 to consider introducing required amendments thereon that have been proven necessary following the practical application of the law Policy environment and action programmes The environmental policy of the Government of Egypt seeks to achieve environmental protection through the establishment of proper institutional, economic, legislative and technical frameworks at the local, regional, national and international levels. Four milestones could be distinguished in the evolution of the environmental policy process in Egypt: NEAP of 1992; MSEA Policy directives in 1998; updated NEAP of 2002; and President Mubarak s statement of May 28, The Policy Directives of Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs In 1998, the newly-appointed Minister of State for Environmental Affairs (MSEA) issued a sevenpoint policy directives framework, expressing the national environmental policy objectives and measures. - Strengthening partnerships at the national level - Supporting bilateral and international partnerships in the environmental fields - Enforcing Law 4 of 1994 for the protection of the environment, and Law 102 of 1983 for Natural Protectorates and all other environmental legislation - Supporting institutional strengthening and capacity building for the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency and its regional branch offices and environmental management units - Supporting Integrated Environmental Management Systems - Integrating the use of market-based instruments in the field of environmental protection - Transfering and adapting environmentally friendly technologies 2. President Mubarak s Statement on Sustainable Development A promising step towards the realization of a stronger GOE commitment at the highest levels materialized in May 28, 2002 when President Mubarak called a top level ministerial meeting to discuss the Environmental Strategy for Egypt for the coming twenty years, (up to 2017). The most important of those were: Strong commitment towards the finalization of the fresh water improvement programme through controlling industrial discharges according to the set phased plan presented to the President, and stricter monitoring of all what may influence the quality of drinking water; LDK ECO SA 72

82 Development of a plan for air pollution abatement and consistent monitoring of air pollution levels in big cities; Stress on the importance of environmental impact assessment studies for all projects, and prohibiting the establishment of any project that may negatively impact the environment, especially near tourism development areas and coastal zones; and Developing the monitoring and follow-up bodies and units to ensure the rapid implementation of programmes, environmental laws, regulations and international environmental protection protocols and conventions. 3. National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) In 1992 Egypt prepared and adopted its First National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP). In 2002 the Second National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) has been developed covering the period emphasizing the changes needed in areas of water, sanitation, energy and biodiversity. The primary aim of the plan is to provide support for the introduction of a participatory and demanddriven environmental planning process, favourable to sustainable development. The NEAP includes programmes and projects that address several environmental issues including the management of national marine coastal zones. The main objectives of this programme include establishing a dynamic process for national comprehensive coastal zoning, and achieving sustainable use of marine and coastal resources through a combination of scientific research, appropriate quotas and regulations, active monitoring and enforcement, and pilot projects allowing use of certain resources by local citizens. Addressing the environmental issues of the Mediterranean in Egypt, the NEAP recognized the presence of some pollution hot spots located mainly in semi enclosed areas, close to harbours, large cities and industrial areas. It further emphasized that threats such as localized eutrophication, heavy metal and organic/microbial pollution, and oil spills introduction of alien species are mainly resulted from human activities. The Five Year Action Plan of EEAA ( ) In fulfilling NEAP recommendations, the Board approved a five-year action plan ( ) that specifies the policy measures to be implemented through 14 programmes as well as the projects to be implemented together with the necessary legislative developments and in collaboration of the sector ministries and institutions both public and private. Eleven programmes are under implementation. This action plan intends to institutionalise the strategic planning within MSEA and EEAA. Programmes Policy Measures 1. Integrated Solid Waste Management Achieve sound management of solid waste and healthcare waste in all governorates of Egypt 2. Protecting the River Nile and Water Resources Improve quality of water resources by controlling industrial waste 3. Improve Air Quality of Greater Cairo Reduce concentrations of dust and lead in Cairo air 4. Environmental Education, Training and Awareness Increase public awareness of environmental problems and develop human resources within the field of environment 5. Environmentally Friendly Industrial Cities Identify environmentally friendly cities in order to increase competitive advantage 6. Environmentally Friendly Technology Transfer Promote the use of environmentally friendly technology in all economic activities 7. Environmental Information Systems Enhance the use of information technology, especially in the field of environmental management 8. Environmental Management Provide the support for the adoption and implementation of integrated systems for environmental management in various activities 9. Nature Conservation Conserve national biodiversity 10. Capacity Development of EEAA and RBOs Support the institutional structure of environmental management at the national level LDK ECO SA 73

83 Programmes Policy Measures 11. Environmental Financial Mechanisms Facilitate funding of environmental projects Attract local investment to the environmental sector 12. Green Area Expansion Support governorates and NGOs in establishing nurseries and carrying out greening projects 13. Environmental Inspection Encourage institutional commitment to environmental laws 14. International Environmental Commitments of Egypt Implement Egyptian commitments to environmental agreements at international and regional levels The last years EEEA has been focusing on new policy directives, emphasizing more on the implementation of environmental projects that a have sound impact on population health and foster new foreign investments in the environment through Egyptian private sector participation. 5. National Strategy for Municipal Solid Waste Within the framework of the national programme for the Integrated Solid Waste Management, the National Strategy for Municipal Solid Waste, developed in 1999/2000 with support from the Egyptian Environmental Policy Programme, was finalized in 2000/2001, and adopted by the Cabinet of Ministers. It sets the overall direction for municipal solid waste management in Egypt over a period of 10 years, laying down the principles for its operation, addressing institutional, technical, and financial sustainability of solid waste management systems in Egypt. The strategy is based on a vision to develop the capabilities of governorates in the field of solid waste management, and to ensure that integrated systems are effectively implemented. During the initial five years of the strategy ( ), priority was given to supporting the removal of accumulated municipal solid waste in 10 governorates, as this represents 70% of the magnitude of the problem nationwide. In most of the large Egyptian cities, three collection systems are working simultaneously: the formal system, the informal system (Zaballeen), and the formal private sector service providers. The formal system is operated by municipalities and normally restricted to street cleansing and collection from communal containers. The informal system (Zaballeen) is a private system offering door to door service in medium and high standard areas. Finally, in many cities, certain activities are transferred to organized private enterprises in defined service sectors. Almost all the garbage collected by the municipalities goes without any segregation or treatment to open dumpsites at the outskirts of the cities. Meanwhile, the Zaballeen transport the garbage to their homes to segregate it in preparation for recycling. The Zaballeen communities in Cairo and Giza operate highly efficient recycling operations. 6. Wastewater management programme The Ministry of Health and Population in collaboration with the Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban communities and other local agencies have developed a programme to protect the environment and public health through a comprehensive, integrated scheme for wastewater collection and treatment. This programme aims mainly at inducing institutional reforms that promote the implementation of non-conventional low-cost technology, simplification of procedures, changes in both attitudes and behavior, and participation of major population groups, particularly women. Other objectives include evaluating the environmental health and socio-economic impacts; and determining the socio-economic benefits of sewerage treatment. There are five phased goals within the main framework for national policy of wastewater sector to reach the final goal of the sector. Six topics are related to implementing policies are also discussed. Final Goal: The final goal of the wastewater sector is to reduce in the shortest time frame the level of pollution resulting from discharging wastewater from the cities and villages into the water surfaces of the Nile, canals, and drains. The effluent quality should meet the standards specified in Law 48 / It also aims at reducing the water pollution discharged to lakes and sea to meet the standards specified in Law 4, LDK ECO SA 74

84 Phased Goals Goal 1 Goal 2 Goal 3 Goal 4 Goal 5 Completion of all wastewater projects, which are under construction and under the supervision of PWSDHC in the different five-year plans , in this project time. Reach the highest service level coverage for cities and villages through conventional sewage networks and secondary treatment plants. Implementation of the wastewater projects according to the Master Plans of the Wastewater Sector in each governorate throughout the country. Application of an effective system of operation & maintenance to all the components of the wastewater systems in the villages and towns to preserve the investments allocated in these projects and to keep it working efficiently and at the same time let the consumer bear the actual cost of O & M. Raise the level of technical and administrative capabilities within the sector for the central and local agencies. 7. National Strategy for Cleaner Production (CP) A National Cleaner Production Strategy and Action Plan have been developed for Egyptian industries aiming at promoting and applying CP and its techniques. The action plan further aims at being the practical means for encouraging decision makers to create an effective role for the Egyptian government and the private sector towards CP, which would optimally achieve the desired CP objectives. In this respect, a committee of 9 line ministries has been established, as well as a work group within each ministry to review the National CP Strategy framework document and its application in Egypt. These ministries are the Ministries of Finance, Industry and Technological Development, Higher Education and the Ministry of state for Scientific Research Affairs, Electricity and Energy, Foreign Trade and Public Business Sector, Health and Population, Petroleum, and the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs. 8. State Industrial Environmental Development Programmes Industry in Egypt may be divided into five main programmes: the public business sector programme, new industrial cities programme, free investment zones and special economic areas programme, small and medium size enterprises programme (SMEs) and Governorate- wide industries and approved industrial areas programme. a) Public Business Sector programme It includes 125 facilities that are environmentally compliant with total environmental compliance investments of L.E million till January Currently, there is a plan for the compliance of 57 facilities requiring investments. b) Environmentally Friendly Industrial Cities Programme The programme is one leading initiative of the MSEA. The purpose of this programme is to promote environmentally friendly industrial practices and sustainable investments in cleaner technology in the new industrial zones of Egypt. During 2000/2001, the programme has expanded its scope to include a total of 12 cities, namely, 10th of Ramadan, El Sadat, 6th of October, Borg El Arab, Badr, New Damietta, El Saleheya, El Obour, New Beni Sueif, Abou Rawash, Mubarak and El Kawthar. A compliance plan for 331 companies is in place. c) Free investment and private industrial economic zones programme The programme does not constitute a burden to the government, as the bulk of such facilities are new and investment-oriented. The major environmental problem facing these facilities is air pollution, however, this can be handled without the need for expensive investments, which can be afforded by the private sector. d) Governorates Industrial Activity Programme The programme applies to, either within approved industrial areas, or in the industries located within the Governorates and residential areas. The compliance plan requires complete data about the facilities and intensified inspection efforts. It also requires state participation in pollution prevention investments in these areas, though Government agencies or donors working in the field of pollution prevention. LDK ECO SA 75

85 e) SMEs programme MSEA also has a plan for SMEs, comprising the relocation and upgrading plan for six polluting sectors. These are: brick factories, smelters, tanneries, coal Industry kilns, marble crushers and potteries for 3861 facilities. Currently a plan is being developed for compliance in these factories within five years as a first stage comprising five components, including relocation polluting smelters and small industries. LE 120 million have already been spent and measures have already been implemented to relocate these factories to Abu Zaabal in Qaluobia, and El Herafein area in Giza. 9. The National Action Plan in the frame of the Strategic Action Programme for the protection of the Mediterranean from land-based pollution sources (UNEP/MAP) The National Action Plan of Egypt (2005) was prepared in the frame of the Strategic Action Programme (SAP) of the UNEP/MAP for the period and it is in line with the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) of the country. Its aim is to propose actions in order to meet the SAP targets on reduction of emissions of targeted pollutants to the Mediterranean Sea. In order to reach the SAP targets for the year 2010, the NAP identified and proposed priority actions in all relevant sectors in three coastal Governorates (Alexandria, Behira and Port Said). Urban Effluents Alexandria Governorate Behira Governorate Port Said Governorate o Construction of El Mex El Agamy (1.6 million, 300,000 m3) secondary Wastewater Treatment Plant (WWTP). Construction of 13 pumping stations and one sea outfall. o Construction of El-Amria (1.3 million, 300,000 m3) secondary WWTP. Construction of 5 pumping stations. Organise reuse of treated effluent. o Construction of sewer network and WWTPs for the cities: Kafr El-Zayat (50,000), Shubrakit (100,000), Damietta (Enanva) (400,000), Mahmoudia (100,000), Samanoua (100,000), Kafr El Dawer (300,000), Abu El Matatameer (100,000), El Mohmoudia (100,000), Zarka (100,000), Edku (100,000), Hosh Eisa (100,000), Abo Hommos (100,000) o Construction of sewer network (12 Km) and a WWTPs for El Garabaa-El Manasra area (167,000) west of the city o Construction of a WWTPs for Port Fouad district (69,000) east of Suez Canal Solid Wastes Alexandria Governorate Behira Governorate Port Said Governorate o Organize a sanitary landfill in the desert west of Alexandria. o Transfer 2 plants of organic fertilizer production (operating at Abis and Al Mountazah) outside the city limits o Construction of recycling and organic fertilizer plant near Edku o Construction of a sanitary landfill for the Governorate Industrial Emissions Alexandria Governorate Behira Governorate Port Said Governorate o Application of cleaner technologies and wastewater treatment plants in the companies: Ratka Paper, National Paper, Misr Dairy Siclam, Eastern Linnen, Abu Qir Fertilizer, Edfina Canning, Arab United Textile, Siouf Spinning, Alexandria Pharmaceuticals o Air filters for the companies El Amria Cement, Carbon Black, Wood industries, Portland Cement Alex, Petrogas o Application of cleaner technologies and wastewater treatment plants for the companies: Ismadye, Misr Rayon, El-Beida Dye o Application of cleaner technologies and construction of a WWTP in the industrial zone south of Port Said LDK ECO SA 76

86 10. Actions on MDGs Egypt was one of 188 countries which embraced the MDGs and agreed to strive to meet these goals by In June 2002 the United Nations unveiled the first report on Egypt s progress towards meeting the Millennium Development Goals, which was followed by the second report in The second report reveals that Egypt remains on track to achieve the expected results on the great majority of MDGs indicators. The government continued to give attention to critical areas of development, such as health and education, access to water and sanitation as well as improving the livelihood of the most deprived segments of the population. However, the pace of progress varies among the goals, fast and sustained in some areas (e.g. child and maternal mortality, water and sanitation), at acceptable levels for others (e.g. education and poverty reduction), while somewhat more slowly in others yet (e.g. women empowerment, and the environment). Of relevance is Goal 7 Target 11: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers. The proportion of urban people with access to improved sanitation has increased over the period 1995, 1999, and 2001 in all the governorates. As of 2001 the best governorates were Port-Said, Suez, Damietta, Dakahlia, Kalyoubia, and Ismailia at 100 percent. The worst were Suhag (92.4 percent), and South Sinai (92.5 percent). The 2015 projection for all governorates is 100 percent Overview of completed and on-going projects Egypt is among that group of countries which, over the past several years, has received the largest amount of foreign assistance for environment. The most important donors have been World Bank, USAID, Canada, Japan, EIB, the European Union and its member states (mainly Denmark, Germany, UK, Finland, France and Spain) as well as Arab Funds. Environmental policy support has received the largest share of assistance and is sponsored mainly from USAID and Denmark. Industrial pollution abatement together with air pollution has also received a significant share of assistance. Urban sanitation is financed as well, whereas the least supported area is solid waste management. Many of these projects have been completed, while there is a large number still ongoing. Since the establishment of NEAP of 1992, Egypt was assisted by 19 international organizations to move its environmental agenda forward. Some of the most important activities were the USAID funded Egyptian Environment Policy Programme (EEPP), for developing specific policies by the Ministries of Petroleum, Tourism and Environment, the DANIDA-funded Organization Support Programme, for enabling MSEA/EEEA to take the necessary actions, and the GEF funded elaboration of NAP for SAP-MED. USAID is the largest financier in the urban sanitation, followed by EIB, Japan and Finland, with no contributions from the World Bank. Many projects have been implemented on the construction, extension and/or rehabilitation of sewage networks and treatment systems, and capacity building of the Governates in various cities of the country. In addition, KfW largely supports work in the water and wastewater sector, particularly in Upper (southern) Egypt by providing technical assistance and soft loans for water and wastewater infrastructure projects. Significant support on solid waste management has been given from EU, particularly in solid waste disposal, capacity building and transfer of know how to local authorities. Japan and MS have also invested in improvements on solid waste management in various major cities. USAID has sponsored the decentralisation and private participation of solid waste management services. The EIB s assistance gave main emphasis on private sector investment and projects with a regional dimension in the field of environmental protection, as for instance, wastewater collection and treatment schemes in Cairo and pollution control equipment in the industrial sector. Regarding industrial depollution, the Egyptian Pollution Abatement Project (I & II) is considered as one of the most important initiatives, which was funded from WB, along with the assistance of other donors (EIB, AFD, Japan, Finland), and provides technical assistance in cleaner production and LDK ECO SA 77

87 pollution abatement technology and loans to industry for the implementation of such projects. In addition the project is providing technical assistance in strengthening three of the EEAA s RBOs and four EMUs. The following table is a brief presentation of the major past achieved and ongoing activities, grouped by focal environment area. A complete list of these activities is included in Annex II, containing detailed information on each project. Activities Funding source Status Urban Wastewater Improvement or extension of sewerage networks in: - Greater Cairo -EIB, DFID, National Funds -USAID -Alexandria -USAID, EIB -France (MINEFI) n/a -Giza city -Japan (JICA), National Funds -Canal cities (Port Said, Suez, and Ismailia) -USAID - poor areas - IDB Wastewater treatment plant: - improvement in Abu Rawash - EIB - construction for Ras El Bar - Finland (MFA) - construction to Gabal El Asfar (Cairo city improvements) - National Funds, EIB, France (MINEFI), Italy (DGCS) -construction for Badr city and Ras El Bar city -Finland (MFA), National Funds - El Annania (Damietta city) Finland (MFA) - Al-Shrouk city KFAED -system improvements in El-Tur City and Wadi El-Tur village (including financial and cost benefit analyses) -improvement through new technologies in Sadat WWTP (pilot activity) EC-MEDA US-TDA Improvements and/or expansion of wastewater collection and treatment: - for Alexandria wastewater system -USAID - for Beni Suef -Finland (MFA) - for Esna city and district -Denmark (DANIDA) -for Kai Fai and Fayoum -Netherlands (MFA) -for Kafr El Sheikh - Germany (KfW, GTZ) -USAID - Assistance to small (secondary) cities in improving collection and distribution pipeline networks and expanding water and wastewater treatment in four Governorates (i.e. Daraw, Kom Ombo, Luxor, Mansoura, Nasr City, Nuweiba, and Sharm El Sheikh). - Construction of a sewerage network and sanitation facilities in Seflak Village -public / local - other areas - Germany (KfW), Denmark (DANIDA), Japan (MOFA), Finland (Gov., MFA), EIB Institutional strengthening and capacity building: n/a LDK ECO SA 78

88 Activities Funding source Status - support to Egypt's Ministry of Housing, Utilities and Urban Communities (MHUUC) improve the water and wastewater sector in Egypt by developing a methodology for selecting projects based on social, economic and environmental criteria USAID -for Beni Suef Governate (decentralisation, institutional USAID, Finland (MFA) strengthening) - for Fayoum Governates (institutional strengthening) USAID, Netherlands (MFA) - for Minia Governate (institutional strengthening) USAID -for Kafr El Sheikh governorate (decentralisation) -Self-sufficiency of the operations and maintenance of the Greater Cairo sewerage system -Support to the Water Supply and Sanitation Sector in upper Egypt towards its legal, institutional and regulatory reform Establishment of computerised system for Sewerage Network Analysis (SNWA) within NOPWASD Small Grants Programme (GEF-SGP) -Preventing pollutant flows at Local Level (El Mahaba) -Safety disposal of the used water and reusing -Protecting International Water (Nile river) -Protecting water from pollution in Assiut Integrated Coastal Zone Management in the area of Port Said (wastewater discharge control) New technologies on waste treatment and environmental pollution control Municipal Solid Waste Waste disposal: Germany (GTZ) USAID Denmark (DANIDA) Sweden (SIDA) GEF EC-SMAP III, national funds Japan (JICA), national funds -Identification of landfill sites to serve the country EC-MEDA -Action plan for the site location and the development of design, LIFE 3 rd countries operation and environmental impact assessment methods for solid waste land filling in Egypt Governorates in order to promote the environmentally sound disposal of municipal solid waste -Closedown of old waste dumpsites (Montazah and Abis) n/a -Construction of a sanitary landfill to serve Beba and El-Fashn cities Finland (MFA) n/a Solid waste management improvement/ integration: -for Alexandria City and other major cities Japan (JICA, MOFA) -for Kai Fay Netherlands (MFA) -for El Menya Governorate ( development of a comprehensive scheme) Italy (Gov.), National Funds -for Al Fayoum and Etsa - in Sohag and Dakahleya (demonstration projects for solid waste collection, transfer and disposal, maintenance, dumpsite remediation, recycling and composting ) SEAM - for South Sinai (design of efficient and cost effective waste collection, transfer, recovery, and final disposal system and proposing an optimal institutional set-up and supporting processes ) - in the area of Port Said in the frame of Integrated Coastal Zone Management against waste production Institutional strengthening and capacity building: LIFE 3 rd countries DFID EC-MEDA EC-SMAP III, National Funds n/a n/a n/a n/a LDK ECO SA 79

89 Activities Funding source Status -Promotion of effective environmental management, USAID, National Funds decentralization of environmental management, improving solid and hazardous waste management, support for SWM activities, particularly privatization of waste management services -Regional project for Improving Solid Waste Management (SWM) by EC-MEDA/SMAP I raising awareness of local communities and demonstrating the environmental, economic and social benefits of SWM good practice measures in Egypt (Maasra, Old Cairo districts and Helwan University) -Regional project for capacity building of the Governorate for EC-MEDA/SMAP I, UNDP efficient solid waste collection, encouragement of sorting and re-use at source, waste minimisation and addressing priority municipal solid waste management in Alexandria - Development of a solid waste management organisation for Netherlands (MFA) improving municipal solid waste practices in Fayoum -Privatization of the solid waste management sector in -the Governorate of Alexandria ( public cleaning additionally) USAID, Germany (GTZ) - two other Governorates Germany (GTZ) n/a Regional Solid Waste Management Project in METAP Mashreq and EC -SMAP II/METAP Maghreb Countries: Promotion of the adoption of sustainable ISWM practices through: strengthening policy, legal and institutional frameworks, clarifying financing and cost-recovery options and methods, opportunities for private sector participation and defining public awareness and community participation strategies. Project activities are carried out at both regional and national levels. At national level, "Framework for the Solid Waste Recycling in Egypt": to design a strategic framework for the development of the solid waste recycling sector in Egypt, with a particular focus and action plan for plastic recycling according to a certain methodology. Improvement of environmental health conditions Denmark (DANIDA) 2 Wastewater treatment sludge management projects in Cairo EIB, France (MINEFI) n/a Small Grants Programme (GEF-SGP): A modular prototype for converting domestic solid waste into ethanol to replace lead in gasoline UNDP/GEF Municipal waste incineration facility France (MINEFI) n/a Industrial Emissions Industrial Policy and Administration Management Japan (JICA) n/a Pollution Abatement: -through Governates capacity building, action plans for major polluters, environmental audit programs and training, technical assistance, and awareness activities, NGOs capacity building, subprojects in public and private enterprises to bring their effluent discharges and/or air emissions in compliance with environmental protection laws in a cost effective manner (Greater Cairo, Alexandria, and the Suez Canal cities of Suez and Ismailia); 25 projects in 21 companies -for reducing industrial pollution in selected hot spots areas in and around the Alexandria and Greater Cairo areas; strengthening the capacity of EEAA and other key stakeholders and provide PM support WB/IBRD-IDA, Finland (Gov., MFA), Japan (MOFA) WB/IBRD, EIB, France (AFD), Japan (JBIC), Finland (MFA), National Funds Study on Industrial Waste Water Pollution Control Japan (JICA) Air pollution abatement: LDK ECO SA 80

90 Activities Funding source Status - lead smelter action plan, to be developed in concert with private and public sector smelters - Greenhouse Gas Emissions reduction from emissions of electric power generation and of consumption of non-renewable fuel resources USAID, National Funds GEF, UNDP, National Funds -Promotion of effective environmental management, reducing air USAID, National Funds pollution - Introduction of natural gas in the industry by: a) constructing natural gas-fired power plant in Nubariya EIB, AFESD, Kuwaitti Fund b) constructing natural gas-fired power plant in Cairo EIB, IDP c) constructing natural gas-fired power plant in Nubariya, El EIB, AFESD, Kuwaitti Fund Kuriemat, Talkha d) converting to natural gas in 50 brick factories through the country (reduction of green house gas (GHG) emissions) Industrial solid waste management project in 6th of October City by waste inventory and development of computer-based information system Hazardous waste management : -minimisation and handling at source, HW administration, recycling, treatment and disposal facilities, collection and transport systems) covering 150 industries in Alexandria - construction up to six modern hazardous waste treatment and disposal facilities in Egypt (feasibility study) Financing environmental protection in industrial and productive sectors enterprises operating in Egypt Canada (CIDA), local funds LIFE 3 rd countries Finland (MFA), National Funds US-TDA EIB, WB Improvement of industrial environmental performance in: - Alexandria Carbon Black, Alexandria Fibre Co, Sokhna Port Development Co and a vitreous china ceramic sanitary ware facility in Ramadan Industrial City WB (IFC) - Slaughterhouse in Sherbeen City, Dakahlia National Funds n/a - A Flat Steel Production unit in El-Dikheila WB (IFC), AFEDS, EIB, Cairo Bank, Cairo-Barclay's Bank, IDB Small Grants Programme (GEF-SGP): -Reducing Solid Wastes Generated from the Packaging Systems of three factories for Environmental and Health Purposes -Upgrading the Charcoal Kilns (Sahil Sleem Village in Assuit Governorate) Introduction of clean technologies in tanning processes in southern Cairo UNDP/GEF LIFE 3 rd countries National Cleaner Production Centre UNIDO Clean technology transfer center for the leather and footwear sector (Azahar programme) Spain (AECI) Oil Pollution Combating Emergency Centre in the Gulf of Aqaba EC-MEDA, National Funds Technical Assistance for the METAP Regional Facility in Cairo in the form of an industrial pollution expert services for the PPU and the services of an information technology expert for the CBU EC-METAP n/a Implementation of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) in Egypt UNDP/GEF LDK ECO SA 81

91 Activities Funding source Status Capacity Building for the Implementation of the Basel Convention through the establishment of a Regional Centre for Training and Technology Transfer Finland (MFA) Horizontal Determination of Priority Actions for the Further Elaboration and Implementation of the Strategic Action Programme GEF, MAP-MEDU, National Funds Egyptian Environment Policy Programme USAID Organization Support Programme (OSP I & II) Denmark (DANIDA) Support for Environment Assessment and Management (SEAM) Programme Capacity-building for the Ministry of State for Environment Affairs, and training for business operators and public education activities to build community awareness. Assistance and institutional strengthening, promotion of integrated coastal zone management (SMAP III Technical Assistance project) completed activities; ongoing activities; n/a: not available data UK (DFID) Japan (JICA) EC-SMAP III Outcome of review Over the past decade Egypt has introduced a number of important initiatives in order to improve the country's chances of making an active effort in environmental matters. Egypt has received a significant amount of international support for environmental projects and has also committed national funds for pollution reduction investments. In particular, there are a number of multilateral and bilateral funds that have assisted the country in their establishment and implementation. In general, there is a well cooperation and coordination with Government agencies and among donors who kept each other informed through the establishment of a subcommittee on environment so as to maximize their contribution and avoid overlapping between the different programmes. With such a level of assistance, the donors succeeded not only in putting the issue of environment on the government s policy agenda, but in building the environmental infrastructure at the national level in major sector ministries as well as at the local level in the governorates. However, environmental protection, to be effective, must be continuing, as financial support is often channelled to one-time projects for practical as well as political reasons. Regarding the legislative framework, even if Law 4/94 was a step towards introducing more flexible and more effective tools for dealing with environmental problems, in practice the regulations are not enforced adequately for a variety of reasons, including lack of adequate authorities with necessary resources to carry out inspection and enforcement and lack of public awareness regarding the magnitude of the environmental problems and their negative effects. In addition, there is a high need to enhance the coordination and cooperation among the ministries and governmental institutions. The Ministry is currently undertaking necessary measures to review the provisions of the law 4/1994 and consider introducing required amendments thereon that have been proven necessary following the practical application of the law. Regarding institutional set-up, practical difficulties with coordination of environment policy emerge at higher levels of decision-making due to the contradiction of environmental assets and at lower levels of due to the large number of implementation bodies that are named as responsible by the many laws and decrees that have environmental implications. The institutional overlap between ministries and involved agencies also lies with the originating legislation. Another barrier is that Egypt s human resources are weak in terms of environmental expertise, thus posing another difficulty LDK ECO SA 82

92 for implementation of environmental policy. Each of these weaknesses is improving gradually over time, as the recent adoption of environmental actions and programmes will greatly help to institutional reforms as well. More effort will be needed to deal successfully in a sustainable manner with the environmental pressures from urban effluents, solid wastes and industrial pollution. These pressures are still intense, because of the size of the urban population and the great number of industrial establishment. The last years several environmental programmes have been established and some are already in their implementation phase, such as the National Environmental Action Plan (2002), various recent national sectoral programmes, and the National Action Plan in the frame of Strategic Action Programme of the UNEP/MAP (2005). All these programmes address similar issues and have more or less similar priorities. Some of the works are already in progress, but because of the amount of necessary funds, more financial support is necessary to complete the planned activities. LDK ECO SA 83

93 5.3 Israel Israel is a country in Western Asia on the southeastern edge of the Mediterranean Sea, bordered by Lebanon in the north, Syria and Jordan in the east, and Egypt in the south-west. Israel's terrain consists of the Negev desert in the south, low coastal plains, central mountains, and the Jordan Rift Valley. Israel has a technologically advanced market economy with substantial government participation. It depends on imports of crude oil, grains and raw materials. Despite limited natural resources, Israel has intensively developed its agricultural and industrial sectors over the past 20 years. Limited freshwater resources and arable land as well as air and water pollution are the country's largest environmental concerns. Water availability and quality are serious issues for Israel, posing a severe threat to the country s economy. Water sources are expected to continue to decline, and pollution of drinking water wells, rivers and streams is a major problem. Industrial and urban effluents are usually treated together in wastewater treatment plants but some industries discharge directly their effluents to rivers and the sea. All streams flowing to the Mediterranean carry relatively large amount of nutrients (N and P) and particularly the estuaries of Yarkon and Taninim Rivers as well as the Shafdan and Herzelia outfalls, because of industrial discharges and runoff. About 70% of Israel s population resides within 15 km of the Mediterranean coastline where are concentrated the major economic and commercial activities of the country. Major areas of pollution sources are located in Haifa Bay (metals [including Hg], organochlorides TBT), Kishon and Hadera Rivers (metals [including Hg]), the harbours of Ashod and Kishon (metals [including Cd and Cr], organochlorides, TBT), the marinas of Jaffa and Tel-Aviv (organochloride pesticides), the Shafdan marine outfall (industrial sludge) and Dan Region Wastewater Treatment Plant (metals, nutrients). Solid waste is also an important environmental problem, despite the country s relatively well developed waste legislation. Over 90% of solid waste is sent to landfill and dumps, putting pressure on scarce land resources. Air pollution from industry, oil refineries, power plants and transportation is also an important environmental issue for the country. Israel is active on pollution prevention, abatement, law enforcement, scientific research and monitoring activities. Also Israel has established the legal basis for the prevention of seawater pollution. LDK ECO SA 84

94 5.3.1 Major sources of pollution from urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions Urban wastewater In Israel, out of a total of 450 million cubic meters of sewage produced, about 96% is collected in central sewage systems and 64% of the effluents are reclaimed. More than 500 facilities for the treatment of sewage exist in Israel today, of which some 30 are wastewater treatment plants. Recent years have seen the establishment of new or upgraded treatment plants in municipalities throughout the country. According to the Ministry of Environmental Protection, by 2003, about 63% of the effluents complied with the standards set in regulations. The ultimate objective is to treat 100% of Israel's wastewater to a level enabling safely reuse for irrigation purposes. About a quarter of Israel s total wastewater (about 120 million m 3 /y) undergoes treatment in the Dan region wastewater reclamation plant which produces high-quality effluents. Following treatment, the effluents are recharged into the regional aquifer by means of spreading basins. After recharge, the reclaimed water is supplied for agricultural irrigation to the arid southern part of the country. Haifa s upgraded WWTP treats effluents (37 million m3/y) from eight municipalities and additional local and regional councils, communities and industrial plants. The treated wastewater is piped to irrigation reservoirs that serve the Jezreel Valley where water quality is further improved after a long retention time in the reservoirs. The Kishon Complex is the second largest wastewater reclamation system, whereas some 23 million m 3 / year are treated in Jerusalem's wastewater treatment plant - Jerusalem Soreq. Further actions are required for urban sanitation in some areas where waste treatment needs to be upgraded either because the plants have reached their capacity or they require advanced treatment to reach standards for discharge to the rivers/sea or for utilisation as a source for agricultural consumption. Acre, Haifa, Hof Hacarmel, Herzliya, Ashdod are considered hot spot areas which need completion of treatment and recovery systems. Sanitation activities along the Kishon and Hadera rivers are also considered priority for the country Municipal solid waste Municipal waste generation has been increasing in the order of 5% annually because of population growth (over 2% annually) and rising standards of living, although this rate of growth has been halved since 2000, and rates vary in different parts of the country. In 1993, 96% of Israel's municipal solid waste found its way to about 500 unregulated dumps. Most were poorly managed and many had reached or were soon to reach capacity. Recognition of the severity of the problems led to a government decision mandating closure of the country s unregulated dumps, their replacement by sanitary landfills, financial aid to local authorities for transporting their wastes to a regulated landfill for a set time period of five years, and advancement of recycling and energy recovery. By 2003, the first phase of this policy was completed with the establishment of sanitary landfills and closure of unregulated dumps and the second phase, recycling and recovery is being implemented, though still is in its early stage. Today, over 90% of solid waste is still sent for landfilling, such as Duda im (northwest of Beersheba), Hagal (in northern Israel south of Lake Kinneret) Nimra (in the southernmost region near Eilat), and Ef e (in Mishor Rotem in the southern part of the country), putting pressure on scarce land resources. Other sites poorly designed or near their full capacity need to be upgraded. In addition, the pollution potential of most of the closed dumps continues because their rehabilitation has not yet been undertaken in most sites, such as Hiriya, Netanya, North Herzliya, and Rishon LeZion. LDK ECO SA 85

95 Industrial emissions Industrial effluents present the major concern, while a number of studies have been conducted in Israel to increase knowledge of these pollution sources and to formulate policies and regulations for effluent reduction and treatment. Industrial water consumption constitutes 5% of Israel s total water consumption, yet industry emits about 19% of the country s total wastewater. Industrial sources are also responsible for significant quantities of pollutant emissions into the air, most notably particulate matter and sulfur dioxide, and to a lesser extent, carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides. Limits on air pollution from industrial sources, whether power plants, cement factories, or quarries, are imposed by a variety of means including administrative directives, business licensing conditions and ambient and emission standards, though further monitoring and enforcement is required. About 150 major industries have joined a voluntary Covenant on Implementing Standards on Air Pollutant Emissions, which was signed between the Ministry of the Environmental Protection and the Manufacturers Association of Israel in Institutional setting In Israel, environmental issues are scattered among many government ministries and their units. At least sixteen out of the twenty two government ministries are legally authorised to handle environmental issues, such as the Ministry of Finance, Ministry of Environmental Protection, Ministry of Internal Security, Ministry of Construction and Housing, Ministry of Religious Affairs, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Education, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, Ministry of Science, Culture and Sport, Ministry of Labour and Welfare, Ministry of Justice, Ministry of Interior, Ministry of Absorption, Prime Minister s Office, Ministry of Regional Cooperation, Ministry of Transportation, Ministry of Tourism, Ministry of Industry and Trade, Ministry of Communications and Ministry of National Infrastructure. About three quarters of Israel s environmental laws involve six government ministries Interior, Agriculture, Transportation, Health, Environmental Protection and Infrastructure. The Ministry of Environmental Protection (recently renamed as the Ministry of Environmental Protection), is ranked fifth in number of environmental laws under its control, is involved with less than one-tenth of Israel s environmental laws. Each government ministry s specialisation and expertise affects the way it relates to and handles the environmental issues that it is responsible for. Since most environmental issues are multi faceted, the authority to deal with these issues can be assigned to a ministry that considers environmental protection paramount such as the Ministry of Environmental Protection or it can be assigned to a ministry that handles other facets of the issue. Most laws give authority to only one or two government ministries. However, some laws authorize up to thirteen government ministries to carry out the same law. One third of Israel s environmental laws belong to one ministry, about two fifths authorize between two and four government ministries for each law, and about seven percent authorize between ten and thirteen government ministries for each law. The Ministry of Environmental Protection is the only ministry dedicated to environmental matters. The Ministry has authority over thirty-three environmental laws, which deal with a wide variety of topics, including nature and landscape protection, water quality, oceans and coastlines, toxic substances, solid waste, and air quality. Relative to other ministries with authority over many environmental laws such as the Ministry of Transportation and the Ministry of Agriculture the Ministry of Environmental Protection has the exclusive authority over few laws. Indeed, when the Ministry was established in 1989, most of Israel s environmental laws already existed, but half of the laws under the Ministry s authority were passed after it was established. The Ministry of Environmental Protection shares the authority over new environmental laws, and on average, five additional government ministries share its authority for each law. The profusion of ministries that share the Ministry s authority for each law probably limits the Ministry s capacity to act LDK ECO SA 86

96 independently. The Ministry of Environmental Protection shares authority over its laws mostly with the Ministries of Interior, Health, and Agriculture. The ministry operates at three different levels national, regional and local. At national level, the ministry is responsible for formulating an integrated and comprehensive national environmental policy and for developing specific strategies, standards and priorities for environmental protection and resource conservation. At regional level, the ministry operates through six regional offices (Southern region, Tel Aviv region, Central region, Haifa region, Northern region and Jerusalem region). Each regional office operates according to its specific environmental requirements and is responsible, inter alia, for implementing national environmental policy, participating in land-use planning processes, guiding local environmental units, inspecting and enforcing environmental legislation in local authorities, formulating environmental conditions for business licensing and advancing environmental projects to solve regional problems. At local level, the ministry is responsible for the operation of 39 municipal environmental units, regional environmental units and associations of towns for the environment, eight of which serve the Arab sector. Municipal environmental units implement ministerial policy on the local level and serve as advisory bodies to the local authority on environmental issues. The Minister of the Environment also has ministerial responsibility for the following bodies: Yarkon River Authority Kishon River Authority Nature and Parks Authority Environmental Services Company a) Urban effluents Local authorities are responsible for the treatment of municipal sewage. In recent years new or upgraded intensive treatment plants were set up in municipalities throughout the country. b) Municipal solid waste Local authorities are responsible for storage, collection and disposal of municipal solid waste, and municipal bylaws determine the legal and administrative arrangements for collection and disposal. Municipalities are authorized to establish sites for landfills and to determine other waste disposal locations in accordance with the Planning and Building Law and its regulations and the National Masterplan for Solid Waste Disposal. Disposal and treatment of solid waste require a business license and are subject to special conditions within the framework of the Licensing of Businesses Law. c) Industrial emissions Within the framework of the Licensing of Business Law, industries require license which includes conditions for implementation, designated to protect the quality of the environment. Business licensing conditions may relate to air quality and to permit on the level of pollutant emissions. The Ministry of Environmental Protection is issuing an administrative order to a business (and a personal decree to the business owner) in which steps that must be taken to prevent high or unreasonable air pollution are stipulated Legal framework a) Urban wastewater Water legislation is well developed, as water is one of Israel s most limited resources. The Water Law of 1959 established the framework for the control and protection of Israel s water resources. It covers water pollution prevention provisions, water rights, water conservation and reuse of treated wastewater. Numerous regulations have been promulgated pursuant to this law Additional laws LDK ECO SA 87

97 address sewage systems, prevention of sewage and effluent discharge into water sources and protection of streams and springs, and prevention of water pollution. In 1971 the law was amended to include prohibitions against direct or indirect water pollution, regardless of the state of the water beforehand. The Minister of the Environment is authorised to protect water quality, to prevent water pollution, and to promulgate regulations on these issues. Regulations promulgated pursuant to the law include: prohibitions on the rinsing of containers, used for spraying of chemical and biological substances, into water sources; prohibitions on aerial spraying of chemical and biological agents for agricultural purposes near surface water sources; severe restrictions on the use of cesspools and septic tanks; conditions for the establishment and operation of gas stations to prevent fuel leaks; requirements for evaporation ponds and reservoirs; regulations on the reduction of salt use in industrial water-softening processes and on the discharge of brines; regulations on protecting water sources from heavy metals and other pollutants by limiting the volume of wastewater discharged from pollution sources and reducing pollutant concentrations; and regulations on sewage disposal from vessels, which are largely aimed at preventing pollution in Lake Kinneret. A new standard for detergents, which limits the concentrations of boron and salt in detergents, has been set, and regulations on the prevention of water pollution from underground and aboveground fuel storage tanks and pipelines have been drafted. More specifically, regarding the wastewater -legal framework it can be noted the following: Wastewater - Legal Framework: Local Authorities (Sewerage) Law, 1962 prescribes the rights and duties of local authorities in the design, construction and maintenance of sewage systems. This law requires each local authority to maintain its sewage system in proper condition Model Local Authorities By-Law (Discharge of Industrial Sewage into the Sewage System), 1981 Water Regulations (Prevention of Water Pollution) (Cesspools and Septic Tanks), 1992 Water Regulations (Prevention of Water Pollution) (Reduction of Salt Use in the Regeneration Process), 1994 Water Regulations (Prevention of Water Pollution) (Evaporation and Storage Ponds), 1997 Water Regulations (Prevention of Water Pollution) (Prohibition on Discharge of Brines to Water Sources), 1998 Water Regulations (Prevention of Water Pollution) (Sewage Disposal from Vessels), 1998 Water Regulations (Prevention of Water Pollution) (Metals and Other Pollutants), 2000 Business Licensing Regulations (Salt Concentrations in Industrial Sewage), 2003 Water Regulations (Prevention of Water Pollution) (ph Values of Industrial Sewage), 2003 Water Regulations (Prevention of Water Pollution) (Usage of Sludge), 2004 The Ministry of the Environmental Protection has finalised recommendations for effluent quality standards for different purposes. The recommended values, designed to minimize potential damage to water sources, flora and soil, call for much higher treatment levels in existing and future wastewater treatment plants. An agreement in principle has been reached on the new effluent quality standards, and a techno-economic review of the standard has been conducted. The objective is to treat 100% of the country s wastewater to a level enabling unrestricted irrigation in accordance with soil sensitivity and without risk to soil and water sources. b) Solid waste Legislation related to waste management is well developed. There are laws governing littering, dumping, incineration of plastics and hazardous waste disposal. There is also a law on solid waste recycling, which sets out the principles and framework for recycling at local level. MoE has also formulated a policy on integrated waste management which calls for reduction, reuse and recycling as well as waste-to-energy technology and landfilling. Major legislation on solid wastes includes: LDK ECO SA 88

98 Maintenance of Cleanliness Law, 1984 Maintenance of Cleanliness Regulations (Cleanliness Maintenance Fund), 1986 Maintenance of Cleanliness Regulations (Cleanliness Maintenance Fee), 1987 Maintenance of Cleanliness Regulations (Vehicle Signs), 1987 Abatement of Nuisances (Prevention of Unreasonable Air and Smell Pollution from Solid Waste Disposal Sites) Regulations, 1990 Public Health Regulations (Prevention of Nuisances) (Removal of Plastic Sheets), 1993 Criminal Procedure Order (Finable Offenses - Maintenance of Cleanliness), 2000 Collection and Disposal of Waste for Recycling Law, 1993 Collection and Disposal of Waste for Recycling Regulations (Obligation of Waste Disposal for Recycling), 1998 Deposit Law on Beverage Containers, 1999 and Amendment, 2000 Deposit on Beverage Containers Regulations, 2001 The Maintenance of Cleanliness Law, 1984, prohibits the throwing of waste (including slaughterhouse, yard and bulk wastes as well as tires), construction debris and vehicle scrap into the public domain, or from the public domain into the private domain. It obligates local authorities, either individually or jointly, to establish sites for the disposal of building debris and vehicle scrap. The law also authorizes the Minister of the Environment and local authorities to issue cleanup orders. A Criminal Procedure Order on Finable Offences in littering violations came into effect in The new order sets 23 categories of cleanliness violations and sets fine levels for individuals and corporations. Within the framework of the Abatement of Nuisances Law, 1961, regulations for the prevention of odours and air pollution from solid waste disposal sites were promulgated in The regulations prohibit the burning of waste in solid waste disposal sites and require operators to take all necessary means to prevent burning. Public Health Regulations, in effect since March 1993, prohibit the burning of plastic films used in greenhouses and as plastic covering in agricultural fields and require their collection at the edge of the field for recycling or their transport by the owner to a landfill. Abatement of Nuisances regulations which prohibit burning and improper disposal of used oil were promulgated in Sellers, users and consumers of motor oil must collect it in special receptacles for transfer to the hazardous waste site in Ramat Hovav or to a recycling facility. The Collection and Disposal of Waste for Recycling Law was passed in June The law provides the principles and framework for recycling. It authorizes local authorities, and obliges them, when so required by the Minister of the Environment, to allocate sites for recycling centres and to install recycling facilities and containers. Municipalities are authorized to pass bylaws specifying procedures for the collection and disposal of waste for recycling, and business and homeowners within a municipality operating recycling centres are required to install and maintain recycling containers in accordance with municipal directives. Collection and Disposal of Waste for Recycling Regulations, promulgated in 1998, set graduated recycling targets which require local authorities to gradually reduce their waste for disposal by means of recycling according to the following timetable: at least 10% by December 1998, 15% by December 2000 and 25% by December A Deposit Law on Beverage Containers, along with accompanying regulations, came into force on October 1, The law and its regulations set up a refund, bottle collection and recycling system which allow the public to return glass and plastic containers and beverage cans, larger than 100 ml and smaller than 1.5 lt, and to receive 25 agorot (6 cents) for each empty container which is returned. c) Industrial pollution The Abatement of Nuisances Law of 1961 is the principal legislative instrument for controlling air pollution. The law authorises the Minister of the Environment to promulgate regulations defining what constitutes unreasonable air pollution and to issue administrative orders against specific polluters. LDK ECO SA 89

99 About 150 major industries have joined a voluntary Covenant on Implementing Standards on Air Pollutant Emissions, which was signed between the Ministry of the Environmental Protection and the Manufacturers Association of Israel in The appendix to the Covenant includes Regulations on the Abatement of Nuisances (Pollutant Emissions into the Air). Emission standards for the power stations operated by the Israel Electric Corporation are currently being finalized. In addition, emission standards for urban waste incinerators and hazardous waste incinerators were published in 1997 and guidelines on the emissions of air pollutants from diesel generators for electricity production were published in Additional regulations that have been promulgated pursuant to the Abatement of Nuisances Law in order to reduce and prevent air pollution include: Regulations on Air Pollution from Premises, 1962, prohibit emissions of black smoke into the air (in accordance with the Ringelmann Chart); Regulations on Air Pollution from Vehicles, 1963, prohibit the emission of black smoke from motor vehicles (in accordance with the Hartridge Smoke Meter). A companion regulation details how to measure smoke from vehicles; Regulations on Air Quality, 1971, revised and expanded in 1992, define ambient air quality standards for different air pollutants; Regulations on Emission of Particulate Matter in the Air, 1972, define the permissible emission rate of particulate matter from an industrial facility which uses raw material in its production processes; Regulations on Air Pollution from Heavy Fuel Oil Burners used for Household Heating, 1972, prohibit the use of heavy fuel oil in households for central space heating systems; Regulations on Prevention of Unreasonable Air and Smell Pollution from Solid Waste Disposal Sites, 1990, prohibit burning waste at solid waste disposal sites and require measures for the prevention of emissions of air pollution, smoke and odors. Regulations on Prevention of Air Pollution and Noise from Quarries, 1998, define unreasonable pollution from quarries and require preventative measures for dust emission as well as corrective measures in case of need. Regulations on Prevention of Air Pollution from Vehicles on the Road, 2001, prohibit driving a vehicle unless it meets specified technological standards. A Criminal Procedure Order (Finable Offenses Air Pollution from Vehicles on the Road) came into force in August It provides for efficient enforcement of the regulations on pollution from vehicles on the road by providing for fines relating to five categories of vehicular emission violations. The Traffic Ordinance (New Version), 1961, authorizes traffic magistrates to enforce those provisions of the Abatement of Nuisances Law which involve motor vehicles. Regulations promulgated under this ordinance prohibit the registration of a vehicle unless it conforms to inspection standards for emissions, including European Union standards. The Operation of Vehicles (Engines and Fuel) Law, 1960, allows the Minister of Finance, after consulting with the Minister of Transport, to regulate the kind of fuel by which any motor vehicle will be propelled and operated and the kind of engine which will be installed in a motor vehicle. The Minister of Finance is empowered to enact regulations under this law which may include examination of fuel station tanks and containers, spot checks of motor vehicles and fuel tanks, and fuel sampling directions. The Licensing of Businesses Law, 1968, allows local authorities to impose special environmental conditions within the framework of business licenses. Environmental restrictions and conditions may be based on US-EPA regulations, on emission standards issued by the Federal Government of Germany, or on any other standards acceptable to the Ministry of Environmental Protection. The Public Health Ordinance, 1940, covers many aspects of public health; sections related to the prevention of environmental nuisances are implemented by the Health and Environment Ministries. LDK ECO SA 90

100 Hazardous Substances Regulations (Implementation of the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer), 2004, are designated to implement the provisions of the Montreal Protocol by setting restrictions on the production, consumption, import and export of substances that deplete or are likely to deplete the ozone layer and establishing inspection and control mechanisms. Regarding the legal framework for controlling the industrial effluents, the following can be noted: The Model Local Authorities By-Law (Discharge of Industrial Sewage into the Sewage System), 1981, sets requirements on the treatment and disposal of industrial wastewater into the sewage system. In recent years, several new regulations were promulgated or drafted in order to protect Israel s water resources from the impacts of industrial effluents. They include: - Water Regulations (Prevention of Water Pollution) (Reduction of Salt Use in the Regeneration Process), 1994, requiring a number of technical steps to bring about a salt reduction in the regeneration of ion exchange; - Water Regulations (Prevention of Water Pollution) (Evaporation and Storage Ponds), 1997, aim at preventing water pollution from evaporation and storage ponds, on the one hand, and at restricting their use, on the other hand; - Water Regulations (Prevention of Water Pollution) (Gasoline Stations), 1997, require specific conditions for the establishment and operation of gas stations including measures and equipment to prevent leaks; - Water Regulations (Prevention of Water Pollution) (Prohibition on Discharge of Brines to Water Sources), 1998, prohibit the discharge of brines from ion-exchange renewal, from food, tanning and textile industries, and from hospitals to water sources and to the municipal sewage system; - Water Regulations (Prevention of Water Pollution) (Metals and Other Pollutants), 2000, are largely targeted at the electroplating industry but include a list of twenty pollutants which apply to all dischargers of wastewater; - Water Regulations (Prevention of Water Pollution) (ph Values of Industrial Sewage), 2003, are meant to protect the environment and prevent the pollution of water sources from the impacts of corrosion generated by industrial sewage. - Water Regulations (Prevention of Water Pollution) (Usage of Sludge), 2004, require wastewater treatment plants to stabilize and treat the sludge they generate to enable agricultural use of soil conditioning. - Planning and Building Regulations (Environment Impact Statements), 2003, to improve the operation of the EIA system in Israel and to help incorporate environmental considerations in the earliest stages of the planning process. In addition, Business Licensing Regulations (Salt Concentrations in Industrial Sewage), 2003, prohibit dilution as a solution and set strict threshold standards for chlorides, sodium, fluorides and boron prior to their discharge to a wastewater treatment plant. Regulations that will restrict air conditioning systems based on water evaporation in public buildings are also being planned. Additional regulations have been drafted to address the problem of water pollution from fuel leaks: one on the prevention of water pollution from fuel tank farms and the other on pollution prevention from oil pipelines. Another draft regulation sets ph values for industrial effluents prior to discharge to either the sewage system or to irrigation reservoirs. Extensive use is made of the Licensing of Businesses Law to implement requirements on industrial effluent treatment in various industries (e.g. textiles, food and metal) and in the treatment of wastes generated by dairy farms. Framework conditions on air pollutant emissions from stacks appear as standards in the appendix to the Covenant on Implementing Standards on Air Pollutants to the Air and are implemented as conditions in the business licenses of the plants. The standards are based on 1986 German emissions standards (TA LUFT 1986). On January 21, 1998, the Ministry of the Environmental Protection and the Manufacturers Association of Israel signed a Covenant on Implementing Standards on Air Pollutant Emissions into the Air. The appendix to the Covenant presents the Draft Regulations on the Abatement of Nuisances (Pollutant Emissions into the Air) which were proposed by the Ministry of Environmental Protection in 1996 and relate to the following pollutants: gaseous inorganic LDK ECO SA 91

101 substances, volatile organic compounds, particulate matter, hazardous inorganic particulate matter, carcinogenic substances, nitrogen oxides, and sulphur dioxide Policy environment and action programmes 1. Urban wastewater policy In Israel, wastewater treatment and reuse is high on its list of national priorities. This is necessary because of the severe water shortages, the contamination of water resources, the densely populated urban areas and the highly intensive irrigated agriculture. Effluents are the most readily available and cheapest source of additional water and provide a partial solution to the water scarcity problem. In fact, Israel s Water Law includes sewage water in its definition of water resources. Today, the rate of effluent reuse in Israel is among the highest in the world, but it does not encompass the total quantity of wastewater produced in Israel nor does it comply with sufficiently high quality standards. The National Master Plan for water sector development, which was prepared by the water Commission (2002), adopts the recommendations of an expert committee (the Inbar Committee) for a more stringent values for organic load and suspended solids (10:10 standard) and maximum values for total nitrogen (10 mg/lt) and total phosphorus (1.0 mg/lt) for effluents disposed to rivers and 5 mg/l for unrestricted agricultural irrigation. The master plan for water sector development ( ) requires that wastewater treatment plants be upgraded and constructed and that Israel s entire effluent potential be utilized as a source of water for agricultural consumption. In the year 2000, treated wastewater constituted about 17% of consumption by the agricultural sector. It is estimated that effluents will constitute 40% of the water supplied to agriculture in 2005, 45% in 2010 and 50% in The Ministry of Health maintains a permit system designed to ensure that irrigation with effluents is limited to crops such as cotton, fodder, etc. Only highly treated effluents, after chlorination, are used for irrigation of citrus groves and other crops. 2. Solid waste management policy Israel s National Master Plan for Waste Disposal was approved in 1989, allowing for the continued use of existing landfills until an alternative was found. The master plan includes maps for 28 sites, including 3 central landfills, 16 local landfills, one temporary landfill, an emergency landfill, a hazardous waste site and seven waste treatment sites. The waste treatment sites may include sorting facilities, recycling plants, composting sites and waste-to-energy sites. According to the master plan, detailed plans accompanied by environmental impact statements are required for the establishment of new sites. To facilitate solid waste management, the Ministry of Environmental Protection has formulated a policy founded on integrated waste management. It calls for reduction of waste at source, reuse, recycling (including composting), waste-to-energy technologies, and landfilling. The challenge: to increase recovery and recycling and to reduce the total quantity of waste that the country generates, in general, and the quantity reaching landfills, in particular, without adversely impacting the environment. Although landfilling remains the most prevalent method of waste disposal in Israel today, accounting for some 80% of the waste produced, the Ministry of Environmental Protection has set the following targets for waste recycling and recovery: 35% by 2005 and 50% by In 2003, the policy was full implemented with the closure of Israel s last major dump. Because of the increase of the quantity of construction and demolition wastes in Israel, in 2003 the government took a decision to promote treatment and disposal of these wastes with the cooperation with the Israel Lands Administration. It was decided to use abandoned quarries for the disposal of dedicated construction wastes. At the current rate of treatment, some 20 disposal and treatment sites for construction waste will be prepared by Israel s intensive wastewater treatment plants, which use the activated sludge method, generate large quantities of sludge. The Ministry of Environmental Protection regards sludge as a valuable resource LDK ECO SA 92

102 for fertilization and soil improvement, but only following appropriate treatment. In 2004, regulations on the use of sludge were promulgated which require wastewater treatment plants to stabilise and treat the sludge they generate as a condition for agricultural use or soil improvement. 3. Industrial pollution policy The policy on industrial pollution control has the tendency to implement pollution prevention measures rather than end of pipe solutions and to adopt specific quantitative targets for pollution reduction. The industrial inspection and enforcement system is targeted to be supported by the formulation of an adequate database on industrial emissions. 4. The National Action Plan in the frame of the Strategic Action Programme for the protection of the Mediterranean from land-based pollution sources (UNEP/MAP) MAP has significantly influenced Israel s environmental development. In the frame of the SAP, Israel has prepared a National Action Plan, where it proposes priority actions to be implemented by the year 2010, which are described below (UNEP/MAP, 2005). Some of the actions are already in progress. a. Urban and Industrial wastewater Liquid wastewater (urban and industrial) discharge to the sea: Establishing and upgrading of WWTPs drained to the sea through rivers (compliance with the Inbar Committee standard for agricultural use/discharge to the rivers). Directing effluents to agricultural irrigation (utilization of the full potential of effluents as a water source for agriculture). Reducing the concentration of boron in cleaning materials Completion of treatment and recovery systems in Hot Spots and in coastal cities directly discharging effluents to the sea (Acre, Hof Hacarmel, Herzliya, Ashdod) Land treatment of Shafdan sludge (actually disposed off into the sea through a marine outfall) Adoption of advanced treatment of industrial effluents at source to reduce pollutants in the brines and industrial effluents discharged directly into the sea through marine outfalls and vessels. Establishment of more stringent standards for brines and effluents. Establishment of proper conditions in business licenses and enforcement in industrial plants. Connection of all coastal cities with population above 100,000 to municipal sewage systems Liquid wastewater (urban and industrial) discharge to rivers: Implementation of the national action plan for the water sector by Establishing and upgrading of WWTPs in compliance with the Inbar Committee standards for agricultural use/discharge to the rivers for nutrient reduction. Building of WWTPs along the Kishon and Hadera rivers. Utilization of the full effluents potential as a water source for agricultural consumption and discharge to the rivers (Completion of WWTPs /comliance with Inbar Committee standards at Acre (Na aman river); Haifa (Kishon river); Hadera, Iron and Jat (Hadera river); Lev-Hashaon-Tnuvot (Alexander river); Ra anana (Poleg river), Nir Eliyahu, Kfar and Ramat Hasharon (Yakon river); Jerusalem, Beit Shemesh and Ayalon (Sorwq river); Kiryat Gat (Laschish river); Beersheba and Hebron (Besor river). Integrated treatment to reduce pollutants from diffuse sources through reduction at source. Rehabilitation of riverbank vegetation and creation of buffer zones and intensification of the self-purification capacity of rivers Development of a pilot project to assess the most efficient treatment method for water emissions from fishponds. Establishment of priorities for treating the fishpond waters discharged to the coastal rivers within five years after the implementation of the pilot project Diverting the flow of urban runoff to constructed wetlands (follow up of the pilot project in the Yarkon river) Completion of master plans for the rehabilitation of all coastal rivers by 2010 Formulating of a statutory outline scheme as a basis for the master plan, protecting coastal open spaces and designated areas for control development Allocating water quantities for discharge to rivers Determining water quality for discharge to rivers according to specific requirements for survival of each river s population Changing the structure of the river channel LDK ECO SA 93

103 Biodiversity rehabilitation Hot Spots: Na aman River outfall: Directing the wastewater of Kfar Marsik and Ein Hamifratz to the Acre WWTP; pretreatment in Miluban; compliance with Inbar Committee standards for discharge to rivers; high priority to establishing a dedicated WWTP for fishponds Haifa Bay: Pretreatment and compliance with the Inbar Committee standards for discharge to rivers; plants which cannot comply with Inbar Committee standards will discharge their wastewater directly to sea while complying with criteria of the Ministry of Environmental Protection on quantity and quality of brines permitted for discharge to sea. High priority to establishing a dedicated WWTP for fishponds Shafdan: Cessation of sludge discharge to sea by 2008 Ashdod: Promotion of advanced pretreatment of industrial wastewater at source in the plants, and enforcement of quality and quantity of industrial wastewater permitted for disposal to sea b. Municipal solid waste Shutting down dumps and switching to sanitary landfills Rehabilitating old dumps which were shut down and have high real estate potential (Hiriya, Netanya, North Herzliya, Rishon LeZion, Retamin, Ashkelon, Bat Yam, Haifa) Construction and demolition waste. Waste recycling separating the problematic components from urban waste as part of the waste s pretreatment (until 2025) Construction and demolition waste. Establishment of 20 regulated sites for the disposal of construction waste in quarries in which mining work is completed c. Industrial air emissions Monitoring and compliance of electricity sector (power plants) and review of their compliance with air standards (by 2010). Enforcement of measures for compliance with national standards ( ) Monitoring and compliance of all industrial plants/facilities and review of their compliance with air standards (by 2010). Enforcement of measures for compliance with national standards ( ) Overview of completed and on-going projects In Israel, the majority of environmental protection activities receive public and private local funds. Though limited information is available on individual projects, it is evident that a number of actions has been realised during the last years, and quite a lot of them are ongoing, on urban wastewater treatment and reclamation systems and solid waste landfilling. MoI usually provides the necessary funds for infrastructure, with a contribution from the municipalities. For solid waste, municipalities are granted financial aid for transporting waste to regulated sites following the closure of dumps and are forced to close the dumps by demand or, if necessary, by legal proceedings. Financial support is currently targeted at the wastewater reclamation facilities, and waste recycling infrastructures and initiatives. While no reported data was available on activities for industrial emissions, investment in industry is made in the following order of priority: air, wastewater, recycling, hazardous waste, and solids. Two legal binding policy actions will integrate measures on industrial pollution reduction; the introduction of pollution prevention concept and the improvement of EIA system. Many industries are bounded for quite heavy investments to comply with the legislative requirements, especially for industrial effluents. As industry is actually a private sector, the industries do not receive (at least not directly) national funding, but they invest from their own funds or loans (e.g. EIB). For nearly 30 years, most of Israel s regional activities have been carried out within the framework of the Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP) of UNEP. The activities which have been influenced by MAP include the GEF funded National Action Plan on land based pollution sources and its newly established national funded Cleaner Production Centre. Israel s involvement in environmental protection has also led to 16 bilateral agreements for environmental cooperation. Implementation of the agreements takes different forms including LDK ECO SA 94

104 exchange visits of professionals, workshops, research studies and joint projects on environmental problems of common interest. The European Union has taken an active part in environmental activities in the Middle East and in Israel within the framework of an environmental section included in the agreement of cooperation between the State of Israel and the EU. Over the past ten years, the EU has allocated funds for the joint financing of projects on urban wastewater and solid waste management within the framework of its LIFE 3rd Countries programme. Israel is also participating in the SMAP III programme. The following table is a brief presentation of the past achieved and ongoing activities grouped by focal area, though limited to foreign assistance. Activities Funding source Status Urban Wastewater Construction or upgrade of wastewater treatment plants: - for Acko city (construction - secondary treatment) public funds - for Herzlia city (upgrade to tertiary treatment to be able for reuse) public funds Sakhnin Center as a model for environmental education and international cooperation on advanced wastewater treatment plants in rural areas Connection of all coastal cities with population above 100,000 to municipal sewage systems LIFE 3rd countries public funds Wastewater collection and treatment facilities in Sorek Valley EIB n/a Wastewater reuse regional project: proposals, methods and guidelines for reclaimed wastewater systems; transfer of know how for EU regulation, technologies and practices; setting up an regional information network, Municipal Solid Waste Solid waste management: - in Southern Arava Valley: regional strategy for handling all agricultural and some municipal waste (solid and liquid) - in Kiriat Tivon town (demonstration city): source-separated collection and processing of wet compostable and dry streams - in Upper Galilee region: strategy for the development of centralised organic waste treatment; composting facility at Havat Hamataim in Hula Valley (Galicomp project) - in Haifa city: provision of methodology to design and manage urban refuse collection, transfer, and treatment and carry out related educational activities Greece (YPEJ) LIFE 3rd countries LIFE 3rd countries LIFE 3rd countries LIFE 3rd countries Shutting down dumps and switching to sanitary landfills public funds Industrial Emissions Global loan to Industrial Development Bank of Israel for financing environmental protection schemes Cleaner Production Centre public funds DELTA Phase III- Environmental upgrading of enterprises in Maghreb and Mashrek countries: development of eco-management practices in Jordan enterprises; institutional strengthening of DELTA networks; and development of individual skills to promote eco-efficiency in the future. Horizontal Assistance and institutional strengthening, promotion of integrated coastal zone management (SMAP III Technical Assistance project) EIB LIFE 3rd countries EC-SMAP III Determination of Priority Actions for the Further Elaboration and GEF, MAP-MEDU, n/a LDK ECO SA 95

105 Activities Funding source Status Implementation of the Strategic Action Programme public funds completed activities; ongoing activities; n/a: not available data Outcome of review Israel has made substantial efforts in environmental protection and is highly active on pollution prevention and abatement, law establishment and enforcement, research and monitoring activities. Long term national programmes have been produced and are under implementation on the prime thematic priorities for pollution reduction, which have been strengthened through adequate legislative tools. National funded assistance has been given to almost all the activities on environmental protection, while international and bilateral cooperation are in place through the form of exchange of information and know-how, research studies as well as joint projects on environmental problems of common interest. Israel has made considerable efforts to minimise urban effluent pollution by upgrading the standards for urban effluent treatment. According to the water strategy of the country, wastewater is treated in order to be used for irrigation or for the rehabilitation of river courses. This policy, which is by far the more advanced in all Mediterranean region (North or South), has resulted to a very high quality of treated urban effluents and to a successful solution of waster scarcity. Israel has also succeeded to collect efficiently solid wastes generated within the cities and to close the major dumps which lacked sanitary measures. Solid waste deposition is now practiced on sanitary landfills, but rehabilitation measures are needed to be undertaken in the closed dumps. The new challenge is to increase recovery and recycling and to reduce the total quantity of waste that the country generates, in general, and the quantity reaching landfills, in particular, without adversely impacting the environment. Although landfilling remains the most prevalent method of waste disposal in Israel today, accounting for some 80% of the waste produced, the Ministry of Environmental Protection has set the following targets for waste recycling and recovery: 35% by 2005 and 50% by Industrial wastewater is probably the most important environmental problem still remaining to be solved in Israel, since pollution in coastal areas is related to this activity (Haifa Bay, Kishon and Hadera Rivers, the harbours of Ashod and Kishon, the Shafdan marine outfall and the Dan Region Wastewater Treatment Plant). Land treatment of Shafdan sludge, which is actually disposed off into the sea through a marine outfall) and the adoption of advanced treatment of industrial effluents at source to reduce pollutants in the brines and industrial effluents discharged directly into the sea through marine outfalls and vessels. Also it is underway the implementation of more stringent standards for brines and industrial effluents and the establishment of proper conditions in business licenses and enforcement in industrial plants. Overall, Israel has made important progress in the control of pollution from land-based pollution sources. The authority of the Ministry of Environmental Protection is high and its enforcement capabilities strong. Also the Ministry has highly qualified personnel to enforce legislation. The environmental legislation in Israel is very detailed, while more efforts will be needed to reduce the fragmentation of authority and enhance cooperation between different Ministries. Another challenge is the availability of funding otherwise it will not be possible for the country to make any further progress on pollution reduction and environmental protection. LDK ECO SA 96

106 5.4 Jordan Jordan is situated in south-western Asia and is bounded on the north by Syria, on the south by Saudi Arabia and the Gulf of Aqaba, on the east by Iraq and on the west by the occupied West Bank. It is a small Middle Eastern country with inadequate supplies of water, limited natural resources and semi-arid climate. In addition to the rapid growth rate of Jordan, the growth rate was compounded by the successive waves of refugees that have come into the country as a result of a series of conflicts in the region. The impact of these sudden increases of population, where people have always lived in conditions of limited natural resources, has put severe stresses on the social, economical, political and environmental sectors of the country. The combination of limited resources and environmental constrains coupled with a growing population and rapid urbanization have posed an enduring challenge for both policy makers and citizens, especially the poor. Scarce water resources are one of the most critical natural constraints on Jordan s economic growth. There is a striking imbalance between the share of agriculture in the Jordanian economy (its share in GDP was at 3.8% in 2000) and the proportion of precious water resources used for irrigation (almost 70%). On current trends, and assuming that no major new supplies are added and that no significant change in water management and policy occurs, Jordan is headed for an absolute water shortage, projected by 2025 to be at 90 m3 per capita per year. Other environmental concerns are the following: (1) land quality: in addition to the very limited area covered by forests, the soil is deteriorating due to salination and incorrect use of fertilisers and pesticides (in the Jordan Valley in particular); (2) growing urbanisation, due to combined effects of the high natural increase of population and recurrent flows of refugees and returnees; (3) ground water and surface water pollution; (4) the Dead Sea level is diminishing rapidly due to lack of fresh water inflows in recent years and a high level of evaporation; (5) marine and coral deterioration along a 27 km coastline of the Gulf of Aqaba, which has to serve as an international port, a tourist resort and a marine reserve; (6) air pollution in limited areas like Amman and Zarqa and (7) more efficient use of non-renewable energy, including oil and gas, and increased use of renewable energies (esp. wind and solar energy). For the majority of these problems solutions have to be found in a regional context, while for some others (use of pesticides and fertilisers, surface water pollution, desertification, etc.), solutions must be developed at the national level. With these environmental issues at the forefront of concerns, great efforts have been put forward. The Government of Jordan, represented by the Ministry of Planning, as the prime body responsible for strategic planning, in coordination with the Ministry of Environmental Protection and the Ministry of Finance, (as the prime body responsible for fiscal policy) have decided that debt-swap for environment is a viable option for Jordan. However, these efforts require the contribution of the donor community, as the solution to some of these environmental problems pauses a resource s financial and technical burden. The Government of Jordan has long prioritised its most pressing problems as being the scarce water resources and land degradation. LDK ECO SA 97

107 5.4.1 Major sources of pollution from urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions Current sources of pollution in Jordan are municipal wastewater discharges, industrial effluents, localised air pollution, while solid waste management is a growing concern. 17) Urban wastewater Treated wastewater coming from nineteen existing wastewater treatment plants is an important component of the Kingdom s water resources. About MCM per annum wastewater is discharged into various water courses or used directly for irrigation, mostly in the Jordan Valley. About one-third of the municipal water supplied to Greater Amman eventually returns to the main treatment plant at Khirbet as-samra. However, it is reported that several plants are overloaded and do not provide effluents that meet the Jordanian standards. At present a good percentage of the urban population, around 65%, have access to public wastewater collection and treatment systems. However, only a limited percentage (3%) of the rural population is connected to sewerage networks. In these areas wastewater is discharged to septic tanks, or directly to natural bodies Municipal solid waste Solid waste management is a growing concern in Jordan. There is no a national strategy for solid waste management. For many years waste management has been carried out in the context of an inadequate policy and legislation and with insufficient financing sources. As a result, solid waste management systems have not been developed to adequate levels and collected waste is generally managed in dumps. The collection system is considered to be adequate in urban centres, but services tend to be poor or nonexistent in rural areas and small towns. Collected waste is not separated. With NGO leadership, modest recycling programmes for aluminium cans and paper have been launched in Amman. There are no standards or specifications for solid waste management in Jordan. No new landfills have been established for the last 15 years apart from the one that serves the city of Amman. In the absence of environmental standards for landfill design, only the EIA process is available to evaluate the new landfills. Another source of water pollution that is under estimated is the leaching from the solid wastes that are not properly discharged and treated. Municipal and industrial solid wastes generated in the country are mainly discharged to landfill sites. At present, there are 24 authorized disposal sites in Jordan but most of these sites are not lined and do not have a leachate collection system to reduce contamination Industrial emissions Jordan is not a highly industrialized country, but several major industries contribute to the air pollution problem. Air pollution is a localized, but a significant, issue in Jordan. Air quality is acute in urban areas, such as Amman and Aqaba. Air pollution comes from both stationary and mobile sources, such as industry and vehicles, as well as natural sources, such as sand and dust storms. The most damaging source, however, is due to the growing fleet of vehicles that emit high levels of pollutants. Poorly maintained vehicles consume poor quality fuels. Although I the country there have been established industrial zones, these lack the proper infrastructure in terms of wastewater treatment and collection and disposal of solids. Nearly most of the country's larger existing manufacturing industries are located on the highway between Amman and Zarqa. Zarqa (about 30 km northeast of Amman) hosts approximately (52%) of the Jordanian industries and is considered to be a hot spot area. The total number of industrial LDK ECO SA 98

108 facilities in Zaqa is approximately (2500), of which (170) are considered medium size, (80) as large and (2250) are small size industries. Industries in Zarqa cover a wide range of activities, including food, chemicals, construction, textiles, leather, pulp and paper, pharmaceuticals, and the main oil refinery. The oil refinery is in need of major upgrades, and its owner, the Jordan Petroleum Refining Company (JPRCo), currently is studying its options, as the local market is now in need of additional gasoline and diesel (particularly non leaded), while electric power generation has switching over to natural gas. In the Irbid Governorate, where also is included the Al Hasan industrial city, hosts industrial activities such as bricks factories, rock quarries, farms, olive presses, etc. The Governorate hosts (95) small, medium and large industries (20) of which are small size and (75) are large and medium. In the Deir Alla Directorate there are (6) factories, (16) coal plants and one slaughter house. Mafraq Directorate (the biggest the biggest governorate in the kingdom covering about 28% of the total area of the kingdom) has numerous industrial activities and one industrial zone. Karak Directorate has one industrial zone. In the Aqaba region, port and industrial activities, particularly the loading of phosphate for export, generate pollution that can be expected to increase, as Aqaba grows further. Jordan ranks in the top three exporters of phosphate in the world, and is the sixth largest world producer of potash. The Jordan Phosphate Mines Co., a company wholly owned by the Jordanian Government, today has two phosphate mines, at Ruseifa in the north and Hasa in the south. Potash is produced by the Arab Potash Co. (APC) at its Dead Sea facility. Both activities are considered to produce acute air pollution. Regarding industrial wastewater, industries discharge their wastewater either untreated or only partially treated into municipal sewers or into the environment. It is estimated that less than half of the industries discharge their wastewater to municipal sewers. A number of the highly polluting industries such as the slaughterhouses and dairy products discharge their liquid wastes into a poorly regulated open liquid landfill site in the vicinity of Amman-Zarqa water basin. Also, in the same basin, most of industrial units which are linked to public sewers connected to the Khirbet As-Samra wastewater treatment plant. The plant is heavily overloaded with domestic wastewater (with high organic load) and industrial wastewater (containing chemical and organic pollutants). Today the system operates at about 3 times over its design carrying capacity. The industrial wastewater to the plant is increasing the severity of the problem since the original plant s carrying capacity is not suitable for treating industrial wastewater. Jordan, with its scarce water sources, has the highest toxicity index among all countries of the region. (The present regulations require industries to obtain a license to discharge their wastewater. Moreover, regular monitoring of industrial effluents discharge in sewer system is being undertaken by WAJ. As a result, a decline of violating industries connected to the sewer system has been noticed during the last years. However, it is estimated that the percentage of unconnected violators remains high in the range of 50 per cent). Jordan so far has not any landfill site for the disposal of industrial and hazardous wastes Institutional setting During early 90 s the legislation and responsibility for environmental protection was dispersed among the various public departments. However, there was a tendency to increase the responsibility of the Environment Dept. within the Ministry of Municipal, Rural Affairs and Environment. In 1995 the Environment Protection Law was enacted to establish the General Corporation for Environmental Protection (GCEP). Even though the law of 1995 gave GCEP the jurisdiction to issue environmental regulations and instructions and provided the needed legislative cover for it to fully perform its environmental protection role, in reality, GCEP was not operating efficiently due to bureaucratic constrains, lack of expertise, and the centralisation of authority to the Ministry of Rural Affairs and LDK ECO SA 99

109 Environment, which greatly limited GCEP s power and capability. Due to the high bureaucracy and technical weakness of GCEP, there was the recognition that a Ministry of Environment (actually referred to in a Royal Decree of 2000) needed to be established. (After the establishment of the Ministry of Environment, the GCEP has been dissolved and its responsibilities have been transferred to the MoE). In 2003, the Ministry of Environment (MoE) was established based on the Environmental Protection Law No. 1 for 2003 as an entity with the aim to promote protection of the environment, improve its various elements, and to execute this strategy in co-operation with the relevant authorities. As such, all relevant environmentally related matters come under its jurisdiction. The ministry has the legal position to act in all procedures. The most important tasks of the MoE includes the formulation of public policy for the protection of the environment, and preparation of the plans, programmes, and projects, necessary for the realization of sustainable development. In addition, the MoE is responsible for monitoring and measuring the environment elements and components and coordinating all the national efforts, aimed at preserving the environment. The MoE in order to better communicate and coordinate the environmental issues at regional level, 5 Environmental Directorates in the Governorates 2 have been established during the years and these are: the Zarqa Directorate, Irbid Directorate, Mafraq Directorate, Balqa Directorate and the Deir Allah Directorate, which implement nearly all environmental activities. Regarding solid waste management, and as reflected in the legal framework, there are two primary entities at national level with responsibilities for solid waste management. The Ministry for Municipal Affairs plays a key role of its administration of municipal affairs. One key responsibility of the Ministry relates to the provision of funds through which the municipalities finance waste management capital expenditures. The Ministry of Environment has the responsibility for regulating the activities that may have an impact on the environment. Municipalities are responsible for waste management operations. In the waste management sector Jordan has implemented inter-municipal agreements that provide for individual municipalities to collect wastes, and for inter-municipal management of wastes management facilities. As a consequence, municipalities share waste disposal facilities and in some cases waste collection systems. Governorates are in charge of monitoring waste disposal sites from the health and safety point of view. Regarding water and wastewater management in Jordan there are three public agencies responsible for the management of water resources. The Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) is responsible of water resources policy and strategy development, water resources planning, research and development, information systems, procuring financial resources. The MWI was established in 1992, by a bylaw issued by the executive Branch of the Government under the Jordanian Constitution. The establishment of the Ministry of Water and Irrigation was in response to Jordan s recognition for the need of a more integrated approach to National water management. Since its establishment, MWI has been supported by several donor organization projects that have assisted in the development of water policy and water master planning as will be as restructuring the water sector. Waste management is undertaken primarily by the public sector; no significant participation by the private sector has been identified. PSP currently appears to be confined to providing solid waste collection and transport services to industrial enterprises. The two agencies, namely the Water Authority of Jordan (WAJ) and the Jordan Valley Authority (JVA) are executing bodies; they are under the umbrella of MWI and the Minister of MWI heads their boards of Directors. WAJ is responsible for providing water and sewage services throughout Jordan and for water resources management while JVA responsibilities cover the development of Jordan Rift valley, including water resources, primarily for agriculture in the Jordan valley and southern Ghors. JVA is also in charge of managing the scheme in the valley and all dams and reservoirs feeding JRV. The Ministry of Environment monitors the quality of surface water in natural environment and the quality of industrial wastewater discharged to the ecosystems to meet its mandate in conserving the environmental elements from pollution. However, the Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) is the 2 Local governments in Jordan are composed of governorates, municipalities, and villages LDK ECO SA 100

110 official body responsible for the overall monitoring of the water sector, water supply and wastewater system and the related projects, planning and management, the formulation of national water strategies and policies, research and development, information systems and procurement of financial resources. Its Role also includes the provision of centralized water related data, Standardization and Consolidation of Data. The Ministry of Health is responsible of monitoring potable water quality and disseminating information on water born diseases to administrative authorities and to the public. The ministry has also an important role in the development of standards and laws especially for drinking water. The Ministry of Agriculture, plans, regulates and develops activities, projects and programmes, follows up their implementation to increase production, protects the environment and natural resources and co-operates with all relevant parties to achieve the agricultural development goals given by the Agricultural Law (No 20, year 2000).and defined by the agricultural policy. The Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources is responsible for ensuring adequate provision of Energy to Jordan and for protecting mineral resources. The Ministry of Planning is responsible for drafting and enforcing planning law in Jordan. At this point it is important to mention another milestone in the development of institutional and legislative environmental framework in Jordan. Parallel to the creation of the Ministry of Environment, the Aqaba Special Economic Zone (ASEZ) was established in January 2001 to create a regional focal point for investment and tourism around the southern port city of Aqaba. The ASEZ - Law No 32 for the year 2000, commonly referred to as the ASEZ Law - established an Aqaba Special Economic Zone Authority (ASEZA) to administer the Zone. According to Article 52 of the ASEZ law, the ASEZ Board of Commissioners shall be responsible for protecting and maintaining the environment in the Zone. As a result of this law all existing and potential investors within the Zone are required to satisfy ASEZA with regard to the environmental impacts of their investment, and their ability to comply with all the relevant environmental requirements, rules and regulations in force within the Zone. Apart from the above mentioned entities, several others are directly or indirectly involved in environmental issues as well as water quality activities for planning, operational purposes, and research, monitoring and regulation activities. A- Governmental Agencies 1- Natural Resources Authority 2- The Hashemite Fund for Badia Development (HFBD) B- Semi-Governmental and Research institutes 1- Higher Council for Science and Technology 2- The Royal Scientific Society 3- Research Centres at Jordan Universities 4- Queen Rania Centre for Environmental Research-Jordan University of Science and Technology 5- Badia Research and Development Centre (BRDC) 6-Aqaba Special Economic Zone Authority 7-Aqaba Ports Corporation 8-Petra Regional Authority C- Non-Governmental Organizations 1- The Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature (in 1996 the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature was established as the first body to carry out officially the service of protecting Jordan s nature and wildlife and setting up protected areas) 2- Jordan Environment Society 3- The Jordanian Society for Desertification Control and Badia Development. 4- The Royal Society for the Protection of Marine Environment. 5- Friends of the Environment 6-National Environment and Wildlife Society LDK ECO SA 101

111 7-Jordan Royal Ecological Diving Society 8-Friends of Archaeology 9-Arab Women Society 9-Petra Trust 10-Jordan Society for Sustainable Development, and 11-Jordanian Fertile Crescent Society Legal framework The primary environmental legislation is Law No. 1 of 2003 (approved lately by the Parliament), which has substituted the Environmental protection law 1995, sets out the framework for environmental protection in Jordan. The law has identified environment, its components, pollution and deterioration, preservation and protection. Based on the Environment protection law, the Ministry of Environment (MoE) became responsible for issuing the necessary regulations for the implementation of the provisions of this law including regulation of nature protection, water protection, environmental impact assessment, and land and soil protection. As a result of the law of environment, the following regulations are issued pursuant to the Environment Protection Law No. (1): Environment Protection from Pollution in Emergency Cases. Water Protection (under preparation). Air Protection. Protection of Marine Environment and Coastal Protection. Natural Reserves and National Parks. Management, Transport and Handling of Harmful & Hazardous Substances. Management of Solid Waste. Environmental Impact Assessment. Soil Protection. The following paragraphs describe the legislative situation in Jordan with regards to the three project s fields namely, wastewater, urban solid waste and industrial emissions. Water, Wastewater and Sewage: The primary legislation for the protection of water is a by-law issued under the Environment Protection law of This sets the water quality objectives; determines standards for wastewater treatment plants and waste disposal sites; and addresses water savings opportunities in the industrial, agricultural and construction sector. As mentioned above, the MWI prepared Jordan s water strategy, aimed at maximising the effective use of the country s water resources. It seeks, inter alia, to collect and treat wastewater for subsequent reuse. Several other laws, by-laws, specifications and standards for water quality were developed based on WHO standards which should be used for various agricultural crops and for discharges into various water bodies. However, neither the monitoring nor the enforcement of these standards has been addressed by any by-law or Decree. Apart from the below mentioned laws that created certain organizations, there are no other laws or by-laws related to water quality, wastewater and management. - Law No. 18 of 1988, Water Authority. - Agriculture Law No. 44 of 2002, Ministry of Agriculture - Law No. 70 of 1966 on the Organization of Cities, Villages and Buildings, Local Committee. - Public Health Law No. 21 of 1971, Ministry of Health. - Groundwater By-Law No. 85 of Sewage By-law No. 66 of 1994, Water Authority - Prevention of Repulsive and Fees for Solid Waste Collection within Municipality s Boundaries No. 1 of 1978, Municipalities LDK ECO SA 102

112 - Industrial and Commercial Waste Water Disposal into the Public Sewage No. 1 of 1998, Water Authority. - Jordanian Specification No. 202/ 2003, Water: Industrial Waste Water, Jordan Institute for Standards and Metrology. - Jordanian Specification No. 893/2002, Water: Treated Domestic Waste Water, Jordan Institute for Standards and Metrology. - Jordanian Specification No 1145/1996, Sludge Reuse of treated sludge in agriculture, Jordan Institute for Standards and Metrology. - Jordanian Specification No 286/2001, Drinking Water Standards, Jordan Institute for Standards and Metrology. - Jordanian Specification No 893/2002 on the standard requirements and quality control for drinking water, Jordan Institute for Standards and Metrology. - Jordanian Specification No 1214/2001: on bottled drinking water, Jordan Institute for Standards and Metrology. - Instructions for disposal of industrial wastewater to sewers and public sewer of the year 1998, Water Authority of Jordan. Urban solid Waste: National solid waste management policy or strategies for solid waste management does not exist. However, NEAP has identified solid waste management as a national priority and has defined a wide range of actions to improve the SWM situation. The Environment Protection Law No. (1) of 2003 addresses the issue of solid waste and SWM is addressed by a recent regulation. Regulation No 89 of 1998 concerns the cost recovery from solid waste. Under this regulation a waste management levy is added to the electricity bills at a rate that is determined by the size of the municipality in which a resident lives. Administration of this levy provides for the payment of a 10% administration fee to the electricity utility. The absence of national solid waste management strategy and a solid waste law are considered to be the major obstacles to the development of an effective solid waste management in Jordan. Industrial emissions: Legislation related to air quality in Jordan appears to be weak. An Air Protection Regulation is issued pursuant to the Environment Protection Law No. (1) of Clean Draft Act (2000) sets out the responsibilities for determining maximum allowable concentrations. There are some provisions related to vehicle and agricultural emissions, but industrial emissions do not appear to be addressed Policy environment and action programmes Jordan is one of the leading countries in the region to have adopted an Environmental Strategy. The 1992 Environmental Strategy paved the way for the Environment Law No. 12 (ratified in 1995) and created the General Corporation for Environmental Protection (GCEP). Both the Strategy and the Environment Law were followed by a National Environment Action Plan (NEAP) completed in 1995 and issued in NES aims to maintain long-term environmental balance and enhancing the preparation of development plan, while ensuring its continuity through economic planning. NES prioritised the areas to be addressed to ensure sustaining productivity of agricultural land, while protecting the environment. NEAP aims to guide government environmental policy and investment decisions and to articulate programmes to implement such decisions. In 2005 the MoE has conducted an analytical review of available environmental strategies and other sectoral strategies and produced the Report Environmental Strategies Review. The main goal of this report is to document the priorities highlighted in each of the previous environmental strategies as well as the environmental dimension in each of the sectoral strategies in order to identify the main themes for the updated NEAP The preparation of the new NEAP is to be coordinated by the Ministry of Environment involving all partner institutions and organizations once funding LDK ECO SA 103

113 becomes available. The report highlights the prioritisation themes proposed by the MoE to be included in the new NEAP, the preparation mechanism proposed and the relation with National Agenda and other environment and development policies and strategies. The Ministry intends to organise a national seminar at the beginning of 2007 to present this document and discuss its contents with partner institutions in order to reach an agreement on the proposed main themes. Also the MoE has prepared the Strategic Direction for the Ministry of Environment, , which was produced early 2006 and contains the Mission and Vision Statements and identification of Strategic Objectives which would become the basis for the Ministry's future operational work plan. The Ministry initiated a participatory process of strategic planning that resulted in developing its mission, vision and strategic objectives, as well as an operational action plan for A Planning and Monitoring Committee (PMC) comprised from all the MoE Directors and some of the Project Managers was established in order to develop and monitor the implementation of a detailed work plan for the Ministry. More specifically, the Ministry s operational programme for the years are set out along 7 axes, under which several action plans are established. The axes are as follows: 1. Contribute to achieve sustainable development 2. Develop and implement policies and legislation 3. Enhance monitoring, inspection and enforcement of legislation 4. Develop and implement information management programmes 5. Raise public awareness and education 6. Promote national, regional and international cooperation 7. Strengthen and develop the capacity of the Ministry The MoE in this document has identified the environmental hot spots that require immediate rehabilitation including Zarqa River, AlAkaider landfill, Phosphate mining sites, cement factory and the Petroleum refinery. The MoE has placed as top priority the rehabilitation and integrated environmental management of the Zarqa River Basin in its working plan As such, the MoE has devoted great effort in developing a strategic management package for the Amman-Zarqa basin. The approach is innovative to Jordan and will be applied as a model for other similar situations. As a consequence of the above, the MoE in association with the MWI and the Zarqa Chamber of industry has developed a feasibility study for the establishment of a centralised industrial wastewater treatment plant in Zarqua in order to provide adequate treatment of industrial wastewater and to reduce the cost of establishing individual plants in the units. With regards to this project s fields, several strategies were developed by the government including the Five-Year Development Plan for the Period of , the National Agenda 21 Action Plan, the National Social and Economic Development Plan ( ), the Jordan National Report of the Millennium Development Goals and the most recent document the National Agenda. The Five-Year Development Plan for the Period of : The main components of the plan are the agriculture, water and environment. Of relevance to this report are: i) Water Sector: Included the following elements of environmental dimension with regards to wastewater: - Improvement of the performance of treated wastewater plants. - Follow up the updating of national standards related to water use. - Encourage the research and studies in the field of reuse treated water. - Implement awareness campaign in the field of rationalise water use, conservation of water quality, water harvesting. ii) Environmental Sector: Included several activities related to national policies and action plans National Agenda 21 (National Strategy for Sustainable Development), 2001: The national Agenda 21 is finalized and adopted at a national forum for endorsement. Jordan s agenda 21 has been prepared to ensure that environmental resources are used in sustainable manner and covers the following axes: - Integrated resources management, water resource management, land resource management, agricultural resources, energy resources and mineral resources management of hazardous waste, air quality control, coastal LDK ECO SA 104

114 zone management and public health, and managing solid waste. - Legislative and institutional issues for sustainable development. - Education and awareness. - Socio-economic issues. - Information for decision making. - Relevant projects. The National Social and Economic Development Plan ( ) developed by the Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation aims at adopting economic policies and procedures that could contribute to achieving a quantum leap in the performance of the national economy, and creating a tangible transformation in the quality and standard of living of Jordanian citizens contains the Main Economic and Social Axes Basic Government Services among which is the water and sanitation. The objectives, policies and procedures regarding sanitation are: Objectives To expand the use of recycling treated wastewater for agricultural and industrial purposes. To extend the use of brackish water and using it for municipal purposes. To reduce the financial burden of the treasury and improve the financial performance of the water and sanitation facilities. To improve the quality of treated wastewater and expand wastewater services. To reduce the depletion of groundwater and protecting it from pollution. Policies and Procedures To protect water resources, especially groundwater, from pollution, quality degradation and depletion. To give priority to household water uses, and to prioritise groundwater among municipal, industrial, university, and tourism uses. To utilize brackish water and seawater after desalination as a water resource for household, tourism, industrial and agricultural purposes. To provide wastewater disposal facilities in all cities of the Kingdom. Utilize treated wastewater as a water resource for agriculture, industry, and aquifer re-injection, and adopt modern technology in the construction of wastewater treatment plants. To reconsider, periodically, institutional arrangements and current legislation, and update them regularly. To expand the participation of the private sector in managing water and wastewater disposal facilities, and financing, building and managing projects and facilities through contracting with the private sector to manage drinking water facilities, and wastewater facilities in the northern governorates and to manage irrigation water facilities in the Jordan valley. To establish the Water and Wastewater Sector Organization Authority to supervise and control this sector. To amend the water, wastewater and irrigation water tariff to improve the financial position of the Water Authority and the Jordan Valley Authority and enable them to recapture their costs. A list of priority sanitation projects for the years is given below: Project title Total cost of project (mil JD) Liquid waste dump-al-akyader Yayouz sanitation disposal project Reducing waste in Jerash and Irbid governorates Reducing waste in Karnak governorate Brakish water treatment Abu Zeigham (I&II) Aqaba wastewater project Wastewater disposal project for the greater Irbid phase II Wastewater disposal for the west Jerash and Sukhneh villages Wadi Seir Tilaa Al Ali Sweileh Marj El Hamam wastewater project Various wastewater networks phase I LDK ECO SA 105

115 Project title Total cost of project (mil JD) Liquid waste disposal site Lujoun Various wastewater disposal tenders in the capital, Zarqa and Madaba Different wastewater disposal projects in Ma am Different wastewater disposal projects in Ajloun Hasimi Shamali wastewater disposal project Tabarbour /Arjan South Amman wastewater disposal Reduction of waste and improvement of services project Wastewater disposal in Salt Management contract fro the greater Amman water and wastewater project Ain El Basha Sweileh Tla a Al Ali wastewater disposal project Salhoub Ain El Basha Numerous wastewater projects Various wastewater networks / new phase Connect wastewater carrier lines from the Zarqa military camps to the Khribt Al-Samra purification plant Wastewater in Al Mazar, Moatah, Al Adnaneyah Wastewater disposal Naour Improve and relocate wastewater disposal lines in Amman damaged lines Studies and design of wastewater disposal networks throughout the Kingdom Tafileh and Ais wastewater disposal services to population centres Various wastewater treatment plants Total Some of the above mentioned actions and projects have been already financed by international donors, from which some are already completed, whereas others are still ongoing. The second part of this report includes the Strategy for Developing the Governorates under which two relevant to this project s fields are related: a central axis for action in the field of environment and a central axis for action in the Municipalities. The mission of the first axis is to improve environmental activities in order to ensure the continuity and sustainability of development initiatives, preserve natural resources, as well as to introduce a positive change in the environmental behaviour amongst all societal groups and to strengthen the partnership between public sector institutions and civil society establishments. Certain projects were considered to have a priority, which the most relevant are: Project title Total cost of project (mil JD) The clean development mechanism Replace the harmful material to the Ozone Layer in the industrial sector Central station for industrial waste water treatment in the Zarqa governorate Studying environmental problems in the Zarqa River Basin 0.05 Total LDK ECO SA 106

116 The objective of 2 nd axis is to efficiently and effectively perform all tasks and responsibilities, in serving and developing the local communities, as well as working within an institutionalised process. Certain priority projects were considered, which the most relevant are: Project title Total cost of project (mil JD) Construct transition stations for carrying waste Purchase maps of air photography and other land maps Slaughter houses project Investment in and development of phosphate areas in Russeifa Develop the management of solid waste and trash dumps Total Regarding the National Report of the Millennium Development Goals of Jordan (2004), which was developed by the Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation contained the needed actions for meeting the MDGs. Of relevance is Goal 7 Target 11: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers, -for that target the percentage of residential units connected to sewage networks by the year 2002 reached 60.1%. National Agenda ( ): The main objective of the National Agenda is to improve the quality of life of Jordanians through the creation of income-generating opportunities, the improvement of standards of living, and the guarantee of social welfare. It was developed by the National Agenda Steering Committee comprising from representatives from the Government, Parliament, civil society, the private sector, media and political parties. The National Agenda policy initiatives were developed along three main dimensions, which were: 1. Government & Policies, 2. Basic Rights and Freedoms and 3. Services, Infrastructure and Economic Sectors including, among others adequate water sources, effective water use and leveraging of non-conventional water sources, environmental sustainability. Jordan s socio economic development will be developed over three consecutive phases, each with a distinct focus. These are: Phase I ( ): Employment Opportunities For All, Phase II ( ): Upgrade and Strengthen the Industrial Base (invest in key infrastructure and expand services sectors) and Phase III (2018- onward): World Class Competitor in the Knowledge Economy. The National Agenda Steering Committee has structured the development of initiatives, around eight themes, which are: - Political Development and Inclusion - Justice and Legislation - Investment Development - Financial Services and Fiscal Reform - Employment Support and - Vocational Training - Social Welfare - Education, Higher Education, Scientific Research and Innovation - Infrastructure Upgrade. The Infrastructure Upgrade Theme covers the Water, Energy, ICT, Postal Services and Transportation sectors as well as Environment Sustainability and Water Sector In relation to this project, the most relevant themes are the water sector and environmental protection and sustainability. The Water sector is of strategic importance as water scarcity can significantly impede socio-economic growth. A number of initiatives must be implemented in order to redress the current water situation, which also covers the wastewater sector. Environmental Protection and Sustainability: Jordan is facing challenges in the environmental sustainability sector relating to legislative and regulatory frameworks, waste management, air pollution, combat of desertification, natural reserves and land use and the protection of the Dead Sea and the Red Sea. Several LDK ECO SA 107

117 initiatives were recommended to address these challenges. Regarding the project s fields these can be summarised as follows: 1. Regulatory and Institutional Framework: - Strengthen legislative and institutional framework for environmental sustainability and enforce relative legislation. 2. Waste Management - Develop solid waste management policies, promote environmentally sound disposal sites, encourage recycling and minimize solid waste generation. - Develop a hazardous and chemical waste institutional framework which includes knowledge dissemination mechanisms and information tracking, along with an enforcement regime, in order to ensure that hazardous and chemical waste is adequately stored, collected, and disposed of. - Improve medical waste segregation, transportation, storage and treatment. In order to support the implementation of effective management, the legislative framework should be updated and enforced. - Reduce wastewater discharge outside the sewage system and increase wastewater treatment capacity. 3. Air Pollution - Strengthen mechanisms to ensure pollution monitoring, reduction and control in urban and industrial areas. A set of performance indicators was established to monitor the development progress of the water sector and environment and sustainable development themes. Regarding water and wastewater, during the last years a number of strategies and planning documents have been prepared for the water sector in Jordan. The most recent strategies and planning documents are discussed below. Water Strategy of 1997 (Ministry of Water and Irrigation, April 1997) The Water Strategy aims at securing reliable supplies of water (in quantity and quality) for drinking water and irrigation in Jordan. In general, this is thought to be achievable by the maximum development of water resources, the protection of existing water resources and improvement of distribution and allocation efficiency in both drinking water supply and irrigated agriculture. The strategy defines the long-term goals that the government of Jordan seeks to achieve in the water sector. The strategy also formulated proposals to ensure Jordan s international rights on water resources shared with its neighbours. In the framework of the water strategy, the Ministry produced a series of policy papers, including: Water Utilities - approved by Council of Ministers in July 1997 Irrigation Water - approved by Council of Ministers in February 1998 Groundwater Management - approved by Council of Ministers in February 1998 Wastewater Management - approved by Council of Ministers in February 1998 From the above mentioned policy papers the relevant one to this project is the Wastewater Management Policy of 1998: the Wastewater Policy has a number of sections addressing development, management, collection and treatment, re-use, standards and quality assurance, etc. All sections have been developed with the aim of (i) ensuring adequate collection and treatment, (ii) protecting the environment, public health and water resources, and (iii) using treated effluent as a source of water for irrigation purposes in accordance with WHO and FAO guidelines. The policy focuses on development, waste water collection, and treatment, reuse of treated effluent and sludge, pricing, selected priority issues, standards and regulation and quality, legislation and institutional arrangement, financing, and investment, public awareness, role of private sector, human resource development, and research and development. Also Jordan through bilateral and multilateral contacts, negotiations, and agreements pays special attention to water and wastewater issues and projects associated with regional peace processes, such as: The Israel Jordan Peace Treaty signed in October 1994, which addresses water quality and clearly details the actions to be taken by both countries under Annex II Article III (Water Quality and Protection) Overview of completed and on-going projects In Jordan there are a significant number of projects financed by international bilateral and multilateral donors related either to municipal solid waste management, urban waste or industrial emissions issues. These activities are either under progress or have been completed. There are also some projects LDK ECO SA 108

118 for which it was not possible to conclude whether they are still ongoing or not. Most of these activities are related to urban wastewater whereas only one is linked to the industrial pollution sector. The most important multilateral donors have been the European Union, EIB, World Bank and UNDP along with its sister agencies. Amongst the bilateral donors the most active have been France, Canada, UK (Department for International Development (DFID)), Italy, Japan, USAID and Germany. The activities reported were mostly financed bilaterally either individually or jointly. The majority of the international funded activities focus on urban wastewater, then municipal solid waste projects follows, whilst the industrial emissions projects have received the least attention. Limited data was available on the projects funded by public or private local funding. As Jordan and the European Union have a long withstanding relationship, EU is one of the most active donors in the country through its bilateral and regional cooperation by using its programmes EC-SMAP, EC-MEDA. The European Union supports Jordan in several important areas, such as urban wastewater, solid waste management and horizontal issues The USAID and EIB are also active focusing mainly on urban wastewater infrastructure projects. As a multi-sectoral development agency, UNDP provides assistance to Jordan in the three fields. Current ongoing projects financed by WB are in the field of urban wastewater. German assistance to Jordan is mainly directed to the implementation of projects in the areas of urban wastewater infrastructure (expansion or rehabilitation)., Japan and Canada concentrate their efforts on the urban wastewater and solid waste. Cooperation between Jordan and France has contributed to the successful execution of several development projects, in particular the urban wastewater infrastructure. Italy s bilateral aid programme funds projects in the area of urban wastewater. Some of the launched funded projects have been included and proposed in the National Social and Economic Development Plan ( ). Donor spending concentrates on urban wastewater, which is the dominant environmental sector in Jordan. The number of projects concerning industrial emissions appears to be the most limited and segmental, apart from the formulation of national strategy concerning POPs and the establishment or enforcing of training and technology centres for cleaner production. A summary of the main activities that have taken place in Jordan is presented in the following table, per sector of interest. A complete list of these activities is included in the Annex, containing detailed information on each project. Activities Funding source Status Urban Wastewater Wastewater treatment plant (construction/ technology improvement / expansion) in: -As-Samra (technical assistance) -Greater Amman -Refugee camps (Jerash, Talbieh, Sukhna) -Jordan Valley (including use of treated wastewater for irrigation and a community participation element) -USAID, national funds, Samra Plant Consortium, Bank consortium -SIDA -Italy (MC) -Italy (DGCS, MC) -Canada (CIDA), national funds -Greater Irbid (extention; including sewerage network) -Germany (KfW) -Mafraq and Aqaba -USAID, National Funds -Ain Ghazal -USAID - Refugee camps and adjacent areas all in the Central Region (Community Infrastructure Upgrading programme) -WB, Germany (KfW), UNDP, other Bilateral Agencies LDK ECO SA 109

119 Activities Funding source Status -Al Mafraq (equipment delivery for pilot wastewater treatment & reuse) -EC-MEDA WATER n/a -Baqa (rehabilitation and extension) -France (MINEFI) n/a -Irbid, Ramtha Amman, Zarqa, Souf and Fuheis/Mahis (wastewater -EIB, National Funds n/a collection and treatment) Sewerage network improvement/ rehabilitation/extension in: -Al Samra Amman -Germany (KfW) - Amman (restructuring and rehabilitation; component of Amman Water & Sanitation Mgt Project) WB, Italy (Gov.), EIB & other foreign sources, national funds -Amman - EIB -Salt -EIB - Karak, Tafilah and Kufranje (rehabilitation of sewage systems; including increase of treated wastewater for irrigation) Wastewater reuse: -Regional project on efficient management, treatment and reuse of wastewater EC-MEDA -EC-MEDA WATER, Germany (BMZ) -Development of tools and guidelines for the promotion of sustainable -EC-MEDA WATER urban wastewater treatment and re-use in agricultural production -Wastewater reuse policy (2 projects) -USAID, National Funds Institutional Strengthening/capacity building: -Improvement of the efficiency, management, operation, and delivery of water and wastewater services for the Amman Service Area; and lay the groundwork for the sustainable involvement of the private sector in the overall management of these services -Technical Assistance to the Ministry of Water and Irrigation (MWI) and Water authority of Jordan (WAJ) for cost recovery in Water and Wastewater Services Technologies on wastewater treatment and environmental pollution control Municipal solid waste Improvement of solid waste management in Greater Amman, WB, Italy (Gov.), EIB & other foreign sources, national funds USAID Japan (JICA) - Phase II Japan (MOFA) - curbside recycling in Shmeisani area; public awareness; recycling project by NGOs; rehabilitation of Amman oldest disposal site (Marka) as a Green Park; and University of Jordan Recycling Project Mediterranean Urban Waste Management Programme: efficient waste management system in Zarqa for separation, re-use and recycling; regional activities include capacity building, public awareness and dissemination programme Regional Solid Waste Management Project in METAP Mashreq and Maghreb Countries: Promotion of the adoption of sustainable ISWM practices through: strengthening policy, legal and institutional frameworks, clarifying financing and cost-recovery options and methods, opportunities for private sector participation and defining public awareness and community participation strategies. Project activities are carried out at both regional and national levels. At national level, development of Strategic Framework for Private Sector Participation in Municipal Solid Waste Management and a detailed action plan for implementation of effective private sector participation. GEF- Small Grants Programme EC- SMAP I EC- SMAP II/ METAP n/a LDK ECO SA 110

120 Activities Funding source Status Developing solid waste management; mechanism and practical ways for ideal management of solid waste; increasing the environmental public awareness for all responsible management institution Increase awareness on sustainable solid waste management -Segregation of household hazardous waste from other waste streams in Wadi Al-Sir Ares/ Al-Sahel suburb to provide the needed capacity building of public information for the residents and traders -Promotion of recycling through organising awareness programmes accompanied with collecting used paper and plastic, production and marketing of recycled products Reduction of methane emissions from solid waste in the existing landfill of the Municipality of Greater Amman; utilisation of waste for energy (construction of a prototype biogas plant utilizing methane extracted from the MSW for power production) Industrial emissions Regional project on integrated waste management for the olive-oil pressing industries: establishment of national databases, introduction of cleaner production options and setting national effluent standards, building of demonstration pilot plants. Establishing/strengthening training and technology transfer centres: -National Clean Production Centre - Capacity Building of the Regional Centre for the Arab States for the implementation of the Basel Convention Improving the competitiveness of the food industries within a conducive business environment: The issues of environmental protection, energy efficiency and waste minimization are being addressed through strengthened enforcement of legislation, environmental monitoring, in-plant cleaner production assessments including a feasibility study for a CP center and pilot studies for industrial waste management and eco-labeling. DELTA Phase III- Environmental upgrading of enterprises in Maghreb and Mashrek countries: development of eco-management practices in Jordan enterprises; institutional strengthening of DELTA networks; and development of individual skills to promote eco-efficiency in the future. Setting up legislative framework, National Information Centre, and a Systematic Monitoring Procedure for enabling a better handling of industrial and medical hazardous waste AFESD USAID, local funds Canada (CIDA), UNDP, Japan (JICA), local funds UNDP/GEF, Denmark (DANIDA), national funds EC- SMAP II, RAC/CP, national funds Switzerland (SECO) Finland (MFA) UNIDO LIFE 3rd countries LIFE 3rd countries National Implementation Plan for Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) UNEP/GEF, national funds n/a Horizontal Activities Assistance and institutional strengthening, promotion of integrated coastal zone management (SMAP III Technical Assistance project) Fara'a and Jerash Integrated Watershed Management Project (WASMAP): creation of sustainable development conditions for the rural population in two Watershed in the Jordan River Basin; development of mid-term Jerash Watershed Management Plan; Parts of possible interventions are small wastewater treatment plants, reuse of treated waste water, improvement of solid waste dumpsites, improved regulations; encouraging local community's involvement, etc EC-SMAP III EC-SMAP II, Netherlands (VROM), UNU, national funds LDK ECO SA 111

121 Activities Funding source Status Gulf of Aqaba Environmental Action Plan: implementation of a plan to control solid waste impacts on marine and coastal waters; assessment of the effects of wastewater seepage on the quality and level of the transboundary water table; develop regional collaborative mechanism for strengthening the capacity to protect coastal zone and establish and implement guidelines for sustainable development of the coastal zone completed activities; ongoing activities; n/a: not available data WB/GEF, national funds Outcome of review Although during the last years, Jordan made substantial efforts in strengthening its environmental institutions by establishing a Ministry of Environment, and in enacting an environmental protection law and 8 regulations, more progress is needed with regards to the institutional system and the insufficiency of environmental protection legislative package related to the three fields of the Initiative. The MoE works seriously to formulate and integrate the efforts to protect the environment, through the coordination between the relative institutions and through cooperation with donors and international organizations. The MoE by producing two very significant reports regarding its strategic direction and the environmental strategies review has found a coherent vision for long term development as well as has prioritised the needed strategies. The gap analysis derived by reviewing the previous sections showed that the priority areas that need to be considered in terms of policy, strategy, technical capacity and awareness for the Initiative s fields can be summarised: 1. Develop and implement policies and legislation and action plans o o o The first priority is to prepare the NEAP : this activity is ongoing. The strategy review taskforce (commenced in June 2005) has produced a final report (October 2005) suggesting the NEAP s conceptual framework including main thematic priorities and methodology and timeframe in the Environmental Strategies Review. Also the priorities set out in the Ministry s, as well as the major challenges that the environmental sector faces today in Jordan included in the national Agenda need to be implemented and monitored. Regarding sectoral legislation for urban solid waste, a priority is to formulate the national policy, setting out government s aims and objectives for solid waste management in the country and the broad principles on which these are to be achieved. The main legal priority is to develop legislation to provide legal support for the planning, application and administration of modern waste management technologies in ways that meet statutory minimum environmental standards and norms. Another priority is to proceed with the involvement of private sector. For industrial activities (air emissions, wastewater and waste) it is considered useful the development and implementation of a comprehensive integrated system and mechanism for environmental licensing and permitting system for industry. The introduction of economic incentives in the industrial sector when industrial units participate to schemes (Eco-Audi, Eco-label) needs to be considered. For urban wastewater, as it is the dominant environmental sector in Jordan, monitoring of water quality is a priority. Under this sector the preparation of water protection regulation needs to be finalised. Consolidate the institutional set-up for environmental management, particularly on pollution management (monitoring, enforcement). In the same context an enhanced communication and coordination between the involved entities is needed. Also the preparation of an inspection programme, as well as the mechanism to monitor the environmental mitigation plans proposed for various industrial units (industrial emissions) and the enforcement of the related articles of the environment law is a priority. More particularly the development and/or improvement of an LDK ECO SA 112

122 air quality monitoring programme (with appropriate laboratory infrastructure), a water quality monitoring programme for monitoring the water quality at various bodies and a programme for monitoring the groundwater quality mainly at vicinity of landfill sites is in need. 2. Technical capacity: the capacity to manage integrated environmental management systems and technologies is weak, and Jordanian experience with some of the modern systems and technologies used in environmental management programmes is limited in the fields of solid waste management and air pollution. Consequently, a wide range of capacity requirements needs to be addressed. As far as the enhancement of the Ministry s capacity following the second phase of the institutional strengthening of the Jordanian MoE funded by EC, other actions may be the long term development of training and capacity building programme that addresses the Ministry s vision, mission and strategic objectives, the development of a human resources plan as well as the continuous evaluation of the Ministry s performance and development of work procedures 3. Awareness: the production of the State of Environment report and its dissemination to various stakeholders, as well as the preparation of a national awareness programme on environmental issues are considered to priorities in this sector. Raising public awareness for environmental issues is also considered important. The review of completed and ongoing projects showed that donor spending makes urban wastewater the dominant environmental sector in Jordan. This can be justified, as it is in line with the country s national priorities to improve water quality and sanitary conditions. Regarding urban solid waste while some donors have worked in this field, notably EC and Japan, much remains to be done, as management of solid waste requires both a comprehensive strategy and innovative approaches. In addition, Jordan will need actions with regards to appropriate technology and management techniques for proper sorting, treatment and disposal of hazardous wastes in the near future. The number of projects concerning industrial emissions is the most limited. The projects, although very useful from the scientific and capacity building point of view, appear to be segmental and without any real impact and added value on the field they address. LDK ECO SA 113

123 5.5 Lebanon Lebanon is located on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, bordered by Syria to the north and east, and by Israel to the south. The terrain is a narrow coastal plain. Around 3.9 million people (July 2006) live in Lebanon. The country has six administrative regions, called Mohafazas (governorates), which are further sub-divided into 25 districts, called Cazas, not including Beirut. Each Caza is made up of several cadastral zones. In total, there are 1,492 cadastral zones. The Bekaa is the largest Mohafaza, followed by the North and Mount Lebanon. Most of the population is resident on the coastal zone which is characterized by being very narrow and comprised between the west mountainous chain and the sea. Around 1.5 million people live in the region known as Greater Beirut. Other major cities are Tripoli (250,000), Saida (80,000), Zahle (80,000) and Tyre (30,000). Lebanese economy is oriented towards the service sector including banking, tourism, and transit. Lebanon s three major coastal cities, Beirut, Saida and Tripoli, are engaged predominantly in commerce due to their location on the seafront and the presence of seaports. Lebanese industry is located in Mount-Lebanon as well as in the cities of Beirut and Tripoli, and several industries on the coastal strip in North Lebanon. Most industries are not heavy manufacturing plants. Environmental concerns include deforestation, soil erosion, desertification, air pollution in Beirut, and pollution of coastal waterways. Urban and industrial pollution remains one of the main environmental challenges. Wastewater management is considered a high priority issue in all the administrative regions. Raw sewage generated from residential and industrial areas is discharged directly to the sea or to inland watercourses without treatment prior to disposal. Evidences of costal and river water quality degradation and marine ecosystem damage were proved through several studies conducted in Lebanon. To date, while significant improvements are being made to the sewerage network, little has been achieved in terms of wastewater treatment. Solid waste management has also been inefficient over the past years. With the exception of the extended Greater Beirut Area, and to a lesser extent of Greater Tripoli, solid waste continues to be managed in a manner that poses significant pressure to human health and environment. Uncontrolled dumping sites are sources of heavy metals and other priority pollutants, as well as litter. The dumping sites of Normandy (Beirut) and Bourj Hammoud (Mount Lebanon) have been closed and are in remediation process, but similar actions are needed for other seafront dumps. The fact that most of the industrial activity is located at the vicinity of cities (Beirut, Tripoli, Chekka, and Zouk) gives a rise to air pollution problems in the areas. Pollution from industrial effluents is also a concern for North, Mount Lebanon and South Lebanon regions. LDK ECO SA 114

124 5.5.1 Major sources of pollution from urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions Urban wastewater Municipal wastewater management is the major environmental priority of Lebanese authorities. The country generates an estimate of 250 million m 3 of sewage annually, in most cases with no proper control or treatment prior to disposal. According to the CAS Census of Buildings and Establishment in 1998, less than 60% of dwellings have access to public sewage networks. Beirut has the highest rate of connection to sewage network (98.3%), followed by Beirut suburbs (89.3%) and well behind the North (53.5%), the South (42.1%) and Bekaa (41.1%), while Mount Lebanon has the lowest rate (33.9%). The remaining areas either use the traditional household sanitary pits or the method of draining wastewater into boreholes in bedrock. Since 1998, extensive developments to wastewater infrastructure have been made, which have probably improved greatly the collection capacity. In the nearly absence of wastewater treatment plants, effluents from coastal urban areas are discharged into the sea, while effluents from inland areas are discharged in rivers, streams, on open land or underground. According to the State of the Environment Report (SOE) prepared in 2001, there are approximately 53 (mostly short) outfalls along the coast, 16 of which are located between Dbayeh (North of Beirut) and Ghadir (South of Beirut). As a result, the urban effluents are considered the number one priority for remedial action due to their multiple negative impacts on the public health and the environment. A programme for wastewater management is in place (NERP), setting as goal the connection of nearly 80% of the population to major sewage treatment plants, 113 in total, by Of these, 35 priority plants, 12 on the coast and 23 inland, are planned to be operational by 2010 to serve the population in and around the main urban centres. Whilst the country is in the process of implementing actions for the metropolitan areas, it still lacks an integrated water and wastewater management scheme as villages and mountainous regions are left without any wastewater abatement solutions. North Lebanon Sewage management in the North is almost inexistent. The bulk of sewage generated from residential (and industrial) areas is discharged in streams or directly into the sea via 15 short sea outfalls without prior treatment. Hotspot areas include (from North to South) Al Abdeh, Tripoli, Enfeh, Chekka and Selaata. Beirut Since 1992, after the initiation of NERP programme, sewage management has been improved considerably in Beirut. At present, Beirut does not have a sewer problem; sewage networks cover most parts of the city and converge along three principal collectors. Two coastal collectors drain the largest portion of the network and extend to one existing WWTP south of Beirut (Ghadir) and one planned WWTP north of Beirut (Dora), both situated in the Mount Lebanon Administrative Region. The Ghadir WWTP, south of Beirut, is operational but provides only preliminary treatment. The Dora WWTP north of Beirut has not been built yet and therefore the collectors remain idle. There are at least four sea outfalls along Beirut s coastline: Ramlet el Baida, Carlton Hotel, Ras Beirut and Ain Mreiseh areas. These outfalls are situated near popular leisure and tourist attractions including the most highly frequented public beach (Ramlet el Baida) and beachfront boulevard (Raouche) in Beirut. The southern section of the Beirut collector, still under construction, will measure 9 km long with two pumping stations and will serve approximately 784,000 inhabitants. Mount Lebanon Mount Lebanon generates 48% of total wastewater which is discharged to the sea without any kind of pre-treatment. The area is served with several sea outfalls, including domestic (5), industrial (15) and river mouths (3). All the outfalls release raw sewage straight into the Mediterranean. Sewage is usually also disposed of in streams and rivers across the Governorate. LDK ECO SA 115

125 South Lebanon According to the National Diagnostic Analysis of UNEP/MAP (NDA, 2003), the South generates 11.8% of the total amount of domestic wastewater in Lebanon. The last year a preliminary wastewater treatment plant was built in Saida to serve the greater Saida area, equipped with a 2.6 km submersed sea outfall that provides more effective dilution of sewage. In the Abbasiyeh area in Sour's southern suburbs, a new WWTP (secondary treatment level) is planned to serve the Sour catchments area. Saida is bordered by the Ghazieh industrial area where several tanneries, chemical industries and slaughter houses discharge their effluents directly to the sea. Similarly, Sour hosts the Bourj el Chemalli industrial area in addition to many sewage outlets. Sour also has five sea outlets the sea Municipal solid waste According to the State of Environment Report in 2001, Lebanon generates approximately 1.44 million tonnes of municipal solid waste (MSW) annually. Waste collection coverage is generally high, reaching or exceeding 95% of the population in both rural and urban settings. The quality of collection varies widely, however, in rural areas where contractors may not have the skills or equipment to effectively collect waste and municipalities do not have adequate enforcement capacity. With the exception of the extended Greater Beirut Area, and to a lesser extent in Greater Tripoli, the management of MSW is generally disorganized and consists of controlled dumping of waste in coastal dumps (Tripoli, Saida, Sour) or uncontrolled dumping and burning in various inland dumpsites and river valleys, with collection mainly carried out by municipalities. Lebanon has yet to make serious policy commitments to promoting, and eventually requiring, sustainable and environmentally friendly SWM practices throughout the country. The major hot spot areas resulting from the solid waste sector that has a significant impact on the Mediterranean are the still existent costal dumpsites and the untreated leachate from the Naemeh landfill discharged into the sea through the Ghadir long sea outfall. North Lebanon Although municipal solid waste services have been improved significantly in Tripoli and other coastal cities in the North, solid waste continues to be dumped in uncontrolled seafront landfills (Tripoli), on beaches (Akkar coastal plain) or inland. The Tripoli site is by far the largest seafront dumpsite receiving municipal solid waste from an estimated 400,000 people. The dumpsite has in recent years been upgraded and partially rehabilitated (a seawall was erected to contain the site), but continues to be a source of pollution in the form of leachate and benthic litter. Beirut Solid Waste Management (SWM) in Beirut is the most organized system in the country so far, though not integrated. Since 1997, the system has been implemented pursuant to CDR s Emergency Plan for SWM in the Greater Beirut Area (Decision No.58 dated January 1997). The plan was executed by Sukkar Engineering Group (Sukomi and Sukleen subsidiaries), a Lebanese waste management contractor, and called for refurbishing the Quarantina composting site and closing the Borj Hammoud dumpsite. The contracts with the Sukkar group of companies included waste collection, treatment, landfilling and street sweeping. Unfortunately, eight years into their contract, waste recovery remains well below targets, especially with regard to recycling and composting. For example, according to a regional project under the MedPolicies Initiative of the Mediterranean Environmental Technical Assistance Programme METAP III, Beirut generates 12% of the total MSW stream in Lebanon, of which only 5% are recycled, 15% are composted and the remaining 80% are landfilled in Naameh, about 20 km south of Beirut, in Mount Lebanon. Lower levels of recycling and composting have drastically reduced the projected lifetime of the sanitary landfill built under the plan. The Normandy seafront dumpsite, the only waste disposal site in Beirut during the war and the largest dumpsite in Lebanon, was permanently closed in 1995; an on-going rehabilitation project will LDK ECO SA 116

126 decontaminate and stabilize the site, and will result in more than 100 hectares of reclaimed lands earmarked for public use and real estate Mount Lebanon Waste disposal at the Naameh landfill began in October The site, located 3-4 km inland, receives daily about 1,800 tonnes of MSW, well over its original design capacity more than 4.5 million m 3 so far. It generates about 250 tonnes of leachate per day (about 90,000 tonnes annually) that are pretreated on site (liming and agitation) and then trucked to the Ghadir WWTP (preliminary treatment only). The leachate is mixed with raw sewage and then discharged into the sea via a submersible sea outfall. Such quantities represent at last 40% of the leachate produced by Lebanon s landfills and dumpsites. The Bourj Hammoud dumpsite (closed since July 1997) releases an estimated 120,000 tonnes of leachate annually corresponding to more than half the leachate produced by three major coastal dumpsites in Lebanon (Tripoli, Borj Hammoud and Normandy). The Borj Hammoud dumpsite has been covered with topsoil to control blowing waste. South Lebanon According to the National Diagnostic Analysis of UNEP/MAP (NDA, 2003), the South generates 12.1% of the total municipal solid waste of the country. The municipality of Saida has awarded a local waste contractor (NTCC) for waste collection and disposal at the dumpsite. Although still operational, there are serious calls to close the dumpsite. It is unclear whether any future closure plan can also relocate the dump to another site, as demanded by local authorities and residents. In Sour, a municipal compost/recycling facility is currently under construction; it will serve all the communities, who currently use the dumpsite that is expected to close in Industrial emissions According to the State of Environment Report (SoE) in 2001, about half of the industrial plants are located in Mount Lebanon and one-fifth in North Lebanon. Sixty-five percent of industries are located on the coastline, which also holds the highest rate of population growth. The majority (82%) is located outside industrial zones (MoI, 2000). While the existing industrial zones are poorly equipped to host industrial settlements (e.g. waste collection and treatment), such infrastructure is completely lacking outside industrial zones causing severe environmental pressures. Moreover, many industrial zones were established de facto and are presently being decreed even though they are located close to residential areas or natural sites, posing severe risks to public health and environment. In the absence of specific industrial pollution control services and infrastructure: - Industrial solid waste is usually co-disposed with the municipal waste stream; - Industrial wastewater, approximately 12% of the total wastewater (urban and industrial), is discharged to the urban sewerage system; - Industrial air emissions may affect nearby residential communities; areas mostly affected are those near the industrial plants of Selaata (fertilizers), Chekka and Sibline (cement). Recognizing the need to abate industrial pollution, the Ministry of Environment (MoE) has initiated several efforts to introduce effective industrial pollution control regulations and command and control mechanisms. North Lebanon Industrial pollution control management is ineffective in most sectors and is exacerbated by the lack of effective auditing procedures, compliance monitoring and enforcement, as well as skills and knowhow in cleaner production. The industries located in the coastal zone have a major impact on the marine environment. Most of industrial effluents ends up untreated to the sea. Limited data on industrial waste generation in the North are available, whilst the usual management method is codisposal with municipal solid wastes in open dumps. The most significant source of industrial waste in North Lebanon originates from the Lebanon Chemical Company; a fertilizer plant releasing an estimated 300,000 of gypsum into the sea in a slurry form. LDK ECO SA 117

127 Beirut Industrial pollution in Beirut is not significant in comparison with industrial activities in other parts of the country (Beirut hosts only 10-12% of industrial units in Lebanon). The largest industrial branch in Beirut is food and beverages with a total of 720 industrial units. None of these units have in-house wastewater treatment or pre-treatment capabilities. As a result, wastewater is discharged untreated to the urban sewer system. Mount Lebanon Mount Lebanon generates over two-thirds of the total industrial wastewater and has the highest proportion of industrial wastewaters in the overall wastewater stream (21%). Industrial effluents from power plants, tanneries, pesticides, plastics and chemical industries reach the sea either directly or via the urban sewer system. Additionally, industrial waste is usually disposed off without pre-treatment. Hotspots include the Valley of Nahr Ibrahim, the Zouk and Dora industrial areas. South Lebanon To date, there is an absence of a management strategy for industrial pollution in the south. According to the State of Environment Report in 2001, the South generates about 4% of the total industrial wastewater. South Lebanon is ranked the highest region for discharging spent oils. Collection and reuse of waste oils is as low as 34%. The remaining (66%) is disposed off in nearby steams, sewer system or land. No data is available towards the portion of waste oils discharged in streams and sewer systems Institutional setting The Council of Ministers (CoM) holds executive authority and can endorse new decrees (as well as projects/programmes). It has a pivotal role in the planning and/or facilitation of several pollution control actions. The Ministry of Environment (MoE) was established in 1993 (Law 216/93) and reformed lately in 2005 (Law 690/2005) to empower its mandate to preserve the environment and strengthen decentralisation. Its general duties are to formulate a general environmental policy and propose measures for its implementation in coordination with the various concerned government administrations, to protect the natural and man-made environments in the interests of public health and welfare, and to fight pollution by taking preventive and remedial action. The ultimate long-term objectives of MoE are summarized below: - Prepare the appropriate legislative framework to enforce environmental practices. - Initiate working plans and programmes setting the accurate indicators and standards in environmentally-affected sectors (private and public). - Launching public awareness campaigns through core academic curricula and through the different audio-visual media. - Impose application of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) on vital developmental projects, and substitute problematic plans with environmentally friendly ones. - Empower local NGOs' role in the civil society. Four general policy principles have been set: 1. Regionally balanced development; 2. Protection through prevention; 3. The Polluter Pays Principle; and 4. Integration of environmental policies into other Sectoral development policies. Several priority actions require direct MoE involvement to ensure timely implementation and consensus building with other line ministries. Line Ministries, local authorities and other stakeholders are responsible for implementation, including the following among others: from the government: the Ministry of Energy and Hydraulic Resources (MEHR), the Ministry of Public Works and Transport (MoPWT), the Ministry of Industry LDK ECO SA 118

128 (MoI), the Ministry of Public Health (MoPH), and the Council for Development and Reconstruction (CDR); non-governmental bodies such as the National Council for Scientific Research, the Chamber of Commerce, and the Lebanese and American Universities; and more than fifty NGOs working in the social, health, development, business fields, etc., among which are the Lebanese Environment Forum, the Green Forum, the Association for Forest Development and Conservation, the Green Line, the Society for the Protection of Nature, and the Association of Lebanese Industrialists. Two key government agencies are called to play important roles in sector-specific interventions: the Council for Development and Reconstruction and the Directorate General for Urban Planning. The Council for Development and Reconstruction (CDR) is a public institution established in It reports directly to the Council of Ministers and is the lead agency in charge of national planning and infrastructure project design and implementation in all sectors. Almost 85% of foreign funds earmarked for reconstruction transit through CDR. The council can bypass ministries to fast-track projects as necessary. The General Directorate of Urban Planning (DGUP) falls under the Ministry of Public Works and Transport (MoPWT). Its mandate (Decree 10490) is to develop regulations and organize urban development. It defines urban master plans and issues building permits for municipalities that do not have a municipal council or an engineering department (this includes most of the municipalities in Lebanon except Beirut, Tripoli, Federation of Municipalities of Jbail, Kesrouan and Metn). In recent years, DGUP has been working more closely with MoE to direct urban planning towards a more holistic, integrated approach reconciling the imperatives of economic/social development and the urgency of protecting the environment and sustaining natural resources. At regional and local level, the Governorate is a key administrative body that has the authority to approve and facilitate (or not approve and halt) waste management activities within its jurisdiction. Municipalities located inside the Governorate report to the Governorate on all municipal works and acquisitions. The Governorate therefore is the key stakeholder at the level of the administrative region. Municipalities and municipal federations have many responsibilities within their jurisdiction. By law they are responsible for building and maintaining certain infrastructure and providing basic services. They can provide sanitation services, maintain water works, streamline public transport and collect taxes. Municipalities are also responsible for controlling the occurrence of violations due to improper waste disposal. As a result, several municipalities were chosen either for the implementation and follow-up of actions such as refurbishing the Beirut slaughter house or monitoring actions implemented by CDR such as the construction of wastewater treatment plants. Non-governmental Agencies The National Council for Scientific Research (NCSR) is the umbrella agency for national research in Lebanon. It has three subsidiaries: National Centre for Remote Sensing, National Centre for Atomic Energy, and National Centre for Marine Sciences. The Council supports projects in the general field of the environment which are executed either by the Lebanese University or its subsidiary centres. Founded in 1943, the Association of Lebanese Industrialists (ALIND) is a Lebanese umbrella organization that groups about 600 industries in Lebanon. ALIND advocates a policy of balanced industrial development for all Lebanese regions. The Association seeks to create and maintain an environment which is favourable to industrial investment, growth and development. As all industries in Lebanon are privately owned (except those subsidized like cigarette manufacturing), the Association plays a significant role in the industry sector. MoE has secured a grant from the EU LIFE 3rd Countries Programme to establish the Lebanon Cleaner Production Centre (LCPC). The LCPC s aim is to promote cleaner technologies to gradually achieve cleaner production and compliance with the national standards for environmental quality (NSEQ) pursuant to MoE Decision 8/1 dated 01/03/2001. Launched in 2002, the LCPC provides a platform for demonstrating cleaner production methods and providing technical assistance to facilitate the adoption of cleaner technologies and pollution prevention techniques. LDK ECO SA 119

129 a) Wastewater sector Policies on wastewater management are centrally planned in cooperation between the Council for Development and Reconstruction (CDR), Ministry of Environment (MoE) and Ministry of Energy and Hydraulic Resources (MEHR). To date, institutional management of the wastewater sector is ineffective. The roles and responsibilities are dispersed between ministries and many other authorities that it is difficult to discern a clear authorities, monitoring and enforcement system, whilst CDR has been the most proactive of the Government agencies. During the last years the government has been actively involved in the re-organization of the sector. Under Law 221 of 2000, future responsibility for wastewater issues is vested in MEHR through five new Regional Water Establishments (RWE); North Lebanon, Mount Lebanon (including Beirut), South Lebanon, the Bekaa Valley, and the Litani Water Establishment. CDR will retain its functions, while MEHR will be reorganised to take the leading role in overall planning and programming nationwide. The details of how this is to be achieved have been determined by the EC-MEDA funded MSC-IPP Water project. MoE will retain responsibility for developing environmental protection policy through National Standards and Guidelines for wastewater facility management and performance, and for treated effluent reuse and disposal. Currently not constituted as an executive agency of government, MoE will require the cooperation of MoIM, MoPH, and others to promote legislation. MoE will also need to be expanded and resourced to take on responsibility for inspection and enforcement. b) Solid Waste sector MoE is responsible for establishing and monitoring environmental standards and for developing a solid waste management (SWM) strategy. The Ministry of Interior and Municipalities (MoIM) has jurisdiction for municipalities, which in turn are responsible for implementing municipal solid waste management operations, specifically collection and disposal. Under the authority of the Prime Minister, CDR is involved in the implementation of emergency solid waste management projects. However, a closer look at the institutional setting reveals that there is no clear distribution of responsibilities among the different stakeholders, a situation that significantly contributes to the inadequate management of the sector. Although the legal framework clearly assigns collection and disposal responsibilities to municipalities, represented by MoIM at the national level, MoE is also responsible for regulating the sector. As a result, both MoIM and MoE have jurisdiction over MSW policy, legislation, strategy, and planning; and both have developed municipal solid waste management strategies for the country. To further complicate matters, CDR was appointed by the Council of Ministers (CoM) in 2005 to propose a municipal solid waste management plan for Lebanon and to launch international tenders for this purpose. Following recommendations from MoE, a Draft Law on Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) has been prepared as part of the Regional Solid Waste Management Project, executed by the World Bank and financed by the EC-SMAP II programme. It was submitted to CoM on October 14, 2005, and is currently under review. Following approval by CoM, the Draft Law will be presented to Parliament for ratification. The Draft Law brings the many stakeholders together into a single independent Solid Waste Management Committee responsible for planning and decision-making at the national level. Local authorities (municipalities, unions of municipalities, or groups of the two) are responsible for planning and implementation at the local level. The SWM Committee will be headed by MoE, and includes members from relevant public authorities as well as the private sector. c) Industry sector The law establishing the Ministry of Industry (Law 642/1997) gave the Ministry overall jurisdiction over the permitting of industrial facilities. According to the article 4 of the Decree 9765/2003 of the Ministry of Industry, the authorities in charge of the industrial pollution control are the Ministry of Industry-Control Department, the Municipalities and the competent authorities of MoE and MoPH. LDK ECO SA 120

130 5.5.3 Legal framework A number of laws, decrees, and ministerial decisions govern environmental management in Lebanon, some dating back to the 1930s. A framework law for the protection of the environment was adopted in 1988 and amended in 2002 (Law 444, 8/8/2002), which defines the basis and norms for environmental protection notably for water, soil, use of chemicals and resource management as well as institutional, administrative and technical aspects. The implementation of the framework law requires additional legislation to be adopted. MoE will need to issue about 20 decrees pursuant to this law, on matters ranging from air pollution to drinking water standards as well as EIA requirements and procedures to ensure that all aspects of environmental protection are being targeted. The EIA regulation has not yet been passed. Since 1995 activities are being carried out by MoE for establishing the EIA procedure in Lebanon. Already now an EIA Unit operates at MoE. A separate draft EIA Law has been prepared by MoE in 2001 to be followed by ratification and implementation. Within SELDAS project on strengthening the national environmental framework, a review of the draft EIA law has been made by the pertinent bodies. In this respect, counter arguments to the arguments raised by the Council of State and the Council of Ministers Legal Adviser were provided and a lobbying document was prepared and shared with key public agencies stakeholders between January and May In the meanwhile, the resolution No. 7/1 (6/7/2003) of the MoE defined the authorized Companies for the preparation of the Environmental Impact Assessment EIA. Lebanon has adopted some sector-specific legislation, though fragmented and sometimes outdated. Wastewater sector Existing legislation for the protection of water resources in Lebanon dates back to However, these laws were neither updated nor complemented with additional laws and application decrees. The main regulations directly related to wastewater are given below: Decree 8735/1974 on pollution from solid and liquid waste Decision No52/1 (7/1999), MoE set out the requirements for measures to protect against air, water and soil pollution Decision 8/1 (1/3/2001) of MoE on the National Standards for Environmental Quality (NSEQ), covering air and liquid emissions of all sectors, and replacing corresponding standards under Decision 52/1 Decision 3/1 (6/8/2005) about environmental guidelines for the establishment and/or operation of small wastewater treatment plants Solid waste sector Existing legislation consists of fragmented regulations not specifically dealing with solid waste. There are two key legal instruments addressing the solid waste management sector: Decree 8735/1974, on pollution from solid and liquid waste, assigning solid waste management as a municipal responsibility Decree 9093/2002 providing municipalities with an incentive to host a waste management facility Other legal texts address different waste types or sources, such as Law 387/94 and Law 64/88 on Hazardous Wastes. The remaining elements of the legal framework either provide authority for entities to act with respect to municipal solid waste, or address other types of waste - which is helpful in the solid waste management context to the extent that they provide mechanisms for keeping other types of waste out of systems designed for solid waste. The entities that are empowered under the legal framework to act have generally not done so, with the consequence that the country suffers a vacuum of national leadership in the sector. Industry sector Decree 5243/01 (05/04/01) introducing five industrial classes upon their environmental risk. This decree targets industrial facilities only and therefore does not replace Decree 4917/1994 dividing LDK ECO SA 121

131 industries into three classes. The decision 23/99 CoM (11/12/99) exempts Class 2 and 3 industries from being located inside an industrial zone. Decision 44/99 CoM Requires Class 1 and 2 industries from being located inside an industrial zone; Decree 9765/03 (11/3/2003) of MoI concerning the control, measures and penalties related to the industrial structures with the objective to protect environment and public health; Decision 8/1 (1/3/2001) of MoE on the National Standards for Environmental Quality (NSEQ), covering air and liquid emissions of all sectors, replacing corresponding standards under Decision 52/1 (1996); Several decisions (e.g. 5/1, 16/1, 75/1, 4/1, 29/1, 5/1, 60/1, 61/1) of MoE on the provision of environmental guidelines for a number of industrial sectors (gas stations, farms, tanneries, slaughterhouses, rendering plants, dairy production, fruit and vegetable processing plants, stone cutting plants, asphalt mixing plants, plastics manufacturing plants). Several draft pieces of legislation are pending approval, which in most cases were prepared by international funded projects (e.g. MSC-IPP, SPASI), whilst additional ones need to be enacted to fully implement the environmental framework law. Legislation pending approval - draft decree on environmental compliance action plan (prepared under EC-MEDA MSC-IPP Environment); - draft decree about strategic environmental assessment (prepared under EC-LIFE/ UNDP/ Strategic Environmental Assessment and Land Use Planning project); - draft law on integrated coastal area management (prepared under UNEP/ MAP Coastal Area Management Plan); - draft law on integrated solid waste management (ISWM) covering of SWM responsibilities and institutional framework, planning, permitting, information management, environmental insurance, private sector participation and financing, and cost recovery mechanisms (prepared under EC-SMAP II /METAP - Regional Solid Waste Management Project) -a draft law amending the air pollution law (law # 341/ 2001) - draft decree on the formation and organization of the National Council for Environment (prepared by a consultant lawyer); SELDAS involvement consisted of a major revision to the proposed decree; - draft law on the ratification by the Lebanese government of Beijing protocol related to the protection of the Ozone layer (prepared under MLF/UNDP Ozone Office); - draft law to amend legislative decree #144/1959 (Income Tax) for the purpose of giving a financial assistance to the classified industries that carry out the necessary rehabilitation for complying with national environmental quality standards (prepared under EC-LIFE/UNDP/ Strengthening the Permitting and Auditing System for Industries Project-SPASI); - draft law for the ratification of Kyoto protocol (prepared under the Service of Prevention from Technological Impacts and Natural Disasters and the Public Relations and External Affairs Division at the Ministry); - draft decree on banning the import of ozone depleting substances (prepared under MLF/UNDP Ozone Office and MLF/ UNDP Methyl Bromide Alternatives Project); - draft decree on integrated management of used oil (prepared under EC-MEDA MSC-IPP Environment); - draft decree on the classification of environmental technology industries (prepared under EC-MEDA MSC-IPP Environment); - five draft ministerial decisions on environmental guidelines for various phases of domestic solid waste management (prepared under EC-MEDA MSC-IPP Environment); - draft ministerial decision on environmental guidelines for the establishment and/or operation of olive oil pressing facilities (prepared under EC-MEDA MSC-IPP Environment); -draft decree on hazardous waste management (prepared under EC-MEDA MSC-IPP Environment) -draft environmental guidelines for landfilling, composting, sorting and transfer stations (prepared under EC-MEDA MSC- IPP Environment) - draft ordinance on the quality assurance and utilization of compost in agriculture, horticulture and landscaping (prepared under EC-MEDA MSC-IPP Environment) Policy environment and action programmes Lebanon is one of the countries that responded and contributed to the implementation of Agenda 21. This was not easy in a country where nearly 20 years of war caused severe damage to the infrastructures and the productive sectors. Since the end of 1992, the Lebanese government has been facing a most extraordinary task in reconstructing the country. The initial activities were based on the National Emergency Reconstruction Programme (NERP), a five-year rehabilitation plan from 1993 LDK ECO SA 122

132 through The plan focused on wastewater, solid waste management, electricity, telecommunication, transportation, education, health and technical assistance. In 1995, the Government submitted a 10-year plan, which covered the physical and social infrastructures. Its aim was to address the urgent needs of the various administrative units by rehabilitating them to a level of basic functionality. Since mid-1997 there was an important shift of attention of policy makers to underserved areas far from the centre by implementing integrated sustainable projects. The establishment of the Ministry of Environment (MoE) in 1993 marked a significant step forward in the management of environmental affairs. The Ministry elaborated an Environment Strategy Framework based on the first national state of environment report which was published in Its agenda of action included solid waste management; air pollution; legal framework of environment management. Two of the most significant achievements was the development of a National Environmental Awareness Action plan through workshops and consultations with concerned groups and the formulation of the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) which was prepared under the EC-MEDA funded MSC-IPP Environment project. 1. National plans for the Wastewater Sector The plans of the Lebanese government in the wastewater sector are based on two key principles: first, compliance with the provisions of the Convention for Protecting the Mediterranean from Pollution; and second, protection of inland water resources from pollution. In 1995, a Damage Assessment Report was prepared to formulate a policy framework for the wastewater sector (Khatib & Alami, 1995). Implemented over three phases, the resulting National Emergency Rehabilitation Programme (NERP) launched two major programmes: I Coastal Pollution Control Programme (CPCP), representing Lebanon s commitment to fulfilling the requirements of the Barcelona Convention and its protocols I Water Resources Protection Programme (WRPP), for the rehabilitation of water treatment plants and water sources (springs and wells), and the rehabilitation and construction of transmission and distribution networks In addition, the ten years ( ) Water and Wastewater Strategy that was developed by MEHR includes in its action plan the construction of wastewater treatment plants. In 2001, the MoE took the lead in setting up a national follow up committee to look into and facilitate WWM works across the country. Hosted by the MoE, this committee is composed of representatives from the CDR, MoE and MoIM, and holds regular meetings to check on progress and bottlenecks. The NERP programme proposed the construction of 12 WWTPs along the coast: Abdeh, Tripoli, Chekka, Batroun, Jbeil, Kesrouan, Dora (North Beirut), Ghadir (South Beirut), Chouf (coastal area), Saida, Sour, with the possibility of constructing a WWTP between Saida and Sour. With the execution of these coastal wastewater plants, more than 65% of the wastewater problem in Lebanon is expected to be solved by the year In addition to the coastal plants, 20 major inland WWTPs are proposed. The plants will be located near major cities, such as Zahleh, Baalbeck, Nabatiyah, and other areas where protecting water sources from pollution is considered a priority, such as the Litani River. With the construction of these 20 WWTPs, Lebanon will achieve around 80% wastewater treatment by the year The WWTPs proposed under NERP are either in operation, under construction, or currently waiting for funding. The remaining areas that house 20% of the population will require around 100 small WWTPs (MEDAWARE, 2003). A detailed action plan for rural wastewater has been developed under the EC- MEDA MSC-IPP Environment Project. This plan needs to be adopted and further developed by the Regional Water Establishments (RWEs) for their individual regions. MoE has also issued two draft policy documents (prepared under EC-MEDA MSC-IPP Environment), both of which are presently at consultation stage: Policy for the Above-Ground Use of Reclaimed Domestic Wastewater Ordinance on the Use and Disposal of Sewage Sludge LDK ECO SA 123

133 2. National Strategy on Solid Waste Management The government s vision for a national waste management is shifting towards waste minimization, recycling, composting and construction of landfills for every Muhafaza or Caza. Incineration, open dumping, and open burning are completely excluded from the government s future plans and current plans are being prepared for the closure and rehabilitation of the majority of the costal dumpsites but achievements to date are very few. In 1999, the MoE developed a national strategy for SWM building on the recommendations outlined during a national workshop on Waste Management Strategy for Lebanon, organized jointly by MoE, METAP and the World Bank in Beirut (May 7-9, 1999). However, current waste management programmes and schemes indicate that a lack of consensus still prevails among key institutional stakeholders (i.e., CDR, MoE, and MoIM) on how to handle the SWM sector. As part of its strategy, MoE formed an inter-ministerial committee composed of representatives and/or the Directors General from the MoE, MoIM, CDR, and ALIND. While its mandate is not explicitly defined, the committee would follow up on all SWM issues (including projects and bottlenecks) in the country. The policy promoted the construction of landfills and composting facilities at the Mohafaza level. While the strategy does not explicitly favour any singly waste treatment technology, it does recognize sanitary landfills as an integral component of any future strategy (i.e., the disposal of by-products from other technologies, bulky items, etc.). Moreover, the adopted technology (-ies) should be proven elsewhere, cost effective and ISO-Certified The strategy also recognizes the need to secure express approval from the MoIM before any SWM project or activity is implemented. The strategy advocates implementing short-term SWM goals and activities until a long-term national strategy for SWM is approved. While several long-term strategies were proposed from waste minimization, source separation, recycling, energy recovery, marketing of by-products and project cost-recovery, no short-term targets or goals were specified in this strategy (MoE/Ecodit, 2001). In 2005, the Government of Lebanon appointed CDR to develop a National Municipal Solid Waste Management Plan. CDR presented a proposal for the national plan on August 18, If approved by CoM, the plan will be used by CDR for the tendering of MSW treatment and disposal services. The institutional and legal frameworks are being addressed by MoE and the World Bank through the preparation of a Draft Law on Integrated Solid Waste Management. In addition, CDR has developed a plan for the rehabilitation of abandoned dumpsites. 3. Government plans for Industrial Pollution Control The Government has made significant efforts to improve the monitoring and enforcement mechanism and promote sound technologies for improving the environmental performance of the industrial facilities. The major plans and programmes are summarised below. Permitting System MoE has established a strategy to reshape the permitting and auditing system of industries (with the assistance of the EC-MEDA SPASI project). The MoE strategy to improve the environmental performance includes a Permitting System for new facilities and a Compliance Action Plan for existing facilities. MoE s Permitting System for new facilities involves the preparation of environmental impact assessment studies, environmental guidelines for several sectors, implementation of the new classification system, a revision of national standards for environmental quality and a monitoring plan. National Environmental Audit The manual provides in-depth guidelines and procedures for conducting audits, including checklists for environmental management, production process, water supply, wastewater management, air emissions, solid waste management, noise pollution, energy consumption, and occupational health and safety. The manual also presents checklists for primary pollutants that would need to be measured as part of an environmental audit. Through proper dissemination of this manual, the MoE aims to develop sector-specific action plans to optimise resource management and improve process performance. LDK ECO SA 124

134 Technical incentives A number of technical incentives have been established or are under development: mechanism to grant Green Certificates, a green directory of compliant industries, promotion of cleaner technologies and pollution prevention techniques as a way to comply with the new standards. Fiscal incentives A draft law and several decrees providing fiscal incentives for industrialists to upgrade their facilities to meet environmental standards were issued by the Ministry of Environment in Improving Fuel Quality MoE has prepared a decree that defines minimum quality standards for all major types of fuels, not only unleaded gasoline (e.g., maximum allowable lead content), but also fuel oil (e.g., maximum allowable sulphur content), diesel for transport vehicles, and diesel oil for industries. In August 2002, the Government introduced an incremental cost through which unleaded fuel has been made cheaper than leaded by around 5%. 4. National Environmental Action Plan A draft NEAP was developed by the EC-MEDA MSC-IPP Environment project ( ) with the Ministry of Environment, which addresses a complete list of environmental problems facing Lebanon, identifies in as practical detail as possible all methods, including general policies, of mitigation, assigns precise institutional responsibilities for these steps and provides cost estimates for measures where appropriate and possible. The planning horizon is five to ten years. There is no information available whether or not the proposed NEAP has been finalised or adopted. The actions included in the draft NEAP, relevant to the sectors of urban effluents, solid wastes and industrial effluents are: For wastewater sector Improve municipal wastewater management practices Adopt a National Wastewater Management Plan Develop a Regional Action Plan for rural wastewater management Secure funding for priority wastewater infrastructure Implement plans for priority treatment plants Increase the areas served by sewerage infrastructures Develop and adopt a legal framework for the management of WWTPs Improve the operation and performance of existing rural WW management plans Monitor WWTP performance against National Environmental Standards Adopt and Implement strategy for the treatment and disposal of sludge Develop strategy and guidelines for the re-use of treated effluent Build and strengthen institutional capacity for all stakeholders Ensure adequate operation and maintenance of all sewerage infrastructure Promote PP in wastewater management Improve public awareness Improve industrial wastewater management Adopt a National Industrial Wastewater Management Plan Develop and adopt a legal framework for IWW implementation and management Improve industrial effluent management by sector Promote environmental awareness and cleaner production experience Encourage industries to fulfil the registration requirements for ISO Develop and implement emergency response procedures and incident prevention programmes For solid waste sector Develop a National Strategy for Solid Waste Management Develop the legal and regulatory frameworks for SWM Implement the strategy - Develop Local MSWM plans - Execute Local MSWM plans - Construct MSW facilities - Develop PP at local and central levels - Establish knowledge and information infrastructure - Develop capacity building LDK ECO SA 125

135 - Promote waste reduction and recovery - Promote energy recovery from waste - Rehabilitate existing dumps - Coordinate with funding agencies Set up a Waste Exchange Programme 5. The National Action Plan in the frame of the Strategic Action Programme for the protection of the Mediterranean from land-based pollution sources (UNEP/MAP) Priority actions proposed in the National Action Plan of Lebanon prepared in the frame of the SAP of UNEP/MAP in 2005 include: North Lebanon Closure of Domestic Raw Sewage Sea Outfalls. Construction of stormwater- sewage network. Construction of WWTP in Tripoli (75 million USD have been secured from EIB), El Abde (25 million USD), Chekka (10.1 million USD have been secured from the French Protocol and 2.9 million USD from AFD) and Batroun (7.6 million USD have been secured from the French Protocol and 4.4 million USD from AFD). Reduce Effluent Concentrations & Quantities from Fertilizer Company (100,000 will be provided by the Lebanon Chemical Company) Complete containment of Tripoli seafront dumpsite (funds will be provided by the Government of Lebanon). Beirut Closure of Domestic Raw Sewage Sea Outfalls. Construction of stormwater- sewage network. Construction of WWTP in Dora and Ghadir (50 million USD have been secured from KFW, EIB, IDP, OPEC). Treatment of Beirut Slaughterhouse Waste (Quarantina) Mount Lebanon Closure of Domestic Raw Sewage Sea Outfalls. Construction of stormwater- sewage network. Construction of WWTP in Jbeir, Kesrouan, Chouf (funds have been secured from the French Protocol, KFW, EIB, IDP, OPEC). Upgrade Select Industrial Zones in Mount Lebanon Reduce Leachate from Borj Hammoud Dumpsite South Lebanon Construct Secondary Wastewater Treatment Plants in Sour & Saida Rehabilitation of Sour Coastal Dumpsite Rehabilitate Saida Seafront Dumpsite Promote Cleaner Production & Chromium Recycling in Ghazieh Tanneries Horizontal actions Implement a National System for the Collection and Treatment of Waste Oil Control Littering from Seafront Walkways 6. Actions on MDGs The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), representing the United Nations country team, and the Council for Development and Reconstruction (CDR), representing the Lebanese government, joined efforts to produce the first Millennium Development Goal Report for Lebanon which was launched on the 19th of November Of relevance is Goal 7 Target 11: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers. According to the report, in % of dwellings had access to wastewater networks, while the remainder, mainly in rural areas, depended on septic tanks. Domestic solid waste continues to be a major environmental problem, with more that 80% being dumped in landfills. Several recommendations were made, which called for the formulation of a national strategy integrating the principles of environmental sustainable development into policies, the completion of enactment and enforcement of the Environmental Framework law, the formulation of legal framework and enforcement of mechanisms to adopt SEA, the capacity building of local authorities LDK ECO SA 126

136 for environmental management (agenda 21), and the adoption of a national policy to manage water resources and rehabilitate infrastructure Overview of completed and on-going projects In Lebanon international development assistance has been significant over the past decade. The most important one has been received from EIB, the European Union, and its member states (mainly France and Italy), as well as USAID, IDB, World Bank, Japan, and Arab Funds, either individually or jointly. Limited data were available on the projects that receive public or private local funding. International financial support has being targeted at the wastewater management sector aiming at implementing the objectives of the national emergency rehabilitation programme (NERP). The most important past activity was the multilateral funded Emergency Reconstruction & Rehabilitation Project, which assisted the government to rehabilitate, repair and reconstruct wastewater infrastructure facilities and strengthened the government s institutional capabilities in implementing the NERP. At present, a large number of foreign funded projects are in implementation phase for the construction, rehabilitation and extension of sewer and wastewater treatment systems throughout the country, including activities on strengthening the institutional set-up. For a number of others the government has already secured funding and they are under preparation. International assistance on solid waste management covers the construction of landfills, the procurement of collection equipment, and the rehabilitation of dumping sites, though the last to a limited extent. The two most significant past activities are the Emergency Plan for Greater Beirut and the WB funded SWEMP project providing solutions outside Greater Beirut, whilst the latter was reduced considerably as a result of political turmoil and public dissent. Some municipalities had on their own initiative and with the support of international funding agencies (e.g. USAID, UNDP) developed and implemented plans for the management of municipal solid waste. EC has also greatly supported to the elaboration of a national strategy on solid waste management, the strengthening of the ministry of environment, the preparation and execution of waste management projects, and public awareness to local communities. The most important activities on industrial pollution control have received financial assistance from EC. With the SPASI project, the MoE has developed a strategy for improving the environmental performance of industries, has reshaped the permitting and auditing system and provided national environmental quality standards. In this context, the MoE has also received assistance through the LIFE 3 rd countries programme to establish the Lebanon Cleaner Production Centre (LCPC), which provided a platform for demonstrating cleaner production methods and providing technical assistance to facilitate the adoption of cleaner technologies and pollution prevention techniques. A GEF funded project also supported the development of national implementation plan on POPs that put environmental guidelines into practice. EC is considered the key contributor in policy and legal development, capacity building and establishment of administrative structures through its EC-MEDA and LIFE 3 rd countries programmes. Another important activity that assisted in the identification of environmental policy actions is the recently accomplished GEF funded project for the elaboration of NAP for SAP/MED. The following table is a brief presentation of the past achieved and ongoing activities subject to the available data, while the detailed list of these projects is annexed. LDK ECO SA 127

137 Activities Funding source Status Urban Wastewater Sewerage network construction, extension or rehabilitation: - Tripoli -IDB, national - Baadba and Aley -EIB - Saida and Tyre -EIB, Japan (JBIC) - South western Beirut (Hawdh Al Ghadir) -IDB, national - Koura, Chekka, Batroun, Edhen and Bcharré -France (AFD) Construction / improvement of wastewater treatment plants: - Zahle -Italy (DGCS) - Chekka, Nabatieh -France (AFD) - Jbeil, Batroun, Chouf coast -France (MINEFI) - Baabdat, Beek -France (MINEFI) n/a - Khinchara (Metn), Abdeh (Akkar), Becharre-Hasroun -Spain (AECI) n/a Construction/Extension/Modernisation of wastewater collection and treatment system: - Greater Beirut -EIB, EC-MEDA, AFESD - Sour -EIB, KfW - Baalbeck -WB/IBRD, national - Greater Tripoli -EIB, EC-MEDA -Mihmish, Bakhoun, El Hermel, Anjar, Qaroun, Hrajel, Chaqr, Jbaa, -Italy (DGCS) Hasbaya, Qartaba, Mazraat al Chouf - Rural communities (100 small scale WWTPs) -USAID n/a - Kesrouan, Saida and Sour -EIB, WB, Japan (JBIC ) - Palestinian Refugee camps in South Lebanon, unregistered camps in Saida, refugee camps in Tyre, etc. (7 projects) Integrated Coastal Management from Jbeil /Amsheet to Latakia in order to deliver immediate environmental and sanitary improvement; installation of equipment for wastewater management in the town of Batroun, in North Lebanon Municipal Infrastructure project: upgrading and rehabilitating basic municipal infrastructure in all the municipalities; strengthening the capacity of municipal sector and Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs West Bekaa wastewater: elimination of pollution heavily affecting the Qaraoun lake Reconstruction and rehabilitation of water supply and wastewater facilities all over the country (Emergency Reconstruction & Rehabilitation Project) Reconstruction of water supply, sewerage and treatment systems throughout the country Development of tools and guidelines for the promotion of sustainable urban wastewater treatment and re-use in agricultural production Capacity building and institutional strengthening: -Reforming of four regional establishments, municipal capacity building, public-private partnership (North Lebanon) -Strengthening and developing the capacity of Ministry of Energy and Water (IPP - Drinking water, wastewater and irrigation project) -EC-MEDA/ECHO EC-SMAP I WB/IBRD IDB, Italy, national WB, AFESD, France (Gov), Italy (Gov.), IDB, KFAED, other multilateral EIB EC-MEDA WB, France (AFD) EC-MEDA n/a LDK ECO SA 128

138 Activities Funding source Status Municipal Solid Waste Introduction of solid waste management in: -Mount Lebanon, North Lebanon, South Lebanon, West Bekaa, Nabatiyeh (financial support for the preparation and execution of waste management projects; collection, transport, sorting out and composting household waste) -Casa of Byblos (feasibility study) -outside Greater Beirut (eventually one landfill site and sorting facility was constructed in Zahle, including collection equipment for various municipalities & rehabilitation of Tripoli dumpsite)-swemp -Palestinian refugee camps Solid waste management equipment provision to various municipalities in Lebanon (Vehicles, Solid Waste Equipment, Generator, Bins) Community-Based Solid Waste Management: EC-MEDA US -TDA WB/IBRD EC -MEDA/ECHO EC-MEDA - Arab Salim, Nabatiyeh, Becharre, Maghdoucheh UNDP - Akkar el Atika, Kfarsir USAID Reconstruction and rehabilitation of solid waste management in Greater Beirut (Emergency Reconstruction & Rehabilitation Project) WB, AFESD, France (Gov), Italy (Gov.), IDB, KFAED, other multilateral Rehabilitation of uncontrolled dumpsites: -rehabilitation of a waste disposal site (site name was not available) Sweden (SIDA) - rehabilitation of the Normandy Sanitation site in Beirut Netherlands (MFA) n/a Regional Solid Waste Management Project in METAP Mashreq and Maghreb Countries: Promotion of the adoption of sustainable ISWM practices through: strengthening policy, legal and institutional frameworks, clarifying financing and cost-recovery options and methods, opportunities for private sector participation and defining public awareness and community participation strategies. Project activities are carried out at both regional and national levels. At national level, to bring assistance and support to the Ministry of Environment by an ISWM legal framework and strengthening of national and municipal capacities for applying, enforcing and monitoring the strengthened legal framework, in selecting preferred SWM systems and in negotiating private sector contracts. Raising awareness of local communities, demonstrating the environmental, economic and social benefits of SWM by demonstrating good practice measures (RCSWMP) Industrial emissions Regional project on integrated waste management for the olive-oil pressing industries: establishment of national databases, introduction of cleaner production options and setting national effluent standards, building of demonstration pilot plants Regional Centre for Training and Technology Transfer for the Arab States: Capacity Building for the Implementation of the Basel Convention Capacity building of policy makers and stakeholders for the development of an environmental permitting and auditing system for industrial establishments (SPASI) Lebanon cleaner production centre (LCPC) EC -SMAP II / METAP, national EC-SMAP I EC- SMAP II, RAC/CP, national Finland (MFA) UNDP/LIFE 3 rd countries, national EC -LIFE 3 rd countries/ UNIDO LDK ECO SA 129

139 Activities Funding source Status DELTA Phase III- Environmental upgrading of enterprises in Maghreb and Mashreq countries: development of eco-management practices in Jordan enterprises; institutional strengthening of DELTA networks; and development of individual skills to promote eco-efficiency in the future. Urban Air Quality Improvement through Air Quality and Mobility Plans and the Institutional Strengthening of Local Air Quality Administration in Air Quality Management; Improving air quality of Al-Fayhaa through elaborating Air Quality Plan to reduce polluting emissions from industrial, domestic, service and transport sectors and through elaborating Urban Mobility Plan EC -LIFE 3 rd countries EC -SMAP II Conversion of CFC-free technology in 2 aerosol manufacturing facilities UNDP, national Development of a National Implementation Plan for the management of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Horizontal Capacity building for the Ministry of Environment through national plans for environmental actions; integration of the new legislation; administrative restructuring (Investment Planning and Programming (IPP) Environment project) Assistance and institutional strengthening, promotion of integrated coastal zone management (SMAP III Technical Assistance project) Integrated Management of East Mediterranean Coastlines (IMAC), involving capacity building of local authorities, improvements in legal and institutional setting, increase coordination and participation between different sectors and levels of decision making Strategic environmental assessment (SEA) and land use planning in Lebanon Determination of Priority Actions for the Further Elaboration and Implementation of the Strategic Action Programme for the Mediterranean Sea GEF, Germany, national EC-MEDA EC-SMAP III EC-SMAP III EC-LIFE 3 rd countries/ UNDP UNEP/GEF, national Strengthening the Environmental Legislation Development and Application System in Lebanon (SELDAS) EC-LIFE 3 rd countries Municipal Environmental Plans in Lebanon (demonstration project) EC-LIFE 3 rd countries Technical assistance to reinforce governance in environmental tasks (TARGET); develop the operational capacities of the Ministry of Environment in realising its mission An Enhancement of the Permanent Environmental Awareness Unit at the Ministry of Environment in the Lebanon completed activities; ongoing activities; n/a: not available data EC-LIFE 3 rd countries/ UNDP/ national EC-LIFE 3 rd countries/ UNDP Outcome of review Lebanon is on the road to make substantial efforts to environmental protection. At present, a number of pollution abatement activities have been launched, receiving significant amount of international assistance. Yet, the country must take further steps to a more concrete environmental policy and provide the means for a more effective realisation. To date, the institutional set-up in Lebanon needs reforming to surpass overlapping responsibilities, inefficient co-ordination among government agencies, and insufficient means of action for policy LDK ECO SA 130

140 implementation. The Government has carried out a number of institutional and legal steps to improve the institutional set-up, whilst enforcement remains the major challenge of the environmental control system. It also results from political turmoil, conflicting opinions and insufficient resources and skills that stand in the way of effective enforcement. In addition, activities on environmental protection are hampered by lack of funds. Two very ambitious EC funded projects, MSC-IPP and SELDAS, have supported the country to review, amend and integrate the national environmental policy and the relevant institutional and legal framework and mobilise resources for environmental management, as for instance the reorganisation of the MoE. The law on environmental impact assessment has not been yet approved, resulting in deficiencies in the control and enforcement system, often perceived as an obstacle to investment and economic development. A number of policy and legal texts are under the process of consultation and approval, which would highly contribute to the integration of the environmental management throughout the country. Focusing on the sectors under review, wastewater is regarded the number one problem and has been put in the forefront national agenda. The common practice, with few exceptions, is the discharge of the effluents generated from residential and industrial areas to the sea or inland watercourses without prior treatment, indicating a great harm to the environment, and posing potential public health related hazards. To date, while many activities on the construction of treatment systems have been launched and are under implementation and/or preparation phase, the national wastewater management programme is still in its very early implementation phase. The municipal solid waste sector is the second national priority. The Government has yet to make serious policy commitments to promoting, and eventually requiring, sustainable and environmentally friendly SWM practices throughout the country, which will reflect the existing requirements. The competent authorities are very much looking for long-term solid waste management solutions with proper financing and efficient performance. Uncontrolled dumpsites are also a major concern for public health and the environment and adequate remedial actions should be forwarded, in parallel with, whether not in place, the construction of sanitary landfills. Regarding the industry sector, the government has invested significant efforts and resources and received financial support to improve the environmental performance of the industrial facilities (e.g. SPASI projects), by strengthening the permitting system, developing the necessary effluent standards as well as introducing non-regulatory approaches (financial and technical incentives). However, no reported data were available to conclude whether the EIA system has been given a mandatory role. Also, an institutional reforming with clear authorisation is required to facilitate and improve the monitoring and enforcement mechanism. In brief, the interventions crucial to reduce the burden on the environment include: strengthening of legal framework, adoption of an integrated environment strategy, and effective prioritisation of actions, institutional and technical capacity building, and effective operation of de-pollution infrastructures, secured funding and awareness development. Actions on the adoption and implementation of the draft National Environmental Action Plan in parallel with the implementation of the National Action Plan of Strategic Action Programme of the UNEP/MAP are expected to overcome the constraints and contribute drastically and effectively the work of competent authorities on the road of pollution abatement. These programmes address similar priorities and some of these works are already in progress, while efforts should be well organised and coordinated to ensure funds are secured and the desired results are reached. LDK ECO SA 131

141 5.6 Libya Libyan Arab Jamahiriya forms part of the vast Northern African Plateau extending from the Atlantic to the Red Sea. The country has extended coastal area with relatively low population and absence of permanent rivers or estuaries, or intensive industrial activity. Libya was divided into several governorates (muhafazat) before being split into 25 municipalities (baladiyat). Currently Libya is divided into 32 shabiyah. About 90% of the population (5.7 million ) lives in and around the coastal cities. More than half the population is urban, concentrated to a greater extent, in the two largest cities, Tripoli and Benghazi. Other important cities (above 100,000 inhabitants) are Misratah, Tajoura, Janzur, Azzawiya, Sirt and Zuratah. There are also coastal sites with commercial nature, such as Zuetina and Sedra Sea Ports, and small service sites, like Ben Gwad, Garef Basher and Sultan. The Libyan economy depends primarily upon revenues from the oil sector, which constitute practically all export earnings and about one-quarter of GDP. These oil revenues and the small population give Libya one of the highest GDPs per person in Africa and have allowed the Libyan state to provide an extensive level of social security. The major environmental concerns in Libya are water availability and the depletion of underground water as a result of overuse in agricultural developments, causing salinity and sea-water penetration into the coastal aquifers. Another significant environmental problem is water pollution on the coastal environment from the combined impact of sewage, oil byproducts, and industrial waste. Pollution resulting from human activities is mainly occurring at the vicinity of large coastal cities, and is concentrated on rather few urban/industrial centres on the coastal zone. While geographical and demographic factors in Libya helped to monitor and control, and even eliminate, pollution resulting from land based sources and activities, diagnosis of the Libyan coastal environment revealed that the main sources of pollution still are urban and industrial sewage, in addition to improper solid waste management. In summary, the key environmental problems are: Insufficient wastewater treatment due to breakdowns in pumping stations and treatment plants; lack of sewage networks in some areas Insufficient municipal solid waste management and lack of sanitary landfills Lack of appropriate control and legal environmental specifications for industrial sector, especially for the large number of small industries located within urban cities LDK ECO SA 132

142 5.6.1 Major sources of pollution from urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions Urban wastewater While past infrastructure projects have extensively taken place on urban wastewater sanitation (70s & 80s), today there are defects in pumping stations and wastewater treatment plants, and improper connection with run-off ditches and open channels, resulting in lack of proper treatment of urban effluents. The majority of the existing wastewater treatment plants were constructed to provide secondary treatment, so that the treated effluents to be used for agricultural irrigation purposes. Yet, insufficient operation and maintenance problems along with the economic embargo during 90s, greatly contributed to breakdown of many pumping stations and malfunctions to a number of plants which operate at low efficiency or ceased operation. In both cases of waste treatment or pumping failure, urban effluents are rather directly discharged without any kind of treatment. Rehabilitation of the treatment plants is required for the largest two cities Tripoli and Benghazi, as well as Janzur, Dernah, Khums, Tobruk and Sabrata. Maintenance of civil and mechanical works and connection of sewage pumping sanitation are needed for Azzawiya and Zuwarah WWTPs, whereas Zliten and Misratah WWTPs though in operaton, require maintenance and extention os treatment capacity and Sirt WWTP is now ready to start operation. As for areas lacking sewage network, wastewater is disposed of through septic tanks, which are drained by sewage trucks, which in turn, pour it in valley courses, open land areas or the seashore. Furthermore, large amounts of run-off water from urban areas find their way to the sea through special outlets, as in Tripoli, or through natural valleys and watercourses, as in Khums, Al Qarabulli, Tajura, and Sirt Cities. Such run-off water is extremely contaminated by pollutants carried along the road, and by washout from open lands. The improper connection of household wastewater with runoff drainage line, made such outlet sewage drains, all the year round Municipal solid waste Municipal solid waste collection efficiency is low and collected wastes are deposited in un-organised dumps, without sanitary measures. Uncontrolled dumps are even located directly at the sea waterfront, leading to pollution of sea from leachates, as well as severe littering of the coastline. Solid wastes may also reach the coastal marine environment through water courses after rainfall or direct deposition to vacant lots on the seashore by solid waste removal trucks. Additional to the household solid wastes, the increase of building activity in the cities has resulted in great volumes of demolition and construction waste. Absence of plans and control operations contributed to widespread dumpsites, covering extensive areas on the seashore, occasionally as fill-in to the shore. Due to the large investments required to establish sanitary landfill sites and to increase solid waste collection efficiency, in order to service all inhabitants, even those who live outside urban areas, this sector has lost its budget priority place to other sectors like health and education. In spite of local administration commitments to provide financial support for the procurement of solid waste collection and removal equipments and trucks, local authorities did not manage to allocate any special site for adequate waste landfilling. It is also noted that until recently, solid waste management was not even included in the national strategy established under the National Physical Plan ( ). This has also led to the exclusion of solid waste management sector within the master plans for urban utilities, and thus to the deterioration of efficiency in this sector. The last years, the sector has become an urgent issue at national level, with a newly developed national sectoral strategy, introducing the main principles for the integration of solid waste LDK ECO SA 133

143 management and production of dedicated national plan. Key priorities are initially the establishment of sanitary landfills and collection systems as well as the proper closure of dumping sites Industrial emissions The major industries (refinery, petrochemicals, iron, steel, cement, textile) are located away from cities, and equipped with pollution abatement systems. Environmental diagnosis analysis and plans for certain major industries, such as oil refineries, and iron and steel factory, revealed that such industries have established control systems and treatment units, to reuse and recycle industrial wastewater. Most environmental problems associated with such industries result from malfunctions of abatement systems or degreases in the efficiency of reducing pollution to acceptable levels. The problem of industrial pollution lay with the large number of small industries (food, dairy, garment, metallic paints detergent, and soap), within urban cities or adjacent to cities, in industrial zones, lacking special facilities for industrial wastewater collection and treatment and for safe disposal of industrial solid waste. Factories within the city tend to discharge their liquid waste through urban wastewater system, if any, otherwise liquid waste is collected in collection tanks, to be transported and discharged on uncontrolled areas. The absence of both environmental standards for industrial activities and EIA system is considered a major barrier for improvements in the environmental performance of the industries Institutional setting The General Environmental Authority (EGA), previously known as the Technical Environmental Protection Centre, is the national body holding the responsibility for the environment in Libya. The main objectives of EGA are to protect the natural resources, fight against environmental pollution, protect biodiversity and biological balance, and achieve sustainable development and integrated social planning. The activities of EGA are to: Engage Libyan industrialists in environmental action and sustainable development Offer environmental training & tools that can support industrialists in adopting Eco-Efficiency principles & practices Propose plans and programmes related to the environment and supervision on its execution and follow up taking into account the environmental aspect within the plans of economic and social development Track the scientific and technologic development in the field of environmental protection and improvement of its technical aspects Collaborate with international authorities for the protection of the environment Give suitable authorizations for activities that can harm the environment. The authorizations must include necessary regulations and conditions. The Department of Urban Planning is the responsible authority for preparing the national and regional plans for the environment. The authority of urban planning is not dealing with the Libyan coast as one unit, but rather as the coastal strip in bits and parcels so that each part of the Libyan regional coast belongs to the region to which it is tied. For example, Tripoli coast belongs to Tripoli Regional planning. The rest of the services and administrative organization at the national level have their own interests, such as the oil sector, the oil industries and chemical industries, tourism, and the Man-Made-River project. LDK ECO SA 134

144 The General Authority for Environment appointed a special Committee for the developmeny of environmental standards, in However, this Committee has suspended its work one year after formation, for administrative reasons. In 2000 Libya embarked on a comprehensive decentralization process, establishing local government institutions with independent political, administrative and fiscal authority. The country is now divided into 32 Shabeyat (Governorates) which vary greatly in geographical and economic size, and are heavily dependent on central Government funding. Those responsible for the Shabeya can issue resolutions and instructions necessary for the operations of their financial, commercial, administrative and environmental concerns within the Shabeya area, provided these do not contradict with the laws and legislations on the national level. In the field of environment protection, the responsibility of the Shabeya is to guarantee the protection of environment with regard to urban effluents, solid waste, drinking water quality, protection of coasts, imposing supervision on small factories both public and private. As the Shabeyat have substantial responsibility in the environmental protection, they are key drivers of development, but they have not yet developed the capacities to manage funds effectively, nor to raise their own funds. Therefore, for decentralization to be effective, it has to be accompanied by appropriate education and training a) Urban effluents Sewage network infrastructure construction and maintenance, as well as construction of treatment plants is the responsibility of the Shebeyas with the assistance of the EGA. b) Municipal solid waste Solid waste collection, transport and disposal are under responsibility of the Secretariats of the General People s Committees for Utilities, Housing and Environment, managed by the Authority for Environmental Protection in respective Shabeyat. The Shabeyat allocates annual budgets to Cleanness Partnerships (Tasharukiat), which cover solid waste collection, treatment and disposal. The budget also covers personnel salaries, operation of machinery, and the supply of the necessary mechanical equipment for such works. c) Industrial effluents Small industries are controlled by the Shabeyas, while big companies are controlled at national level by relevant administrations, such as: the General Electric Company (for power generation), the National Oil Corporation (oil sector management), and the Grand Industrial Companies (cement, iron, chemicals). Central administrations operate under the supervision and control of the General Environmental Authority (EGA) Legal framework Law N o 7/ 1982 as substituted by Law N o 15/ 2003 on the protection of environment constitutes the national legislative body in the field of environment to formulate the general policy and prepare the necessary plans for the protection of the environment. There are also past laws and decisions, which deal with specific environmental issues: - Law N o (5) of 1969 on the organisation and planning of towns and villages amended by law N o. (3) of Libyan marine law N o. (105) of 1958, concerning various issue, including marine vessels collision - Law N o (38/39) of 1975, concerning municipalities organizing actions, defining in details concerned with environmental protection - Law N o (62) of 1976, containing certain amendments to marine law and Captain s responsibility with regard to oil log - Decision of the Minister of Municipalities N o (24) of 1976, concerning Model Public Cleansing Regulation LDK ECO SA 135

145 - Decision of the Minister of Municipalities N o (81) of 1976 concerning model water Facility Organizing Regulation - Decision of the Minister of Municipalities N o (142) of 1976 concerning waste disposal - Law N o (13) of 1984 concerning public cleansing and urban and rural solid waste collection and disposal, and Executive Regulation thereof. a) Wastewater The law framework on environment (Law N o 15 / 2003) prohibits the direct discharge of untreated wastewater, in accordance to Article 34 It shall be prohibited to directly discharge contaminated water to the sea, or through drainage pipes, to/from the coast, or channels and courses, including internal flow sewerage, before undergoing treatment in accordance to applicable laws, and Executive Regulations thereof. Article (43) of law No 15 also states that wastewater is considered as secondary water source that must be utilized after treatment: Household and industrial waste water shall be deemed as a water source that shall not be disposed of after treatment, unless it shall be proven that its use will not be feasible, in such case it shall be disposed of in accordance to applicable provisions and regulations, without resulting in any pollution to environment. b) Solid waste In 1984, the Law N o 13 provides provisions for the management of industrial and municipal solid waste. This law needs amendement to be in line with social economic changes and development in Libya. It should be noted that there is a high need to complement the new Law on environmental protection with the necessary technical law codes, executive decisions, specifications, standards and guidelines to make feasible its effective implementation and enforcement Policy Environment and action programmes Libya recognising the importance of environmental protection has formulated a First Report on the Environment in 2002, through which it procedures with respect to the formulation of a national environmental action plan, and proceeded to the realisation of specialised national environmental programmes. In 2005, a National Action Plan to prevent pollution of the sea from land based activities in the frame of the SAP/MED was also established. 1. National Programme on the Wastewater Sector The Libyan State has confirmed its great concern with water and sewerage water problem, taking major decisions in this regard, aimed to rehabilitate, maintain, and construct water and waste water networks in all Libyan cities. The objective is to secure public safety, to protect the environment and other natural resources from pollution. People s Congresses in Libya has adopted the National Water and Sewage Programme, for which approximately 5,000 million Libyan Dinars have been allocated, to rehabilitate, maintain and construct new sewage treatment plants, within a time period of 5 years, starting from This programme emphasizes priority of wastewater management in an environmental safety context. Plans for the urban effluent sector concentrate on: - Supporting water and wastewater companies in the Shabeyat, to enable it to manage and operate water and waste water network in a highly efficient manner, by training and habituating local sector s staff. - Maintaining extensive investment in this area, and repairing damage incurred during the economic embargo imposed on Libya during LDK ECO SA 136

146 - Complete implementation of the five-year plan for the sector, to which 100 million Libyan dinars have been allocated, for urgent maintenance to waste water pumping and treatment plants. - Starting, execution of national water and wastewater programme, by performing full assessment to Town and Villages infrastructures systems, allocating necessary funds for maintenance, completion of suspended projects, and implementation of new projects. By the year 2010, wastewater treatment plants are planned to be rehabilitated and maintained for all the Libyan cities, including connection of sewage networks to treatment plants. New projects for Tripoli and Benghazi (two largest cities) will be launched to rehabilitate the sewerage network and treatment system. Water resources strategy also considers urban wastewater as secondary water sources, with the scope of treated wastewater to be utilised for irrigation purposes. 2. National Programme on Solid Waste The strategy on solid waste management can be summarized as follows: - Limits on the production of wastes and promotion of clean production - Limitation of production wastes, through the development of production specifications - Encouraging private sector to invest in solid waste activities - Preparation of Master Plans for Urban Solid Waste Management - Adopting Selective waste collection, and waste recycling - Adopting material recovery system (application of product-recovery principle), by making waste producers pay prescribed fee for each production unit. - Environment awareness and education - Establishment of a trust fund supports and promote private Sector in Solid Waste Management. In order to achieve the strategy objectives, a two phase national plan has been developed: Phase One: The first phase in the plan is concerned with the necessary immediate action to be taken to manage pollution resulting from wastes: - Establishment of Sanitary landfills, under the technical and environmental terms set by the Shabeyat - Establishment of Intermediate collection stations and Centers to sort out waste - Closing unauthorized dumping sites currently used Phase Two: The second phase covers investment in recycling and reuse of solid waste: - Application of solid waste separation principle (starting from house level) - Encouraging private sector s participation in waste recycling programmes - Expansion in the establishment of organic fertilizers production plants from solid waste organic. Sanitary Landfills programme The sanitary landfill programme involves the construction of sanitary disposal sites, the closure of existing dumps, serving all Shabeyas. A list of coastal cities proposed for sanitary landfilling, in the frame of NAP (until 2010) is given below. Shabeya Al Nigat Al Khams Surman and Sabrata Azzawiya The service zone Zuwarah, AbuKamash, Zilten and Al Ajaylat Surman and Sabrata Azzawiya LDK ECO SA 137

147 Shabeya The service zone Jifarah Janzur Tripoli Tripoli Tajura Tajura Tarhunah, Masallatah Al Qarabulli and Masallatah Al Mergib Al Khums, Zliten Misratah Misratah Sirt 1 Sirt,Ben-Jowad, Al-Hisha, buhadei Ras Lanuf, Brega Ajdabiya Ajdabiya, Azwetina Al-Hizam Al-Akhdar Gemines- Deriana Benghazi Benghazi AL-Marj AL-Marj,Tulmetha- Aguria -Batta AL-Bieda AL-Bieda, Shhat, Susa AL-Ghobba AL-Ghobba,Ras AL-Hilal Dernah Dernah EL-Batnan Tobruk It is noted that there exist major difficulties in selecting suitable sites for sanitary landfilling in certain areas, resulting in cost rise, due to high compensation rates to land owners in some cases. Solid Waste Recycling Programme Solid waste clean and reuse process contribute to the recovery of part of the economic value of solid wastes, which also, will contribute to the provision of work opportunities and financial revenue for the community. The First National Report on Environment considers the construction of a number of organic fertilizer plants from household waste depending on the size of the cities (more that 90,000 inhabitants). The proposed sites, apart from Tripoli and Benghazi include Azzawiya, Ras Lanuf, Brega, AL-Marj, Al Nigat Al Khams, Al Mergib, Sirt, Ajdabiya and Tobruk. Hazardous waste Concerning the management of hazardous wastes, the national strategy has adopted a number of action plans and projects to deal with this type of waste in a safe manner, including: - Establishment of local listing of hazardous waste - Establishment of a special unit for hazardous waste treatment, at national level - Exportation of hazardous waste which could not be treated locally to foreign treatment centres, in compliance with relevant international conventions 3. The National Action Plan in the frame of the Strategic Action Programme for the protection of the Mediterranean from land-based pollution sources (UNEP/MAP) In the frame of the SAP of the UNEP/MAP, EGA has prepared a National Action Plan in line with the national strategy, where it proposes priority actions to be implemented by the year 2010: I I I I Sewage treatment plants maintenances and constructions for the cities: Azzawia, Janzur, Tripoli, Misratah, Sirt, Benhazi, Dernah and TobruK (cost 109 million Libyan Dinars; funding from National Programme of Water and Wastewater). Creation of Sanitary landfills for the cities: Azzawia, Janzur, Tripoli, Misratah, Sirt, Benhazi, Dernah and Tobruk. Improvement of solid waste collection in the cities (cost million Libyan Dinars; funding from Shabeyats local budget) Creation of a regional site for treatment and disposal of hazardous chemical waste (cost 7 million Libyan Dinars; funding ftom Government budget) Introduction of standard specifications for industrial waste emissions (cost 1.5 million Libyan Dinars; funding from Government budget) LDK ECO SA 138

148 I Rehabilitation and upgrading of air pollution abatement equipment for cement industries (cost 49 million Libyan Dinars; funding from different sources) I I I I Central environmental laboratories (cost 39 million Libyan Dinars; funding from Government budget) Environmental education and awareness (cost 43 million Libyan Dinars; funding from Government budget) Building capacity programme (cost 33 million Libyan Dinars; funding from Government budget) Economic instruments programme (cost 41 million Libyan Dinars; funding from Government budget) Overview of completed and on-going projects In Libya, the action of foreign donors is very limited to non existent, as all the actions on the environment are due to national funding mechanism. The only activities derived from foreign assistance are GEF funded; the regional project for determining the priority actions for further elaboration and implementation of the Strategic Action Programme (SAP) for the Mediterranean Sea and the UNDP conducted capacity assessment project, which contributed to the environment-related capacity building, and supported the development of strategies and action plans on environmental protection. The last years Libya has decided to plan and implement large environmental projects, mainly on the efficient management of urban effluents and municipal solid wastes. According to the available data, it is evident that a number of actions are ongoing on the rehabilitation of sewage networks, pumping stations and treatment plants, started from Though no activity is reported for solid waste management, financial support has launched for the realisation of works on proper solid waste disposal, serving the needs of the whole country, including the closure and rehabilitation of the existing dumps and improvements in waste collection systems. Unfortunately, no recorded data were available on activities for industrial pollution reduction, apart from that the large industrial polluters (refinery, cement, power plant) have in place and usually efficiently operate pollution control abatement systems. The General Electric Company, in particular, has introduced technical procedures to switch to the use of natural gas. This entailed the replacement of outdated steam turbines with new gas turbines on existing plants. Due to the high replacement costs, the General Electric Company is allowed to implement the above in accordance to its own time schedule. The following table is a brief presentation of the past achieved and ongoing activities grouped by focal area, though limited to information available from the National Action Plan for SAP of the UNEP/MAP and online data from UNDP Libyan Office. LDK ECO SA 139

149 Activities Funding source Status Urban Wastewater Rehabilitation and maintenance of sanitary systems in cities: - Azzawia - Janzur - Tripoli - Misratah - Sirt - Benhazi - Dernah - Tobruk Horizontal Capacity assessment project, identifying the options for environment-related capacity building, strategies and action plans for Libya Determination of Priority Actions for the Further Elaboration and Implementation of the Strategic Action Programme for the Mediterranean Sea completed activities; ongoing activities National Funds UNDP/GEF UNEP/GEF Outcome of review In Libya, the environment has been given less priority in the past, but is nowadays attracting the government s attention especially in terms of sanitation and management of solid wastes in less affluent urban areas, as well as the pollution of the country s coastline. The country was for long isolated because of the embargo imposed since 1990, and therefore, its legislative and institutional set-ups needs up-grading. Furthermore, the capability of human resources to manage integrated environmental management systems and technologies is very week. Therefore, capacity building projects are highly needed in the country before undertaking any concrete environmental action. In 2000 the Libyan General People s Congress and the Government authorities embarked on an ambitious programme of decentralization, abolishing most central government functions and making the devolution of responsibility to 31 governorates (shabiyat) a national priority. Great effort has been made to implement environmental protection activities in the country, but shabiyat often fail to deal successfully with environmental problems, because of many factors, such as: - Low environmental awareness among local population - Lack of legal and moral consciousness among perpetrator of environmental problem. - Lax rules to control and punish environmental polluters. - Lack of centres specialized in environmental monitoring and control, making permanent assessment to environmental conditions. - Lack of the necessary technical ability to maintain liquid, gaseous or solid pollutant treatment units, in addition to non-allocation of sufficient financial budgets. - Pollution perpetrators tend to conceal their acts, abandoning their responsibility for environmental protection. - Environmental projects are not considered as priority projects, accordingly directing expenditure to other areas. - Lack of environmental danger awareness, reduced pressure factor on local authorities in the Shabeyat, in taking effective environmental protection measures, like constructing Sanitary land field, wastewater treatment units, etc. LDK ECO SA 140

150 This has highlighted a need for capacity building to support the decentralization process, in particular at the governorate level. It also presents an opportunity to respond more accurately to some of the country s development needs, through increased needs-based targeting of resources. Complementing this, support is needed for a number of central authorities to develop capacity in areas such as environment. Such support at the central and governorate levels is valuable for contributing to environmental protection. Also, integration of legislative instruments will considerably contribute to facilitate day today work of the departments concerned with environmental protection programmes in the General Authority for Environment (EGA), and other institutions, and to legal and technical transparency, environmental assessment, inspection, and permissions for activities that may constitute environmental pollution sources. It is thus necessary to issue executive regulation for the implementation of the newly issued Environmental Protection Law, and to ensure enforcement of protection measures. Executive decisions could be issued for cases not covered by the Law or the executive regulation. A list of possible measures to improve the existing situation is already addressed in the First National Report on the Environment (2002), the newly adopted specialised environmental programmes and the National Action Plan for the SAP of UNEP/MAP. An important issue that is responsible for industrial pollution is the lack of specific environmental standards and weak EIA procedure. Therefore, one of the priorities is the issuing of environmental specifications and the enforcement of EIA system. The specifications could be prepared through the development of technical standards and guidelines for the different industrial sectors, as well as the different receiving media. The environmentally sound management of municipal solid waste is a major priority for Libya, since no sanitary landfill is in operation. The wild dumps are already considered as a threat for human health in the area, and there is plan for their closure and rehabilitation, in the frame of a National Plan for Solid Waste Management. In the second phase, the plan has also included the principles and measures for the integration of solid waste management (e.g. prevention, reuse, recycle). Urban effluents are also considered as a priority issue, and a specific sectoral plan is under implementation. However, maintenance of the plants is a key issue for the success of these projects, since in Libya there is a need for capacity building of the technical and managerial capabilities of the human resources of EGA, local administration and all other involved institutions. LDK ECO SA 141

151 5.7 Morocco Morocco is a country in North Africa, having a long coastline on the Atlantic Ocean that reaches past the Strait of Gibraltar into the Mediterranean Sea. It borders Algeria to the east, the Mediterranean Sea and Spain to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to its west. Separated by Spain by less than 20 km of sea, the kingdom of Morocco has had a long history of political, economic and cultural interaction with Europe. Morocco is the fourth most populous Arab country (30.6 million-2003). Most of the population lives mostly in urban areas, in the fertile plains or near the Mediterranean coast. Casablanca is the centre of commerce and industry, as well as the leading port; Rabat is the seat of government; Tangier is the gateway to Morocco from Spain and also a major port; Fez is the cultural and religious centre; and the dominantly "Berber" Marrakech is a major tourist centre. The country has one of the larger economies in Africa. Morocco's largest industry is the mining of phosphates. The country's third largest source of revenue is tourism. In Morocco, recent urbanization was translated by the emergence of several urban centres in the coastal band. The number of such centres has more than doubled from 1971 to The part of migration in the urban development of the littoral was 26% for the period This oftenuncontrolled urbanisation of the littoral zone causes the emergence of new planning problems and new forms of environmental pressures. The coastal marine environment constitutes the principal dumping place for urban and industrial wastewater, since it receives 98% of the industrial liquid effluents and 52% of the domestic effluents of the country. Also, oil pollution of the coastal marine environment and the shores of Morocco because of the very intense maritime traffic, is an issue of primary concern. Approximately 5,000 oil carriers, 2,000 ships carrying chemicals and 1,300 carriers of liquefied natural gas (LNG), navigate annually along the southwest coast of the Mediterranean. During the period , 137 maritime accidents occurred, leading to marine pollution. Furthermore, the existence of important harbour infrastructures along the Moroccan coastline represents additional sources of pollution for the beaches at their proximity. As in many neighbouring countries, the issue of water quality and quantity is a significant challenge for Morocco. Scarce water resources are further depleted by the country s growing population, urbanisation, sedimentation of reservoirs, and inefficient irrigation practices in agriculture. Rural areas suffer from inadequate access to sanitation. Furthermore, only 26 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) for urban effluents are in operation in the country, although 235 urban centres are equipped with a sewage network. As a consequence, urban effluents are considered as a priority issue for the protection of water resources and the quality of the marine environment. Municipal solid wastes are partly collected in many urban centres (collection rate vary from 65 to 100%) and are deposited in uncontrolled dumps without sanitary measures, or even soil coverage, in almost all cases. This practice is resulting to serious environmental and potential health problems (rodents proliferation, bad smells, wild fires because of self-ignition, contamination of groundwater tables by leachates). LDK ECO SA 142

152 Industrial activity is very important in Morocco and is mainly located in the Atlantic coastal zone, which is hosting 77% of industrial establishments and 80% of employment in the country. In the Mediterranean region, Tangier and Tetouan are the major industrial centres. Industrial wastewater is discharged usually untreated to the sea, either through the urban sewage network or directly in oueds (dry river beds) or in the sea. Very few industrial plants operate successfully their WWTPs, therefore industrial emissions represent a serious threat for the quality of the marine coastal environment at the vicinity of urban and industrial areas. In the Mediterranean coastal region of Morocco, the major environmental problems related to urban effluents, municipal solid wastes and industrial wastes, are located at the coastal cities of Tangier (pop. 640,000), Tetouan (pop. 454,000), Nador (pop. 215,000) and Al Hoceima (pop. 139,000) Major sources of pollution from urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions Urban wastewater Urban effluents are considered to be the principal pollution problem of Morocco affecting the health of the population and the environmental stability. The estimated volume of effluents generated in the urban areas is around 500 million m 3 annually and is discharged to the natural bodies mostly untreated. Around 43% of the urban effluents are directly discharged into the sea, 30% to water courses and 27% on the soil. In the Mediterranean region, urban wastewater is mainly generated in the coastal regions at the vicinity of the cities Tangier, Tetouan, Nador and Al Hoceima. Effluents are discharged in coastal oueds (dry river beds), coastal lagoons (the lagoon of Nador), or directly into the sea. In Tangier, 70% of urban wastewater is connected to a sewage network, while 17% is discharged to illegal sewers. Also septic cesspools are used, while in some cases effluents are directly discharged outside the house without any other measures. Most of the city of Tangier has a mixed sewage network, while a separate system is in operation in some areas (Bay of Tangiers, Industrial zone, Montagne, Boukhalef). The city generates a daily estimate of 69,200 m 3 of effluents, with an organic load of 29 tonnes of BOD per day. No wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) is in operation in the area, therefore effluents are discharged untreated, directly on the beachfront (a major outfall is located in the harbour) or through the Oueds of Lihoud and Souani, leading to contamination problems in the coastal seawater and the beaches of the Bay of Tangier. Since 2002, water distribution and wastewater sanitation services have been assigned to the private company AMENDIS. In Tetouan, 75% of urban wastewater is collected, while the rest is discharged in cesspools or other autonomous systems. The collected effluents are discharged to oued Matil and then to the sea, 8 km east of the city. In the other urban centres of the Province (Martil, Fnideq and M diq), the connection to the sewerage network varies from 41 to 81%. No WWTP is in operation to treat the city s effluents. The lagoon of Nador is the final recipient of urban effluents generated in the city of Nador, as well as in the urban centres of Beni Ansar, Kariat Arekmane, Aroui, Selouane, Zeghanghane, Ihdhaden, Beni Bouyefrour, and the new neighbours of Nador, which are not connected to the sewerage network of the city. The collected effluents of Nador (65%) are treated in a secondary treatment plant and a treatment lagoon at Beni Ansar, but the rest of the generated effluents are directly discharged untreated in the lagoon of Nador without any treatment, through various watercourses in the area. As a result, the lagoon of Nador is highly polluted. Also, the WWTP of Nador, which was constructed in 1976 and extended in 1991, needs further upgrading in order to be able to treat the total of wastewater generated in the area. In the city of Al Hoceima, 83% of the population is connected to the central sewage network. A WWTP constructed in 1996 with a capacity of 50,000 equivalent inhabitants is in operation, treating only a small part of the effluents generated in the area. Although the quality of the coastal bathing LDK ECO SA 143

153 waters is still satisfactory, plans are under development for increasing the percentage of household connections to the sewerage network and to increase the treatment capacity of the WWTP of the city Municipal solid waste Solid waste management is a very important environmental issue in Morocco, related to existing poor infrastructure as well as to the mentality of population related to the littering of public space. The solid waste generation in the country is reaching 6.5 million tonnes annually corresponding to 18 thousand tonnes daily. Domestic refuse is characterized by its high humidity (70%) and organic matter content (50-70%). Solid wastes are only partially collected in most coastal Provinces (Tangiers 65-85%, Tetouan 75%, no specific data for Nador and Al Hoceima) and are deposited in dumps without proper sanitary measures. Often small dumping sites are located within residential areas, especially in small towns, creating potential health hazards. Illegal scavenging is also practiced in the wild dumps, which also constitutes a practice that may lead to health problems for the working people. It has to be underlined that un-efficient collection of refuse and the proliferation of wild dumps in the country are linked to the absence of an appropriate legislative and regulatory environment for solid wastes management. In the coastal area of the Mediterranean, the urban centres of Tangier, Tetouan, Nador and Al Hoceima are the areas of primary concern, according to the National Action Plan prepared by the Ministry of the Land use Planning and Environment (MATEE) in the frame of the Strategic Action Programme (SAP) of UNEP/MAP. In the coastal Mediterranean region, 10 controlled dumping sites are registered, while many uncontrolled dumps of different sizes are in operation. Five of theses registered sites are in the Province of Tetouan, the others being at Tangiers, Al Hoceima, Zaio, Gourougou and Selouane-Aroui. Only one dumping site in Tetouan provides some kind of treatment (compacting) and has a fence erected to keep light garbage in and illegal scavengers out. All the other sites have no infrastructure and could be considered as wild dumps, where open burning is often occurring producing air pollution, among other nuisances (smells, rodents). No sanitary landfill is in operation in the Mediterranean coastal zone of Morocco Industrial emissions Industrial activity in Morocco is mostly concentrated around Casablanca, at the Atlantic coast of the country. There are no laws forcing or requesting industries to treat their effluents prior to discharge and as a result industrial effluents (approximately 1,000 million m 3 per year) are mostly discharged untreated into various natural bodies, the major part of these (98%) been discharged into the sea. In the Mediterranean coastal region are located approximately 600 plants, mainly at Tangier and Tetouan areas, which host 75% of the industrial establishments of the region (main sectors mechanical and metallurgical plants and agro-food industries). Only in Tangier 300 industrial plants operate with 200,000 workers. In Nador the major industries include an iron complex and a large sugar producing plant, while in Al Hoceima, industrial activity is not very developed and industrial effluents are not considered as a major problem. Only very few industrial plants operate WWTPs in the region (5 plants in Tangiers, 2 plants in Tetouan, and 2 large plants in Nador), whilst the majority is discharged directly or indirectly into the sea without proper treatment. To combat water degradation, a group of actions has been initiated, notably for the rehabilitation of surface water in the major streams. With the support of international funds (GTZ, French Cooperation, USAID), a programme for combating pollution resulting from industries and handicraft (tanneries, oil mills, etc.) has been implemented in Oued Sebou. Similar actions have also been initiated by the Industry Department with the support of the UNIDO, for the basins of Tensift and Oum Errabia. For these basins, internal audits and information and sensitization campaigns were organized to the benefit of industrials in the sectors of textiles (use of colorants and water) and LDK ECO SA 144

154 tanneries (use of chromium). The results were used to establish an action plan for each of these two regions. Regarding industrial solid wastes, in Morocco are generated yearly 1 million tonnes of wastes, including 120,000 tonnes of dangerous wastes. A part of industrial wastes is collected and are recycled (paper, metal) but the rest is deposited in wild dumps, along with domestic solid wastes Institutional setting Morocco has been developing its environmental institutions since the 1970s/1980s. The main institution responsible for environmental protection is the Ministry of Land Use Planning, Water and Environment (MATEE), whereas there are a number of dedicated environmental departments within other ministries in environmentally relevant areas. The Superior Council for Land-Use Planning (CSAT) is a discussion forum on the important national land-use planning issues. The National Council for the Environment (created in 1980 and re-organized in 1995) is a forum of discussion of all concerned stakeholders (Ministries, local communities, industrialists, NGOs, Universities) on national environmental issues. The Superior Council of Water and Climate (CSEC) is a forum of discussion on water and climate between State representatives, public agencies involved in the water sector (production of drinking water, irrigation, hydroelectricity) and water users such as Prefectures, Universities, Research Institutions, Engineers and Professional Associations. The Permanente Inter-ministerial Commission for Land-Use Planning is been assembled for the first time in 2005 under the presidency of the Prime Minister and examined the implementation modalities of the resolutions made by the Superior Council for Land-Use Planning. These bodies are formulating the general policy of the country on land-use planning, water, sustainable development and the environment. However, on the implementation level, linkages between the MATEE and the different departments in the other Ministries involved are often weak. Also week linkages are often encountered with municipalities that have responsibility for a number of environmental management and planning issues (i.e. solid waste management and transportation). Urban wastewater Several ministries are directly or indirectly involved in water and wastewater planning, management, monitoring and pollution control activities. MATEE has the responsibility to initiate, promote and coordinate the protection of water resources, pollution abatement and legislation enforcement. It is also responsible for Environmental Impact Assessment studies and raising public awareness. The Ministry of Equipment plays a key role in planning and managing projects and implementing resources allocation. The autonomous agency, the National Office of Drinking Water (Office National de l Eau Potable -ONEP), is in charge of protection and monitoring of natural water, as well as the enforcement of legislation. In 2000, ONEP is been given additional responsibility with respect to wastewater. This new responsibility enables ONEP to collect, treat and re-use wastewater if requested by the municipalities. The Ministry of Health is mainly responsible for potable water quality, but has also an important role in the development of standards and laws. The Ministry of Interior has a role with respect to environment in general, acting through the Direction Générale des Collectivités Locales, which is responsible for the potable water supply and wastewater collection in the communities. Basins Agencies have been established by the Water Law and are in charge of the evaluation, planning and management of water resources within a hydrographic basin. The basin agencies are in charge of the development of integrated water management plans and the supervision of their implementation. They are also in charge of water quality monitoring and enforcement of laws related to the protection of water resources. With the exception of the Agency of Oum Er-Riba, the other Basin Agencies, though already established in 2000, are not yet operational. LDK ECO SA 145

155 Municipal solid waste At national level, several institutions are involved in Solid Waste Management (SWM) including the ministries responsible for local communities, environment, agriculture and rural development and finance. The Ministry of Interior provides municipalities with technical assistance for planning and budgeting, private sector participation, and mobilizing funds for SWM. MATEE is involved in the elaboration of environmental and solid waste management legal frameworks and enforcement. It is also responsible for monitoring of pollution sources, management of the EIA system and the enforcement of legislation. It is also promoting integrated SWM systems through demonstrative projects and awareness activities. The Ministry of Health is responsible for SWM in the hospitals. The Ministry of Agriculture and Development is involved in the identification of the dumping sites, especially in woodlands, as well as in the creation of composting units (Rabat). The Ministry of Industry, Commerce, Energy and Mines is involved in the management of solid wastes generated by industrial establishments and the creation of recycling and valorisation systems. Also, a ministerial SWM Committee has been established at national level with the aim of facilitating and monitoring private sector participation at the provincial and local level. At local level, the Municipalities and the City Councils are fully responsible for all SWM activities in their areas. In some cases, the wilayas (provinces) are involved in the management of inter -municipal SWM infrastructure such as dumping sites. Both municipalities and wilayas are allowed to contract private sector services for solid waste management. The financing of SWM infrastructure is rarely done through central government allocation. Cost recovery for SWM services has been undertaken at the local level through a 10 percent tax on the rental value of housing units. In the last years, efforts have been made to finance SWM infrastructure construction via the private sector, primarily through contracts for collection services and landfill operations. As a result, private sector participation in SWM is relatively developed in medium and large cities such as Fès, Meekness, Rabat, Tangier, Nador, Oujda, Essaouira and Berkene. Industrial pollution The Ministries involved in industrial wastewater management include the MATEE, the Ministry of Equipment, ONEP and the Ministry of Industry, Commerce, Energy and Mines. Until now, no specific limits are set on wastewater discharged from industrial plants. Under these circumstances, the role of the Ministry of the Environment and other local authorities to control industrial pollution is weak. Concerning special wastes, Morocco is now launching a very ambitious project with a German collaboration. It consists of implementing a National Centre for the Elimination of Special Waste in Casablanca, which will allow the elimination of 80% of the country s special waste (the feasibility study is terminated). In order to financially support industrial investment for environmental protection, an Industrial Depollution Fund (FODEP) has been created as an economic tool to help the industrials adhere to the process of cleaning up pollution and protecting water resources. To date 25 projects have already been financed with 15.7 million Euros. Coastal marine environment MATEE is also involved in the protection of the marine environment of the country. Additionally, inter-ministerial institutions, with the cooperation of administration, professionals, academics and specialized experts, are actively involved in the management of the marine coastal environment: o o o o o o Commission of the Littoral, which defines the general policy for tourist and space development. National Observatory for the Environment and its regional network of observation, which monitor the environmental quality National Consul for the Environment National Commission of the Environmental Impact Studies Higher Consul for the Protection and Exploitation of Fisheries Higher Consul for Water and Climate LDK ECO SA 146

156 o Higher Consul for Territorial Management o National Committee for Biodiversity o National Committee for Wetlands Furthermore, for combating accidental pollution in the sea, the national authorities have developed and implemented the National Emergency Plan (NEP) to combat accidental marine pollution. This Plan constitutes an intervention tool in case of accidental marine pollution with hydrocarbons or harmful substances, allowing the mobilization and the coordination of previously identified means of combat. It was instituted by a decree in 1996 and completed by its application by-law in This plan is triggered by the National Coordinator represented by the MATEE in case of massive pollution with hydrocarbons or harmful chemical substances. In the framework of the implementation of the National Emergency Plan, a simulation exercise on combating accidental marine pollution was conducted in 2002 with the aim of testing the procedures anticipated by the NEP. On the other hand, port emergency plans were developed in two national ports, notably Agadir and Nador Legal framework The legislative framework of Morocco is characterized by a multitude of regulations, found in various laws. New law projects are also in their draft form or preparation phase. Morocco has also adopted several international conventions, agreements and treaties concerned with environmental issues, such as the Barcelona Convention and its protocols, the RAMSAR Convention, the MARPOL Convention. Morocco is a party to the Conventions of Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands and Whaling. Morocco has also signed, but not yet ratified, conventions on environmental modification and the Law of the Sea. The framework law for the protection of the environment was set in 2003 (Law 11-03) defines the principles and orientations for a legislative environmental strategy in the country. In 2003, the complementary Law established the list of projects and the process for applying Environmental Impact Assessments. Sectoral environmental laws are also in place providing the framework and the means for environmental protection. Wastewater The existing legal framework is mainly governed by the Water Code, Law No (1995) and completed by the law (1999). This law includes several articles related to the protection and preservation of water resources, wastewater discharge, and the reuse of treated wastewater. Environmental water and wastewater legislation is specified by 25 Decrees, including the creation of water basin agencies, the composition and functioning of the Superior Water Council, the plans for integrated planning of water resources, the national water plan, the pricing of water use, the water quality standards, etc. Already 6 Water Basins have been designated and relative decrees for them (Souss-Massa, Tensift, Bou-Regreg and Chaouia, Sebou, Loukkos, Moulouya,) have been promulgated after As a general strategy, the application of the law depends on the operation of the created Water Basin Agencies and the publication of Decrees on quality standards for discharges, the water use pricing and the creation of control bodies. Quality standards have been prepared by ONEP (National Office for Drinking Water), the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Interior for potable water (NM ) and monitoring of water supplies systems (NM ). Municipal solid waste Community responsibility for solid waste management is presented in the Communal Chart of 30/9/76 (article 30 of the Dahir no ). The Law on Urban Planning describes the process for the establishment of solid wastes dumps by communal local authorities. The water law also sets in a general way the rules for solid wastes dumps, prohibiting the location of such dumps in areas affecting public water resources. The Basin Agencies, created by this law on drainage basin level, are responsible for surveying the potential risks created by solid wastes dumping sites. Also a LDK ECO SA 147

157 municipal institutional reform is being initiated under the approved municipal law (charte communale) that entered into force in July Under this law, the city council will manage all municipal services including SWM in towns comprising more than one municipality. A new national solid waste management (SWM) law has been adopted in July 2006 and is expected to be published shortly in the Official Journal. This new legislation will replace old legislation, which did not provide useful tools for an environmentally sound management of solid wastes. Industrial pollution Industrial discharges are not well regulated and industries are not requested to conduct selfmonitoring for compliance. Furthermore, for most industrial sectors there are no specific standards for their emissions, although such standards exist for the industrial effluents of some industrial sectors (sugar, yeast, petrol refineries, pulp and paper, and oil). The lack of standards in the legislation and the lack of discharge permits for the industry are serious drawbacks in the effort of the country to control industrial pollution. On the other hand, a comprehensive EIA law was adopted in 2003, which also includes the requirement of public involvement. However, its implementation needs to be better organised in order to be used as a tool for environmental protection Policy Environment and action programmes In Morocco national environmental policy has been under development for just two decades. In 1995, a National Chart for Land Use Planning and Sustainable Development was adopted, reflecting the vision, anticipation and propositions of the country for land use planning and sustainable development, taking into consideration sectoral strategies already developed. It constitutes a collective contract of all national stakeholders to act in the frame of its principles. In 2002, the country developed a clear strategy for environmental protection and sustainable development with a decimal action plan. 1. National Strategy for Sustainable Development (SNDD) Morocco was engaged during the last 10 years to create the basis for sustainable development in the country, taking into consideration national needs related to rational management of natural resources and to the improvement of quality of life for its population, in the frame of the international agreements, namely the Rio process and the Johannesburg Summit. The SNDD was developed with the technical and financial support of UNEP/MAP, France and the Principality of Monaco. At the Mediterranean level, Morocco participated actively to the process for sustainable development in the region in the frame of the UNEP/MAP and the Mediterranean Commission for Sustainable Development (MCSD). In this framework, a National Strategy for Sustainable Development was developed, accompanied with an Environmental Action Plan (NEAP), which was adopted in The National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) In the frame of NEAP, adopted in 2002, specific targets are set for different environmental issues, including urban effluents, solid wastes and industrial emissions. For the water and wastewater sector the new strategy is based on management of supply, valorisation, decentralization and integration. It will also address the need to use non-conventional water sources including the re-use of treated wastewater and desalinization. The water and wastewater strategy includes the following components: Finalize and issue the decrees and standards related to the 1995 Water Law. Pass the pending environmental laws. Delineate the objectives and enforcement responsibilities of the Ministry of Environment and the regional basin agencies. LDK ECO SA 148

158 Raise the priority of wastewater management and develop an action plan for an affordable and sustainable wastewater management system focusing on priority areas. Strengthen industrial pollution control capacities and the promotion of preventive activities. Review and complete the existing legal and regulatory framework with the objective of integrating the water quality dimension within the current water law. Develop an integrated monitoring programme with the institutions responsible for water quality and provide sufficient resources to carry out the programme. More widely disseminate information about water pollution, water quality and clean technologies beyond their current limited distribution to ministries and universities. It has to be mentioned that the new policy of MATEE concerning the management of water resources, considers liquid sanitation and cleaning up pollution as new high priority objectives of the water management policy. Also, in the wastewater sector, the Government is moving towards the privatisation of the wastewater treatment. The management of the wastewater of Casablanca, Rabat- Sale, Tangier and Tetouan has been lately given to private firms. A National Wastewater Master Plan was elaborated and enabled the Government to draw the guidelines for the development of the sector. In the solid wastes sector, an integrated approach is planned, including improvement of collection efficiency, closure of wild dumps and creation of controlled sanitary landfills for the major urban areas. The proposed actions include: National plan for the management of dangerous wastes Plans of Prefecture or Province level for the management of municipal solid wastes, medical and inert wastes Cadastre of solid waste generation and measures for minimisation Improvement of actual situation Improvement of the urban hygiene and aesthetics through the organisation of a network of frequent collection and disposal of solid wastes Closure and rehabilitation of wild dumps and creation of controlled dumping sites Realisation of pilot projects, demonstration actions, sensitisation and environmental education projects aiming at improving citizens environmental behaviour Encouraging private initiatives for the promotion of service companies on collection, segregation, recycling of wastes and planning and exploiting sanitary landfills. Reduction of solid wastes volume applying the producer-pays and polluter-pays principle. It is also noted that a municipal institutional reform is being initiated under the approved municipal law (charte communale) that entered into force in July Under this law, the city council will manage all municipal services including SWM in towns comprising more than one municipality. For the industrial sector, the main strategy is to set up and enforce appropriate emission standards for industries, and to provide the necessary economic incentives and support (through FODEP) the industries for the introduction of cleaner technology practices and efficient treatment of their discharges. Also, the adopted EIA law will also be used to better control industrial pollution and to enhance public involvement in pollution control measures. 3. National Water Strategy Since 1995, the country has modernised its water legislation (laws and 19-98) setting the bases of a decentralised management on drainage basin level and introducing the polluter-pays principle. The private sector has been encouraged to enter the water and wastewater management business, by financing and exploiting water and wastewater infrastructure in cities. Actually a new water policy is in place based on the integration, the coordination of programmes and policy and the participation of users and national stakeholders in the decision process. The principle components of this policy are: Integration and coherence between programmes and policy of land use planning, water and the environment; The reinforcement of the de-centralised and participatory management of water resources and the follow-up of the legislative and regulative reforms; LDK ECO SA 149

159 The adoption of a national water plan after thorough debate between all concerned stakeholders. 4. The National Action Plan in the frame of the Strategic Action Programme for the protection of the Mediterranean from land-based pollution sources (UNEP/MAP) In the frame of the Strategic Action Programme (UNEP/MAP), Morocco has prepared in 2005 a National Action plan (NAP) including a list of priority actions for the Mediterranean coastal region of the country. The priorities include necessary actions in the sectors of urban sanitation, solid waste management and industrial pollution control, such as: Interception, treatment (primary) and underwater discharge of the urban effluents of Tangiers (from public funds) Interception, treatment (primary) and underwater discharge of the urban effluents of Tetouan (from private funds of the society which will operate the water and wastewater management of the city) Rehabilitation and extension of the sewerage network, pumping stations and WWTP system of the Province of Nador (from private funds of the society which will operate the water and wastewater management of the city) Rehabilitation and extension of the sewerage network, pumping stations and WWTP system of the Province of Al Hoceima (from international donation AFD) Municipal Solid Waste management (collection and creation of sanitary landfills) in the Provinces of Tangiers, Tetouan, Nador and Al Hoceima (from public funds) Studies for the creation of a centre for transfer and elimination of dangerous industrial solid wastes (from public funds) Environmental upgrading the industrial plants (cleaner production) and building of WWTPs for industries (FODEP Industrial De-pollution Fund- and private companies) Promoting cleaner production and building of WWTPs for industries (FODEP and private companies) By implementing the NAP, Morocco plans to fulfil its obligations for the reduction of pollutants emitted from land-based sources to the Mediterranean Sea by the year 2010, according to the targets of the SAP. 5. Creation of a National Centre for the Elimination of Special Wastes (CNEDS) An agreement has been signed in 2001 between Morocco and Germany (Rhine North-Westphalia) for the creation of a National Centre for the Elimination of Special Wastes (industrial and hospital wastes). 6. Actions on MDGs In September 2005, the Moroccan Government, in cooperation with the United Nations, launched the second report describing the country s progress toward achieving the Millennium development Goals (MDGs). Of relevance is Goal 7 Target 11: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers. The sanitation sector constitutes one of the hard to solve problems in the urban centres. According to the report, only 79% of the urban households are connected to a sewerage system, while the rest is rejected into nature (septic pit, absorbing well or others). The extension of the sewerage network poses enormous problems of financing which exceed by far the capabilities of the communes, and forces to find alternate institutional and financial means. LDK ECO SA 150

160 5.7.5 Overview of completed and on-going projects In Morocco a significant number of activities on environmental protection receive foreign assistance, while information on local funded projects was rather limited. The assistance is concentrated on the urban wastewater sector, whilst there are a number of projects related to industrial emissions and municipal solid waste. Morocco's principal development partners in the water and sanitation sector are the African Development Bank (ADB), the World Bank (WB), Islamic Development Bank (IDB), Japanese Aid, European Investment Bank (EIB), European Commission (EC), and various European donors (France, Germany, Belgium, Spain), the American Development Agency (USAID), and the Canadian Cooperation (CIDA). The activities are mostly associated to the construction of WWTPs, and extension and rehabilitation of sewerage networks, whereas some others are supportive projects with the aim of reinforcing the competent authorities, providing technical experience and awareness development. Solid waste management infrastructure is rarely financed through central government allocation. The greatest assistance has been received from EC, through SMAP, MEDA and LIFE 3 rd countries programmes, followed by USAID and Spain. The activities are concentrated on renovation and improvements in the solid waste management system of various cities, raising awareness of local communities, and training. A regional EU funded activity has additionally contributed in the development of national action plan for the recycling sector. Various activities on industrial depollution have received international support, mostly bilateral (EC, Germany, France Canada, Finland), focusing on improvements in the environmental performance of facilities of various sectors, introduction and promotion of cleaner production and environmental management systems, and support to environmental awareness. United Nations through UNIDO is also active in the establishment of cleaner production centre and development of an ecologically sustainable industrial development strategy. The following table is a brief presentation of the major past achieved and ongoing activities, grouped by focal area. A complete list of these activities is annexed, containing detailed information on each project. Activities Funding source Status Urban Wastewater Construction / extension/ rehabilitation sewerage and sewage disposal systems in: - towns of Casablanca, Agadir, Rommani, Beni Mellal, Essaouira and Ouled Teima - town of Ouarzazate Belgium (BTC) - town of Tarfaya Belgium (BTC/DGCD) - small and medium cities Japan (JBIC) - Khenifra M Rirt Germany (KfW) - Casablanca, city of Fez WB - city of Marrakech, Meknès, Settat and Agadir EC-MEDA/EIB/ France (AFD)/ RADEM - city of Oujda EC-MEDA II/EIB - provinve of Al Hoceima (rehabilitation & extension, including WWTP) France (AFD) - 5 provinces France (AFD), WB, ONEP - municipality of Had Beni Chiker Spain (AECI) - 9 centres IDB - province of Tangier, Tétouan, Martil, Azla, M diq, F nideq, Oued Laou local funds (extension) - Chauen Spain (MFA) n/a EIB LDK ECO SA 151

161 Activities Funding source Status Construction of waste water treatment plant in: - Drarga (pilot wastewater treatment plant) USAID - city of Marrakech, Meknès, and Agadir EC-MEDA - la ville d'oujda France (AFD), local funds - Sidi Taibi (8th DWSS) & towns of Khouribga, Oued Zem and Boujaâd AfDB (9th DWSS) - Oued Sebou (Fès area- activated sludge treatment plant) EC-MEDA II/EIB/ AFD/ RADEEF - town of Tangiers and Tetouan (including sea outfalls) local funds - Beni Chiker Spain (MFA) n/a Province of Nador: rehabilitation of existing pumping stations and WWTP; b) construction of new WWTP up to 2025; construction of two interceptors for Zeghanghane and Jaadar to be distributed to WWTPs and e) extension of sewage network Local funds Technologies on waste treatment and environmental pollution control Japan (JICA) n/a Capacity building and training: - to train specialists, technicians, public servants, engineers, and community representatives, to enable them (in their area of expertise) to apply adapted wastewater treatment technology and effectively to manage wastewater treatment from villages - reinforce National Potable Water Authority (ONEP's) capacity - support Water Users' Association (WUAs) local organizations responsible for operation and maintenance. - institutional, operational and financial assistance to restructure RADEEF, and in general, to transfer operation and maintenance of sewerage systems from Municipalities to Regions Development of tools and guidelines for the promotion of sustainable urban wastewater treatment and re-use in agricultural production National guidelines for decontamination of liquids Elaboration of Master plans for 12 major cities Pre-investment studies for the reduction of land-based pollution in Nador (urban effluents) Municipal Solid Waste Regional Solid Waste Management Project in METAP Mashreq and Maghreb Countries. Promotion of the adoption of sustainable ISWM practices through: strengthening policy, legal and institutional frameworks, clarifying financing and cost-recovery options and methods, opportunities for private sector participation and defining public awareness and community participation strategies. Project activities are carried out at both regional and national levels. At national level, development of national action plan for the development of solid waste recycling sector. Regional Community Solid Waste Management Programme (RCSWMP); raising awareness of local communities and demonstrating the environmental, economic and social benefits of SWM; Pilot project for the city of Tiflet Solid waste management system in: - Rabat (establishment of an experimental centre for domestic waste sorting) - communities of Tiflet, Oulmes et Missour (long lasting operation of new municipal waste co-treatment centres) - town of Essaouira (controlled disposal, incinerator, rehabilitation of uncontrolled dumping site) Canada (CIDA) WB/France (AFD) WB EC-MEDA WATER LIFE 3rd countries GEF/France (FFEM) EC/SMAP II -METAP EC/SMAP I LIFE 3rd countries UNDP/GEF EC-MEDA IΙ LDK ECO SA 152

162 Activities Funding source Status - town of Chauen (improvement of solid waste management system) Spain (MFA) - Tetouan (waste treatment) Spain (MFA) n/a - province of Nador (sorting and recycling of the refuse) EC Development and establishment of an innovative composting system for LIFE 3rd countries the treatment of biodegradable organic waste and sludge generated by urban wastewater treatment plants and drinking water refineries Feasibility study and technical assistance on better solid waste collection US-TDA and treatment in Casablanca Training activities for the construction and operation of Fez controlled US-TDA landfill Pre-investment study for the reduction of land-based pollution in Al GEF/France (FFEM) Hoceima (municipal solid waste management) Industrial emissions Installation of environmental protection equipment at: - the power station of Mohammédia EC-MEDA II/EIB - elimination of CFC of manufacturing units of ship's: Maghreb- UNDP Elastoplast, Dolidol, Richbond, Sodiflex, Tiznit, Panaf, Salidor, Mousse d'or, Richdor, Molen Industrie, Batcomar, Bonbino, Interfer, Engeqipe, Etablissement lahadar, Firstclean, Froid et Climatisation Layoune - elimination of PCBs Switzerland (SDC) - refinery Société Anonyme Marocaine de l Industrie du Raffinage France (AFD) SAMIR - Agadir cement factory France (AFD) - at two chemical plants in Safi and Jorf Lasfar EIB n/a n/a Promoting cleaner production and building of WWTPs for industries Establishment of a National Centre for the Elimination of Special Wastes (industrial and hospital wastes) (feasibility study) Assistance to Morocco to meet its obligations under the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) Energy and Environment Upgrading of the Industrial Park of Sidi Bernoussi Zenata, Casablanca Establishment of the Moroccan National Cleaner Production Centre (NCPC) Development of an ecologically sustainable industrial development strategy based on proven cost effective technologies for pollution prevention and low- and non-waste technologies Urban Air Quality Improvement through Air Quality and Mobility Plans and the Institutional Strengthening of Local Air Quality Administration in Air Quality Management; Improving air quality of Tétouan through elaborating Air Quality Plan to reduce polluting emissions from industrial, domestic, service and transport sectors and through elaborating Urban Mobility Plan Germany (KfW), industries Germany (KfW) UNDP WB/France-MAE UNIDO UNIDO EC /SMAP II LDK ECO SA 153

163 Activities Funding source Status Movement of the industrial site of Berrechid to an organised industrial park; achieved its objective by: - Promoting the introduction of eco-efficient technologies; - Implementing an integrated system aimed at introducing a sustainable management of water on the short/medium term; - Promoting the adoption of water treatment into companies; - Promoting the introduction of thresholds imposed by national law or European standards; - Disseminating eco-efficiency criteria into companies by/and linking them to the concept of environmental quality and to ISO 14001/EMAS schemes; and Introducing environmental awareness to industries, local institutions and the local population. Environmental Programme Development of technological competencies to improve industrial environmental protection. Environmental management systems introduced into the industrial sector, the cooperation between the private sector and different. Reuse of rural wastewater: Capacity building to train specialists, business managers (olive oil, sugar industry), technicians, public servants, engineers, and community representatives, to enable them (in their area of expertise) to apply adapted wastewater treatment technology and effectively to manage wastewater treatment from agri-food industries Training and Technology Transfer for the Arab States Capacity Building for the Implementation of the Basel Convention LIFE 3rd countries Germany (GTZ) Canada (CIDA) Finland (MFA) Industrial depollution programme for Oued Sebou: environmental EIB/France (AFD, FFEM, measures in textile industries, oil producers, tanneries, breweries, etc RADEEF) Construction of a chromium recycling plant in Fez (pilot project) USAID Horizontal Determination of Priority Actions for the Further Elaboration and Implementation of the Strategic Action Programme for the Mediterranean Sea Protection of the catchment area of Moulouya (BVM) by a reduction of the sources of pollution of domestic and mining origins (proposing solutions innovating for the valorisation of domestic waste and used water, the reduction of the pollution of the old mining sites and the improvement of husbandries) and a strengthening of the institutions of observation and management on a regional scale. Revision of regulations, procedures, and laws regarding urban infrastructure; Strengthening of the GOM's role in protecting urban environments; development of cost-recovery procedures. (upgrading substandard neighbourhoods by providing sewerage infrastructure and improving the urban environment by efforts in solid waste removal and disposal and wastewater treatment) Reducing conflicts of coastal natural resources use in the Nador area of Morocco Assistance and institutional strengthening, promotion of integrated coastal zone management (SMAP III Technical Assistance project) completed activities; ongoing activities; n/a: not available data UNEP/GEF EC/AECI/ENDA USAID EC-SMAP III EC-SMAP III LDK ECO SA 154

164 5.7.6 Outcome of review Morocco faces important environmental problems because of the discharge of untreated urban and industrial effluents to the water courses and the sea. Very few treatment plants are in operation in the country, although effluent quantities are continuously increasing. Also no proper sanitary landfill is in operation for the environmentally sound management of municipal solid wastes, which are usually discharged on uncontrolled dumps, creating health problems and environmental degradation. The key environmental institution in the country is the Ministry of Land Use Planning, Water and Environment (MATEE), which is coordinating all environment related actions and is actively involved in pollution abatement and legislation enforcement. The Ministry needs to be supported for improving its capability of monitoring and law enforcement, through the up-grading of its human, technical and financial resources. Morocco has made considerable progress in improving its environmental legislation in recent years, by providing the framework environmental law 11-03, including the law on Environmental Impact Assessment. However, the country needs to complement the sectoral legislation and support the existing laws (e.g. water law) with specific executive regulations (e.g. effluent standards) for their effective application and realisation, in conjunction with the establishment of a mechanism for enforcement and compliance monitoring. Wastewater management in big cities is under the responsibility of the Regies Autonomes or private firms, while in small cities the municipalities are in charge of wastewater collection and treatment. The development of a proper framework for private sector participation in wastewater management is a necessary step towards successful public-private cooperation. The framework law on solid waste management that was just issued in 2006 will need to be complemented by adequate regulations to enhance its implementation. Up till now, the responsibilities of different authorities were poorly defined, without coherence and complementarities between stakeholders. Local authorities (communities) are responsible to implement SWM schemes, whilst over the last years private companies are involved in waste collection and disposal. Collection efficiency is often low, while no proper sanitary landfill is in operation in the country, and wild dumps proliferate throughout the country, creating health problems and contamination of the water tables and soil. Industrial activity is mostly located in the Atlantic coast (Casablanca), but also in the Mediterranean coastal cities of Tangier and Tetouan. The lack of specific standards for the quality of industrial effluents and the absence of an efficient monitoring mechanism, results to un-controlled discharge of pollutants from the industrial facilities of the country and to a serious degradation of the receiving water bodies. Awareness of environmental issues remains low among industry and the general public and efforts are needed to bring the civil society closer to the decision-making process. It is proposed to use effectively the new EIA legislation and to set standards for the discharge of industrial emissions into the environment. The funding institution FODEP is planned to play a leading role in the financing of the industrial sector, but much more funding possibilities need to be developed. Morocco has made considerable progress in improving its environmental legislation and institutional organisation over the past years. Both the developed Strategic Action Programme accompanied by the National Action Plan in the frame of UNEP/MAP (2005) and the National Environmental Action Plan (2002) provide the necessary framework and propose priority actions, especially de-pollution infrastructure and capacity building. The implementation of these actions will improve significantly the Moroccan environment. LDK ECO SA 155

165 5.8 Palestinian Territories Palestinian Territories are made up of two geographical regions, Gaza Strip and the West Bank, which are separated by Israel. Neighbouring countries include Jordan and Egypt. About 3.5 million live in the combined areas of the West Bank and Gaza Strip, of whom over 1 million are in Gaza Strip. The Gaza Strip and West Bank are divided into sixteen Governorates. Eleven of these are located in the West Bank, and five in Gaza Strip. The Governorates are subdivided into 105 municipalities of which 89 are in the West Bank and 16 in Gaza Strip. In addition, local councils have been formed to manage all infrastructure and basic services. Environmental concerns include salination of fresh water supply along with periodic droughts, soil degradation and sanitation problems. Water availability is a major problem, which has regular access to groundwater sources only. Water quality in the West Bank is generally considered acceptable, but is much poorer in the Gaza Strip where water has high salinity and nitrate content. This may be due to unregulated disposal of solid and liquid wastes from domestic, industrial and agricultural sources, in addition to seawater intrusion. Discharges of untreated wastewater are the major health hazard and source of pollution and the number one problem at the coastal zone of Gaza Strip. There are more than 20 individual sewage drains, ending either on the beach or after crossing a short distance in the sea. Unregulated disposal of solid waste is also a major problem. Domestic, industrial and medical wastes are often dumped near cities and villages in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, burned, or disposed of to unregulated or inadequate disposal sites. This causes air and water pollution, leading to health hazards. Furthermore, the environmental management is complicated because of the ongoing political turmoil. The number of industrial facilities presents great variations over a short period of time resulting to important changes in the quality and quantity of the resulting pollutants. Most of the industrial plants discharge their wastewater without proper treatment or even without any treatment to the sewerage system. Furthermore, industrial solid waste, which may include hazardous waste, is badly managed and is dumped without separation in the municipal landfills or open dump sites. Also the gaseous emissions from some industries are not monitored, and no treatment is used, which endanger the public health of the workers and the people living at close proximity to these industries. Coastal/marine degradation is an issue to consider in Gaza Strip. General causes of degradation include: increased population, limited space, poor infrastructure, and intense pressure on the natural resource base. Direct effects include: disturbance of marine and coastal ecology through intense fishing pressure; impacts of liquid and solid waste; depletion of sand resources through extraction for building purposes; erosion caused by coastal infrastructure construction. Finally, air pollution is an increasing problem, originating from road transport, light industry using fuels such as tyres and LDK ECO SA 156

166 motor oil, particulates from quarrying, and solid waste burning. A lack of air monitoring stations means that the scale of the problem is not clear to planners, decision-makers and the public Major sources of pollution from urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions Urban wastewater Wastewater generated from the West Bank s and Gaza Strip s cities and villages is the primary source of pollution. At present, domestic wastewater is collected mainly in cesspits or, to a much lesser extent, in sewerage networks. About 24% of the total population is served by a central public urban sewer system, and less than 5% of the municipal sewage collected is subjected to partial treatment in the existing overloaded municipal sewage works. Approximately, 70% of households in the urban cities are connected to the sewerage system. The existing urban sewage collection and treatment facilities is usually constrained by limited capacity, poor maintenance, process malfunction, poor maintenance practices, and lack of experienced or properly trained staff. In some urban and all semi-urban areas as well as all rural communities, collection systems are rarely used and wastewater is discharged into percolating pits or septic tanks. The septic tanks emptied by vacuum trucks and disposed of either in the treatment plant or just in the wadis. Moreover, in the refugee camps, grey wastewater is flowing in open drains where raw sewage is released into the environment or discharged into the sewer system of a nearby town. Inadequate disposal of wastewater pollutes the neighbourhoods and groundwater of the West Bank aquifer and poses serious risks to the health and environment of Palestinian communities. Current pressure on the environment will be worsening by the expected population growth. In recent years some projects promoting small-scale, decentralized wastewater treatment in rural areas have been implemented. Wastewater treatment is either inadequate or non-existent in the West Bank. About 73% of the households in the West Bank have cesspit sanitation and almost 3% are left without any sanitation system. The existing treatment plants (Tulkarm, Jenin and Ramallah) are not functioning appropriately and hardly achieve any treatment higher than primary. There is also one plant in Hebron City but was never in use, and another at Birzeit university that has been functioning well but the operational cost is high. Very little progress in the construction of wastewater treatment plants has taken place on the ground. To date, only one project was implemented in Al-Bireh city, which operates in a proper way. In Gaza Strip, the lack of proper wastewater treatment facilities leads to the discharge of untreated or partially treated sewage directly and indirectly through Wadi Gaza from the middle camps (Nuseirat, Bureij, Maghazi) to the sea. Many discharge points are registered along the shoreline in the Gaza Strip. The major pollution sources in the coastal zone are: Urban untreated effluents from El-Sheikh Radwan Urban untreated effluents at the Beach Camp (About 15 discharge outfalls) The emergency overflow south of Palestinian hotel in Gaza City Urban effluents discharged at the seashore in El-Sheikh Egleen Treated effluents from the major sewage outfall of the Gaza wastewater treatment plant Urban untreated effluents from a pond at the western end of Wadi Gaza (accumulated effluents from the middle Camps) Urban effluents discharged at seashore in Deir El-Balah City Urban effluents discharged at Rafah City The governmental national water institutions are under-funded, and hence, the laws and regulations are difficult to enforce. Without permits, illegal connections to the sewer system are made. LDK ECO SA 157

167 During the last years, due to the political and economical situation, the Palestinian Authority was not able to establish and run the adequate national organizations, which were supposed to satisfy the demand for sanitation needs. Investigating the technical, economical and socio-cultural aspects of rural and urban sanitation facilities, it was found that major sanitation problems are due to the weak economy and low income, low level of technical operating expertise, inadequate wastewater policies, and lack of institutional arrangements Municipal solid waste The improper handling of solid waste is a major cause of deterioration of water quality, land degradation, air pollution, as well as aesthetic disturbance of the visual environment. Municipal solid wastes continue to be inadequately managed in many areas, although improvements have been achieved as a result of investment and institutional initiatives over the past decade. Waste collection systems have left large areas (estimated at 25 % of the population) of towns and villages unserviced. The majority of collected waste is managed through land disposal. Hazardous wastes may be inappropriately managed together with non-hazardous municipal wastes, particularly in the West Bank; waste oil and biomedical wastes are known to be dumped with non-hazardous municipal wastes. In Gaza Strip, a hazardous waste cell is used for the disposal of hazardous wastes. Composting and recycling are not undertaken in a formal sense; its impact on the waste stream has not been quantified. The increasing waste generated by the growing population of the West Bank and Gaza Strip is dumped without planning. Due to the absence of efficient collection systems, solid waste is dumped in all areas. The number and area of the dumping sites are not determined. This is because almost all municipalities and village councils specify one piece of land or more for this purpose. None of the dumping sites are fenced, lined or monitored. The scattered sites pollute the land, groundwater and distort the landscape. Although provisions in municipal legislation provide for waste management cost recovery fees, these are generally not implemented (except in Gaza) or not enforced even though waste management services typically account for 30% of municipal waste management budgets. Overall tax collection efficiency is very low, and varies between percent. While the above characterisation of the solid waste management system is applicable to the Palestinian Terrotories as a whole, there are important differences between solid waste management systems in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank. The international community has been active in the sector in Gaza Strip for many years, and has contributed to the waste disposal capacity for municipal solid wastes and for hazardous wastes. Also, institutional strengthening has supported initiatives that are now being undertaken in the West Bank; for example, the creation of joint service councils - and the regionalisation of waste management that these achieve that was first implemented in the Gaza Strip Industrial emissions There are few industrial zones, but most of the industries are scattered in the residential areas causing nuisance and inconvenience to people. Presently, there are over 14,000 industries and factories in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, 70% of which are in the West Bank alone. Existing major industrial activities in the West Bank can be classified into two main categories: extractive industries and manufacturing industries. Extractive industries are those involving quarrying of limestone, marble stone, and crushed aggregates. Manufacturing industries include units for cutting and polishing stone, leather tanning, textile dyeing, food and beverage, textile, shoes and leather, metal processing, etc. The largest number of industries is located in Hebron, Nablus and Ramallah. The preparation of a comprehensive list of industries is needed to develop an industrial database. Also, little or no data on effluent flows, concentrations and loads are available. The following presents the major types of industries that are causing damage to the environment: Quarrying, stone crushing and stone processing: These industries generate the largest amount of liquid and solid waste along with air born pollutants. Most are located in residential and agricultural areas. Large amount of dust LDK ECO SA 158

168 and particulate solids create harmful conditions for public health. The dust severely damages the agricultural land and natural ecosystem. Charcoal: These industries are mainly located in the Jenin district (mainly in Yabad) nearby residential areas, creating adverse living conditions. The coal residue covers fertile land, destroying wheat crops and olive trees. Leather tanning: Tanneries use large amounts of chemicals, such as arsenic, chrome, sulphuric acid and salt. Wastewater is disposed of untreated in the wastewater network or disposed in open areas like wadi Al-Zomer without pre-treatment causing possible contamination of toxic and carcinogenic compounds to ground water. Textile dyeing: The effluent contains high concentrations of ionic substances, organic colour and reactive dyes. High temperature and high ph values characterize the effluents from such industries. Chock loading of such waste to Ramallah wastewater treatment plant is commonly practiced. Food and beverage: One of the biggest industrial sectors. Wastewater from this industry has high concentrations of BOD, which creates problems for treatment units and the diary industry is a major part of this sector. Olive Mills: The wastewater from these factories has a high level of both BOD and acid, which will disturb treatment units and pollute groundwater. Chemicals and plastics: This includes production of pharmaceuticals, detergents, paints, adhesive, etc; involving quite often a process of mixing of chemicals. Pollutants from these industries may be solid, liquid or gaseous. Metal Processing: The most hazardous wastes are the ones from the electroplating, metal finishing and casting industries. Some units use rubber tires and vehicle oil as a fuel in the furnace. The particulate solid and toxic compound emitted may contribute to serious health problems. Industrial effluents generated from the industrial facilities and the industrial parks inside Israeli colonies are similarly being disposed of untreated. Some of these industries such as tanning, electroplating, batteries, and metal finishing industries hold high concentrations of heavy metals and non-degradable toxic and hazardous waste. Most of the factories discharge their wastewater without proper treatment or even without any treatment to the municipal sewerage system. The main problems for the efficient management of industrial wastewater can be summarised below: 1- Industry is reluctant to control its pollution. 2- Access to sampling location is often refused. 3- High levels of toxic materials may be discharged to the sewers. 4- Legislative controls although there are some, they are not implemented. 5- A comprehensive database of polluting industries does not exist. Since there are no enforced laws or regulations to control industrial wastewater into the environment, this could directly deteriorate the water resources and has a detrimental effect if wastewater is discharged into domestic treatment plants without pre-treatment. Therefore, in order to have an effective wastewater management in West Bank and Gaza Strip appropriate policies, regulations and enforcement of laws are compulsory. Few efforts were made to minimize pollution loads discharged from industrial emprises. Industrial solid waste generally is collected with other waste and dumped in the municipal landfills or in the open areas. Many of them, especially quarries and stone cutting facilities, dispose of their waste in nearby plots. At the Gaza Industrial Estate (GIE), there is special agreement with the municipality of Gaza to collect the solid and hazardous waste from the individual industries and to transfer it to Gaza landfill. Special arrangement will be developed for collection, transportation of the hazardous waste and disposal in the hazardous waste cell at Gaza landfill. At present small quantities of the industrial solid waste is randomly dumped near the shoreline due to the improvement in the solid waste management in Gaza Strip in the last few years. Industries though of small and medium size in the West Bank and Gaza Strip also add to the air pollution problem. This is especially through the absence of laws and regulations which control emissions. Furthermore, the impact of industrial air emissions is increased due to industrial facilities being located in close proximity to populated areas. Limited data is available on the gaseous LDK ECO SA 159

169 emissions from the different industries due to absence of any stack emissions monitoring equipment in Gaza Strip and West Bank Institutional setting Until May 1995, all environmental responsibilities were held by the Israeli Administration. They were administered through the Environmental Health Department under the Israeli Ministry of Health and limited mainly to inspections. Following the establishment in 1993 of the Israeli Ministry of Environment, the Department of the Environmental Officer was established in the Civil Administration, which carried out projects in the fields of solid waste and liquid waste treatment, and pest control. In December 1996, the Palestinian Environmental Authority (PEnA) was established to be responsible for the environmental management in West Bank and Gaza Strip. At the end of 1997 a merger was realised between PEnA and the Environmental Planning Department (EPD), which was founded in 1994 under the Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation to handle environmental protection matters in terms of planning, management and implementation. Following the Presidential Decree No.2 in August 1998, designating a new Cabinet, the President of Palestinian Authority appointed a state Minister for Environment, giving the Minister authorization over PEnA, now called the Ministry of Environmental Affairs (MEnA). MEnA is played an important role as the planning, coordinating and executive body to improve environmental standards and attitude in the Palestinian Territories. Being the central representative authoritative body responsible for all environmental issues, MEnA aimed at developing human resources and capacity building, promoting environmental awareness programs and activities, for the sound use and protection of environmental resources, arid land management, desertification combat, biodiversity conservation, pollution control, and awareness rising. As a result of administrative reforms, the Presidential Decree No. 6 in June 2002 established the Environmental Quality Authority (EQA) as the successor body to MEnA. EQA has its own budget and is responsible to the Cabinet of Ministers. All the functions, responsibilities and authorities of the ministry were transferred to EQA including all property and employees. Although continues to be no overall written mandate for EQA, its primary responsibilities are clearly set out in the Palestinian Environmental Strategy and the Palestinian Environmental Law. The mission of the EQA, is to safeguard and protect the environment, human health, control and limit the degradation of natural resources, combat desertification, prevent future pollution, enhance environmental awareness and ensure environmentally sustainable development. The main responsibilities of EQA are in the fields of planning, monitoring, licensing and enforcement. Below, its main responsibilities are stated: Development of environmental policy, legislation and environmental planning; Development of standards, norms and guidelines for creating sustainable environment; Set norms to determine which projects should be subject to EIA; Conduct environmental studies and researches; Monitor the occurrence of environmental pollution, prepare and implement contingency plans; Cooperate with others concerning the supervision and coordination of environmental projects; Enhancing public awareness and the skills of its human resources through education and training in environmental management. In addition to the Environmental Quality Authority, many other ministries and authorities, institutions, NGOs and the private sector, have environment-related tasks. Among those specifically identified in the environmental strategy are: -Ministry of Planning and International Co-operation and the Higher Planning Council, responsible for land use and planning, and hence development of emergency natural resources protection plans and regional development plans; -Ministry of Local Government, dealing with solid waste management and is therefore involved in the operation and financing of solid waste collection and disposal; LDK ECO SA 160

170 -Ministry of Health, involved via its Department of Environmental Health in the control and management of medical waste. It is also involved in management of water and food quality, wastewater and solid waste, pest control, etc; -Ministry of Industry concerned with hazardous waste and industrial pollution control and management, environmental standards, natural resources and industrial safety and zoning; -Ministry of Agriculture, responsible for environmental management in the use of agro-chemicals and protection of nature and biodiversity; -Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, focusing on protection and management of the cultural heritage tourism sites; -Ministry of the Interior, involved in environmental law enforcement; -Ministry of Transport, concerned with environmental aspects of traffic and infrastructure; -Ministry of Education, having specific role through environmental education and awareness building; -Municipalities, responsible by law for building and maintaining certain infrastructure (sanitation, local roads and side-walks) and providing basic services (solid waste management, wastewater treatment, construction permitting, etc.); There are several other authorities with environment-related mandates and functions, such as the Palestinian Energy Authority, as well as numerous environment-related NGOs, many of which play an important role in contributing information and experience to the preparation and review of laws and decision-making processes. Capacity-building for NGOs would assist in making these functions still more effective in future, particularly with regard to supporting and facilitating the work of public bodies. The most important of these entities are the Palestinian Agricultural Relief Committees (PARC), MA'AN Development Centre, the Palestinian Hydrology Group (PHG), The Applied Research Institute Jerusalem (ARIJ), the Water and Environmental Development Organization (WEDO). To address the increasing stress on the marine environment, MEnA had established the Coastal and Marine Environmental Protection Committee (C&MEPC) during the execution of a project funded by the LIFE 3rd countries programme. The Committee members have been appointed after the 2 nd regional workshop that was held in August During the project, MEnA prepared a Presidential Decree, which needed to be approved by the Chairman of the Palestinian National Authority. The overall objective of the Committee was to protect and improve the coastal and marine environment of Gaza Strip. In the Water and Wastewater sector, another national body responsible for the water and wastewater sector, apart from MEnA and EQA, is the Palestinian Water Authority (PWA), which has started its responsibility since According to Law No. 2 (1996), PWA is recognized as the responsible authority for licensing and approving all water and wastewater projects and activities including wastewater and storm-water collection, treatment, reuse, and/or disposal. It is responsible for ensuring and overseeing the efficiency and compliance of these activities and projects initially and during operation, according to approved regulations, specifications and standards. It is also responsible for administering the construction, operation, and maintenance of wastewater and reuse systems, which will be realised by regional utilities with various levels of coordination and involvement of other competent authorities, such as EQA, the Ministry of Agriculture, and the Ministry of Local Government. For example, both MEnA and PWA cooperate in the field of groundwater and surface water quality protection, setting groundwater and surface water quality standards, increasing public awareness in the water sector, training MEnA and PWA staff in the field of water quality protection, undertaking EIA for water projects and setting regulations for reuse of treated wastewater. Regarding solid & hazardous waste apart from the refugee camps, where the services are largely provided by the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA), the collection and disposal of solid and hazardous waste is the responsibility of local government (municipalities and village councils). The organizational structures of municipalities show considerable variations among them in regards to the numbers of departments and the responsibilities of each. Solid & hazardous waste management in municipalities is managed by either a health department (usually headed by a veterinarian) or an engineering department. LDK ECO SA 161

171 The Ministry of Local Government (MoLG) is assigned responsible for the local government system and has been actively engaged in defining the structure of local government, the institutional arrangements and the key organizations at the various levels. It also defines the role and functions at these levels. The Municipalities and the village councils are responsible for providing the public with solid waste services. In the middle area of the Gaza Strip (south of Wadi Gaza, excluding Rafah) a Solid Waste Management Council is in place, serving eleven communities; the heads of these communities are all members of the Council and participate in decision-making. Each municipality has a voting right according to the size of its community. The mission of the Council is to provide secondary collection from communal storage points and to dispose of this waste in an acceptable way. In addition, the Council has conducted a public awareness campaign to foster community participation. The recycling of decomposed waste is being considered. EQA s role in managing solid and hazardous waste at national level has been clearly stated in the Environmental Law particularly sections EQA has the responsibility in cooperation with the concerned authorities to formulate a national plan for SWHA management including manners and designation of disposal sites. Furthermore, EQA in cooperation with other stakeholders is responsible for setting up the standards for solid and hazardous waste disposal sites. Moreover, EQA is responsible for monitoring the disposal sites and enforcing the relevant regulations Legal framework Palestinian Authority inherited a mix of legislation from previous systems which, in terms of environmental protection, is weak, piecemeal and sector- based. Further work is still needed to develop coherence in this area. Environmental Law No 7 (1999) regulates all environmental issues however law enforcement has not been effectively implemented. This law includes the protection of natural resources, forestry, archaeological and tourist sites, and drinking water, and the control of sewage, marine pollution, air pollution, industry, fishing, urban development, municipal and hazardous waste disposal. It also covers environmental planning and enforcement and incorporates the polluter pays principle. However, it lacks many specifics, such as environmental quality standards, regulatory standards and economic measures. Urban wastewater Water Law No 3 (2002), provides for the sustainable development of water resources and the protection of all water resources from pollution. According to this law National Water Utilities will be established based on the desire of local committees and water users associations, to provide water and wastewater services. It also sets the tasks and responsibilities and their composition, management, financial resources, dismantling, and all matters pertaining to their work in accordance with regulations that will be issued for this purpose. In addition, water resources are covered by Articles 28, 29 and 30 of Environmental Law No 7, which address the need for quality standards for drinking water; wastewater treatment; and effluent disposal. PWA recognizes the importance of establishing proper Environmental Limit Values (standards and guidelines) for effluent from domestic wastewater treatment plants as well as the industrial standards for wastewater to be discharged on the sewage systems. Environmental Limit Values (ELV) are prepared by the Palestinian Standards Institute (PSI) and the PWA however, these Limit Values have not been enforced so far. Solid waste A legal framework for an effective solid waste management has not been adopted by the Palestinian Authority, whilst the Environment Law provides a framework through which decrees should be issued to provide a legal framework for the sector (Articles 7, 8, 9 and 10 for non-hazardous and LDK ECO SA 162

172 Articles 11, 12 and 13 for hazardous wastes). Implementing regulations under the Environment Law are required to address solid waste management planning, licensing, environmental standards associated with solid waste management facilities, monitoring and enforcement provisions, and application of the "polluter pay" principle. In the absence of environmental legal framework and implementation regulations, the sector operates solely under municipal law that defines municipal responsibility for waste management services and which provides for municipalities to establish "joint service councils" through which they may collaborate in the delivery of municipal services, including waste management; an increasing number of municipalities are participating in such initiatives (Municipalities are responsible for street cleaning and for waste collection, transportation and disposal under the Jordanian General Municipal Act, law No. 29 of 1955; the same Act provides municipalities with the mandate to "take all necessary measures to protect public health". Households are required by the Jordan Public Health Act No. 1 of 1978 to pay a waste collection tax to the municipality according to criteria established by the Act; establishment of "joint service councils" Municipal Law No. 1 of 1997). At a national level, there is an absence of leadership through which to focus resources and capacity in the sector. The Environment Law No. 7 of 1999 provides the EQA with important authorities which, if implemented, could correct many of the deficiencies associated with the existing waste management system. However, this requires, first, enactment of implementing regulations/decrees that address all aspects of waste management and which must be sensitive to the financial and political constraints that prevail. EQA lacks the capacity to undertake these initiatives itself both in terms of technical knowledge and in terms of the integration of different waste management components into an effectively operating waste management system. Industrial emissions Articles 19, 20, 22, 23 and 24 of Environmental Law No 7 cover air quality standards, industrial emissions, unlicensed waste incineration and ozone depletion. There is no specific legislation related to IPPC, although Environmental Law No 7 governs industrial emissions to some extent Policy environment and action programs Environmental protection and the integration of sustainable environment concerns into national policies is a recent concern in Palestinian Authority. In 1999, the Environmental Law No 7 was signed by the PA President and the 2005 draft Palestinian Constitution reiterates that the environment is a basic human right. Environmental considerations were firstly included in the Palestinian Authority s first five-year Palestinian Development Plan, In 2000, the Palestinian Authority proceeded to the development of a ten-year environmental strategy for , and adopted a national environmental action plan (NEAP). There is also an Environmental Impact Assessment Policy and a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Regarding water and wastewater management, the Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) has developed specific action programmes. Lately, in 2005, a National Action Plan has been developed in the frame of the Barcelona Convention (UNEP/MAP) to implement the Strategic Action Programme (SAP). 1. National Environmental Strategy The Ministry of Environment Affairs (MEnA), in cooperation with the Dutch Development Institution, drew up a National Environmental Strategy and a decimal plan in 2000 for the sake of the environment. The main concern of this strategy and decimal plan is to sort out and analyse the main environmental problems and their causes in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, in addition to determining certain environmental aims and presenting a set of procedures to achieve them. The strategy lists nine urgent issues that should to be followed up during the period , these issues are: LDK ECO SA 163

173 1. Depletion of water resources. 2. Declination of water quality. 3. Depletion of natural resources. 4. Destruction of earth and soil erosion. 5. Air and noise pollution. 6. Pollution of coast and marine environment. 7. Deterioration of environment and biodiversity. 8. Disfiguring of landscapes. 9. Threatening of Palestinian heritage and traditions. These issues will be followed up through a set of procedures: 1. Wastewater management. 2. Management of water resources. 3. Planning of land use. 4. Raising the public awareness regarding the significance of environment. 5. Developing the appropriate environmental standards. 6. Issuing the necessary environmental indicators of following up the elements of the strategy and the mechanism of achieving these elements. In relation to urban effluents, solid wastes and industrial pollution, the Environmental Strategy includes the following targets: Wastewater Management: The problem of water resources dwindling and water pollution in the West Bank and Gaza Strip is considered one of the most important problems of environment that requires the taking of urgent and direct procedures. Also, the absence of successful wastewater management is regarded one of the main causes of such a problem, as the untreated wastewater permeates the groundwater and causes contamination and deterioration in water quality. The absence of the necessary wastewater management affects the public health and causes pollution of Gaza beaches. It also leaves a negative impact on the natural environment and biodiversity, in addition to disfiguring of beautiful landscapes. The top priority in the national environmental strategy comes as a result of the full perception of the dimensions of the issue of wastewater in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. The strategy will focus on the following: 1. Planning and implementing projects for wastewater drainage, where potentials are available. 2. Developing and improving the old wastewater networks. 3. Rehabilitating and developing the available stations of wastewater treatment and building new stations. 4. Determining the proper standards for the quality of treated and untreated wastewater. 5. Setting up an economic system that would guarantee proceeds to cover the expenditures of construction, work, and maintenance of systems of wastewater management. Management of Solid Wastes Solid wastes are treated badly in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. This is why solid wastes are being a main source for the pollution of water sources, soil, air, and coasts, as well as disfiguring beauty of nature. Moreover, the risks due to a possible leak of hazardous substances, where wastes are dumped, worsen the problem as it poses a direct or indirect threat to the public health. The main concern of solid wastes in the course of the past ten years pushed toward the attempt to achieve the following: - Establishing a system to waste solid collection, with the separation of the types of these solid wastes, including industrial and household wastes. - Establishing sanitary sites for dumping the wastes that are not hazardous, taking into account that these sites shall be efficient and simple in terms if the distance, transferring, management, and operating. - Preventing the burning of wastes in containers located in public places. - Establishing a management system for solid wastes in cooperation with the other municipalities in a manner that would guarantee the perfect efficiency of such management system. - Providing a financial system that would guarantee proceeds to cover the costs of the operations of solid wastes separation, transferring, and burial. - Closing the currently open dumps and the areas of hazardous solid wastes that permeate the groundwater. - Collecting the accumulated wastes in the urban areas and remote areas as well as preventing the random throwing of wastes. Controlling of Industrial Pollution The industrial sector is affected by a set of environmental problems, such as pollution of water sources, the LDK ECO SA 164

174 depletion of natural sources particularly in the field of quarries and transferring of sand, and the pollution of air and beaches due to discharge of industrial wastewater. These problems disfigure the surrounding environment. The Palestinian environmental strategy contains separate elements allocated for controlling industrial pollution; these elements are represented in the following measures: - Setting standards for treated wastewater that is used in industry and estimating the amount of pollution caused by the air emitted from factories. - Issuing legislations on the use of fuels and preventing the use of any fuel that has lead or any other pollutants. - Issuing legislations on the protection of environment from wastes of quarries. - Issuing legislations relating to management of hazardous industrial wastes. - Issuing legislations on industrial areas, such as setting standards for environment protection and reducing of noise caused by means of transportation. - Running a surveillance and control system to guarantee implementation of the previous laws and legislations. 2. National Water and Wastewater Policy Regarding water and wastewater management the Palestinian Water Authority (PWA) has developed: a. PWA Strategic Master Plan for Wastewater Management: within the framework of a national strategy for sustainable development to protect the natural resources at the national, regional and global levels. The objective of wastewater strategic plan of the PWA is that by the year % of the population in municipalities and 25% of the population in areas under PE, should be connected to treatment plants. Another long-term objective is that about 50% of the population in rural areas must be connected to appropriate treatment by PWA is responsible according to By Law No. 2 (1996) for wastewater treatment and reuse. Preparation of policies and strategies for management of wastewater, industrial wastewater, legal and administration are in preparation. PWA policy in management of the water and wastewater sectors is through establishment of regional utilities for large systems wherever possible, and through other appropriate structures for smaller and remote areas. b. PWA Industrial Wastewater Policy: Industries should be regulated through discharge permits from PWA and comply with other PNA regulations (e.g., municipal, Ministry of Environmental Affairs). The discharge permits should include assurances that industrial effluents must have an acceptable quality for flows being discharged into water bodies or domestic wastewater systems, and should not be discharged with contents of heavy metals or micro-pollutants above given limits. c. PWA Domestic Wastewater Treatment Policies: All treatment and/or reuse systems will be regulated through permits from PWA. The permit should ensure that the system design is done according to approved regulations, specifications, standards, and guidelines fulfils wastewater flows and effluent quality for the designed period, and solves identified and potential environmental and health problems. The minimum acceptable treatment level is secondary treatment (e.g., removal of settleable and suspended solids and biodegradable organics plus disinfection). For regional utilities, this minimum treatment level is expanded to include tertiary treatment. Low cost technology is encouraged wherever it is possible. All wastewater treatment processes should be chosen and designed to consume as little energy as feasible and potential energy in wastewater and sludge must be utilized whenever appropriate. In addition, independent alternative energy sources should be installed, if appropriate (e.g., solar systems, battery, heating exchange pumps, etc.) and farmers should be involved in energy recovery projects thereby benefiting from wastewater sludge and farm wastes. PWA emphasizes that treated wastewater is a valuable resource that must be utilized and agriculture is given priority for reuse. In order to encourage and promote the use of treated wastewater incentives need to be adopted. LDK ECO SA 165

175 3. Solid Waste Management Policy A solid waste management strategy is not in effect for Palestinian Authority. However, several foreign initiatives have been taken since the mid-1980's that address aspects of a solid waste management strategy, the key results of which are summarised below. Israeli Civil Administration, The World Bank, 1994 Ministry of Planning and International Cooperation, 1995 GTZ (German Technical Cooperation), 1998 The initiative was restricted to West Bank. The principle recommendations of this initiative included: Municipal solid waste should be landfilled; Incineration of municipal solid wastes should not be undertaken; Identification of 7 landfill sites to serve the region for 20 years; Transfer stations are recommended; Strict standards for sealing were recommended. Landfill programme: Abu dis and Tovlan in Jordan Valley; Tel Hura site in Hebron, Azzoun site near Kalkilia; Zahrat Al Funjan landfill in Jenin; Deir Dibwan site in Ramallah, Dir sharaf site to serve Nablus and Tulkarem. Some are completed and some are under implementation. -Land acquisition for waste disposal facilities is an important issue; 11 hectares within urban areas were considered necessary for transfer stations, and 98 hectares outside urban areas for sanitary landfills; -Cost recovery is an important issue; partial coverage of operating costs for up to 3 years by the Bank should be associated with any solid waste management investments; -Upgrading the waste collection fleet was necessary; -Sanitary landfilling is the most cost effective waste disposal option; -3 regional landfill sites in Gaza Strip and 10 regional landfill sites in the West Bank are required, with one transfer station for each sanitary landfill to minimize transportation costs; -A major clean up and public awareness programme is required; -Technical assistance is needed to address needs for a waste management database, regulatory system, institutional support, resource recovery, and environmental assessment. The initiative was an Emergency Action Plan for Solid Waste, and focussed on development of regional plans. The plan was not finalised, but raised several relevant issues: -Ensure that waste disposal sites are properly located to prevent groundwater contamination; -Need for regional solutions in terms of both planning and implementation and the establishment of regional solid waste councils; -The potential for a variety of waste management strategies - including waste minimisation, recycling, composting and incineration - to play a role in solid waste management in addition to disposal of all wastes in a landfill; -Privatisation should be considered to facilitate implementation of desired initiatives. The initiative focussed on institutional support with the following recommendations: -A decision is needed on disposal method; -Medical waste management should be given a priority status; -Recycling should be considered; -A hazardous waste management plan is needed; -Closure of illegal dumping sites should be undertaken; -Investments in solid waste management infrastructure should begin with landfills; EIA for selected waste disposal sites should be undertaken; Criteria for landfill management should be considered. 4. The National Action Plan in the frame of the Strategic Action Programme for the protection of the Mediterranean from land-based pollution sources (UNEP/MAP) Regarding the Strategy Action Programme and in the frame of the National Action Plan of the Strategic Action Programme (UNEP/MAP) and taking into consideration the priorities set in the frame of the NES already developed, within the coming 10 years, the PNA will be investing about 345 million US$ through the technical and financial assistance of some donor agencies involved in water and sanitation sector in urban areas, like USAID/USA and KfW/Germany. This money will be LDK ECO SA 166

176 mainly allocated for large urban municipal wastewater treatment facilities including collection, treatment, disposal and municipal staff training. The following projects have been proposed for immediate implementation. Funding of the projects has not been secured yet. No Project Name Cost, USD 1 Construction of Northern area central new wastewater treatment plant 57,000,000 2 Central wastewater Treatment Plant for Gaza and the Middle area 86,000,000 3 Implementation of Khan-Younis Sewerage Development 114,000,000 4 Beit- Lahia Effluent Reuse Demonstration Project 2,000,000 5 Feasibility Study Reuse of Slurry 450,000 6 Hazardous Waste Cell 750,000 7 Rehabilitation and Closing of Old Dumpsites at Rafah & Biet Hanoun 3,000,000 8 Enhancement of Separate Hazardous Waste Management 55,000,000 9 Development of SW Composting Technique and Communal Comp. Center 530, Pilot Project Organic Farming 200, Soil and Water Laboratory 500, Integrated Pest Control 97, Environmental assessment of sectoral policies 150, Agricultural Pests and Diseases Information System 250, Vector Control 2,000, Establishment of Rural Development Centres 2,000, Water Logging and Salinity Management 12,700, Information system to rationalize the use of water and soil 1,434, Industrial Environmental Management System 1,000, Integrating Environmental Education into Educational Curriculum 300, Increasing Women's Role Efficiency in Environmental Protection 160, Using Mass Media to Transmit Environmental Awareness 180, Raising Public Awareness on Wise Use of Water and Sanitation 350, Marine Monitoring and Database Management 1,000, Monitoring SW Dumping Sites and WWT Facilities 1,000, Environmental Standards and Guidelines 1,000, Purchase of Portable Air Quality Measurement Instruments, Phase I 525, Capacity Building to Enable country s Response and Communication to the Stockholm Convention 700, Coastal Zone Management for Gaza 612, Elmawasi Environmental Profile 800, Beach and Sand Dunes Management 1,200,000 Total 346,888, Actions on MDGs In December 2005, the Palestinian Authority, in cooperation with the United Nations Country team under the umbrella of the National MDG Steering Committee, launched the second report describing the Palestinian Authority s progress and trends toward achieving the Millennium development Goals (MDGs). Of relevance is Goal 7 Target 11: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers. Considering the current trends, the ongoing political turmoil and the levels of environment protection, it is unlikely that Goal 7 will be met by According to the report, the goal from 1995 to 2015 has already been achieved, yet, connection does not mean access and a lot of progress is needed. LDK ECO SA 167

177 Sanitation services remain unsatisfactorily low even though the percentage of housing units which became connected to a sewage public network has increased from 33.7% in 1995 to over 52% in In Gaza Strip access to sewerage facilities varies from areas where more than 80% of the households are served by well-functioning sewerage systems, to areas where there is no sewerage system at all. On average, it is estimated that about 60% is connected to a sewerage network. In the West Bank, only 30-35% of the total population is connected to sewerage networks, but 70% of houses in the main West Bank cities are connected Overview of completed and on-going projects International donor agencies are playing the major role in financing environmental project activities in West Bank and Gaza Strip. Projects cover the three fields of the project as well as a wide range of issues and areas of intervention, such as institutional strengthening, capacity building and training. The U.S. Government, the European Union (EU) together with EIB, Japan, Norway, Germany and the World Bank are the lead donors in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Several of these projects have been completed, whilst there is a large number still ongoing. Urban sanitation, (re)building of the public infrastructure, like wastewater treatment, and solid waste has been given significant financing as well, whereas the least supported focal area is industrial pollution. Preparation of strategic plans, capacity building and institutional strengthening support has received considerable assistance, sponsored mainly from UNDP, EC-SMAP/METAP, WB and CIDA. The most active donor appears to be EC having funded projects related to municipal solid waste issues, urban wastewater or industrial emissions, through its programmes SMAP, MEDA and often together with EIB. German, USAID and WB have committed many million US$ for sewage treatment projects in Palestinian cities. WB has been funding the activities individually or jointly with other donors, active in the area. USAID has been equally active, as well as Germany, focusing on infrastructure activities for solid waste and urban wastewater. Japan and Norway have also provided significant amounts of funds. It should be noted that some projects were partly funded by local financing sources, but mainly for a low portion of their total budget. The activities of the international community continue to be central to the solid waste management sector. The following table is a brief presentation of the major past achieved and ongoing activities in Palestinian Territories, grouped by sector. A complete list of these activities is annexed, containing detailed information on each project. Activities Funding source Status Urban Wastewater Construction and rehabilitation sewerage network in: - Abu dis Norway (NORAD) - Gaza Sweden (SIDA) - Gaza Strip (upgrade) EC-MEDA I/EIB Sweden (SIDA) USAID MINEFI WB - 44 rural towns in the West Bank. USAID - Ramallah/Al Bireh District, and Nablus area Germany (KFW/GTZ) - Al Bireh Upper North Improvement Germany (KFW) - An-Nuseirat, Al Maghazi and Al Bureij Camps USAID - Jabalyia Sweden (SIDA) - towns of Bani Zaid, north of Ramallah Palestinian Hydrology Group (PHG) LDK ECO SA 168

178 Activities Funding source Status National funds - Al Ram, Jericho and Tarqumia (West Bank). WB/SAFD - Qulquilia area UK (DFID) - Jenin municipality CAP/Accion Contra El Hambre (ACH) - relatively small communities EIB/ WB/ OPEC incompleted - Beit Sahour, & Beit Jala Italy (DGCS) - Districts de Tulkarem, Qalqiliya, Salfeet et Naplouse France (AFD) - Gaza Strip (Improvement of the sewerage network connecting the WB various municipalities in the Gaza Strip. Institutional Reform and capacity - Rural areas (Rehabilitation and extension of existing networks); National Funds - the City of Rafah EC-MED - Hebron City UNDP Finland (MFA) UK (DFID) - Bethlehem, Beit Sahour, Beitjala Italy (DGCS) n/a Construction of Waste water treatment plant in: - Al Bireh Germany (GTZ) - Tuclarem, Germany (KFW) - Central Gaza Strip Germany (KFW) USAID - Hebron area, Az Zubeidat USAID - Talitha Kumi Netherlands (MFA) - Central Gaza Strip (improvement) WB - Rural areas (Develop decentralized Wastewater Treatment Plants) National Funds - Khan Younis City Japan (MOFA) n/a - Jenin District's schools EC-MEDA I n/a Ramallah & Al-Bireh District Sewage Management Master Plan Assistance to Gaza Municipality: Waste Water Treatment Operation and Maintenance Development of tools and guidelines for the promotion of sustainable urban wastewater treatment and re-use in agricultural production Delivery of equipment for pilot plants for wastewater treatment and reuse Municipal Solid Waste Regional Solid Waste Management Project in METAP Mashreq and Maghreb Countries: Promotion of the adoption of sustainable ISWM practices through: strengthening policy, legal and institutional frameworks, clarifying financing and cost-recovery options and methods, opportunities for private sector participation and defining public awareness and community participation strategies. Project activities are carried out at both regional and national levels. At national level, consultancy services to promote the adoption of sustainable integrated healthcare waste management (HCWM) in order to provide a hygienic and environmentally sound medical waste management service for the community Solid Waste Collection and Disposal system in: UNDP Finland (MFA) Italy (DGCS) EC-MEDA WATER EC-MEDA EC-SMAP II/METAP - Bethlehem EC-MEDA II n/a LDK ECO SA 169

179 Activities Funding source Status - in the Governorates Khan Younis and Deir El-Ba in Gaza Strip, in the Germany (GTZ) northern Gaza Strip - Jenin Municipality Netherlands (MFA) - West Bank (improvement) UNDP/MOFA - Anabta and surrounding villages (Pilot Action) Italy (DGCS) - Al Bireh and Ramallah Governorate Germany (GTZ) - Jenin Municipality EC/WB Germany (GTZ) CAP/Accion Contra El Hambre (ACH) - the Qulquilia area UK (DFID) - Gaza City EC-MEDA I & II n/a - in relatively small communities EIB/ WB/ OPEC incompleted Building capacity to: - the newly created Joint Services Council (JSC) for regional SWM services; - and strengthening the institutional and monitoring capacity of Ministry of Environmental Affairs (MEnA). - Capacity-building project aimed at helping the Palestinian municipalities deal effectively with a wide range of problems and to encourage the involvement of citizens in municipal affairs. - Strengthening financial management, solid waste management, as well as community consultation, including the involvement of women, focused on the Municipalities of Rafah, Younis and the Gaza. - Strengthening policy, legal and institutional frameworks, clarifying financing and cost-recovery options and methods, addressing opportunities for enhanced private sector participation in the sector and defining appropriate public awareness and community participation strategies. Project activities are carried out at both regional and national levels. - Producing of Regional Guidelines on Integrated SWM and on Public Awareness and Community Participation at regional level. Solid and Construction Waste Recycling Management; Rubby recycling EC/ WB Canada (CIDA) EC -SMAP II/METAP Italy (DGCS) Improvement of waste disposal equipment Japan (MOFA) n/a Construction of a controlled landfill in: - controlled sanitary landfill in Jenin district (Zahrat Al-Fanjan); EC/ WB - rehabilitation/closure of uncontrolled dumps; - a controlled landfill Spain (MFA)/MISC Industrial emissions DELTA Phase III- Environmental upgrading of enterprises in Maghreb and Mashrek countries: development of eco-management practices in Jordan enterprises; institutional strengthening of DELTA networks; and development of individual skills to promote eco-efficiency in the future. Establishment of new environmental regulation in the Hebron Municipality for the treatment of debris, sludge and water from the marble industry Establishment of a methodological model for the recycling of industrial wastewater and separation of calcium carbonate. Gaza Industrial Estate Project: - Off-site infrastructure, the construction of facilities to enable Palestinian utilities and agencies to provide necessary services to the GEI, including water, wastewater, sewage and stormwater disposal, electric power and access roads. LIFE 3 rd countries LIFE 3 rd countries WB/ USAID/ EIB/IFC LDK ECO SA 170

180 Activities Funding source Status - Institution building and project management for the Palestinian Industrial and Free Zones Authority (PIFZA), acquisition of environmental monitoring equipment for PIFZA and the Ministry of Industry, and training for staff of the Palestinian Environment Authority (PEnA). Energy Efficiency Improvements and Greenhouse Gas Reductions; Assistance in reducing the long-term growth of GHG emissions from electric power generation and from consumption of non-renewable fuel resources. Improvement of the treatment of industrial waste for the Hebron area Horizontal Training for Palestinian Officials in the Health and Environment Sectors at Galilee College in Israel to increase the capacity of Palestinian institutions (official and civil society) in the fields of health systems management and environmental management. Determination of Priority Actions for the Further Elaboration and Implementation of the Strategic Action Programme for the Mediterranean Sea Fara'a and Jerash Integrated Watershed Management Project (WASMAP): Creation of sustainable development conditions for the rural population in two watersheds in the Jordan River Basin; development of mid-term Fara a Watershed Management Plan; Parts of possible interventions are small wastewater treatment plants, reuse of treated waste water, improvement of solid waste dumpsites, improved regulations; encouraging local community's involvement etc. Assistance and institutional strengthening, promotion of integrated coastal zone management (SMAP III Technical Assistance project) completed activities; ongoing activities; n/a: not available data UNDP USAID Austria (ADA) UNEP/GEF EC-SMAP II, Netherlands (VROM), UNU, national funds EC-SMAP III Outcome of review The environmental situation in Palestinian Territories has been rapidly deteriorating due to multiple and varying reasons over the last and recent history. The shortage of natural resources, particularly water coupled with very high population growth and many years of negligence created hazards and practices with detrimental results to the environment. In addition, the spatial planning of settlements does not help the situation at all, as they are deliberately established on hilltops discharging their refuse and waste down to streams, to wadis and the agricultural fields. Besides, the scattering of environmental activities among many players with no proper legislation and with absence of a coordinating institution added significantly to the degradation of environment in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Moreover, the scarcity of qualified workers, technicians and experts in the different environmental fields coupled with the lack of research facilities available have also contributed to the weak status the environment is today. Apparently, dealing with the environment in an effective and efficient way is becoming an absolute necessity that can not be delayed further. The complex political situation means the Palestinian Authority s environmental structures are quite young. EQA is still unable to gain strength and implement environmental legislation effectively, as primary responsibility for environmental protection lies with it. As the EQA is the successor to a series of institutions responsible for environmental protection, EQA suffers from a historic lack of continuity and co-ordination of responsibilities. No clear organisational structure is available and there is a lack of clear written mandates and distribution of responsibilities in the environmental LDK ECO SA 171

181 sector. The situation becomes further complicated by NGOs and universities operating in the environmental sector without proper co-ordination. More specifically the immediate required actions and effort need to focus on: 1. Building and Strengthening the Capacity of Environmental Institutions: o Setting up legal and institutional framework ensuring clear distribution of responsibilities between stakeholders, developing working procedures, full coordination and cooperation between these parties. o Strengthening the capacity of staff working in environment, relevant sectors, and public agencies to formulate and implement environmental strategies and policies 2. Pollution Control: o Cleaning up or closing down critical hot spots, which pose threats to public health or causes irreversible damage to environment through improving environmental services and maintenance and operating systems. o Setting up guidelines and regulations suitable to control pollution. o Ensuring the proper use of EIA studies for any new investment so as to reduce pollution generated from industries with low consumption of natural resources and less pollution. o Adoption of "polluter pays" principle in licensing procedures and legal framework to abolish environmental damage. 3. Regulations, Amendments and Awareness Raising: o Continue issuing laws, regulations, and standards to all applicable environmental fields. o Enforcement of all issued laws throughout the life expectancy of all relevant projects. o Management and continuous Monitoring of on-going industries and projects. o Developing a comprehensive and a participatory Awareness Programme addressing all aspects of environment. 4. Solid waste o Policy, Legislative, Institutional: National leadership is required to identify goals (policy) and strategy (how goals will be achieved) in order to achieve a coordinated and focussed response to solid waste management challenges. A legal framework is required to give effect to solid waste management policy and strategy. While the need for these has been recognised at a senior national technical level, it has not been translated into action. Municipal collaboration in solid waste management must be promoted as is an effective approach to achieve financial, administrative and technical efficiencies. o Financing and Cost Recovery: Financial frameworks supportive of allocation of budgets, management of budget expenditures and implementation of cost recovery frameworks are essential to the effective performance of waste management systems at the local level. While the need for this has been recognised, it has not been translated into action. o Public Awareness and Community Participation: Community input to the design of waste storage, collection and disposal adds value to a solid waste management system. Along these lines the National Environmental Strategy and the Strategy Action Programme of UNEP/MAP have put the foundations for the next 10 years. It has to be mentioned however, that regardless the Strategies and Action Plans, very little real progress can be achieved in the area, until the political situation is stabilised. LDK ECO SA 172

182 5.9 Syria Located in the Middle East, Syria borders the Mediterranean Sea, between Turkey and Lebanon. The terrain is mostly semiarid and desert with a narrow coastal plain and mountains in the west. Major cities include the capital Damascus in the southwest, Aleppo in the north, and Homs. Most of the other important cities are located along the coast line. Syria is a middle-income, developing country with a diversified economy based on agriculture, industry, and oil. Oil is the main industry and provides two-thirds of Syrian export earnings, although the future of the sector is limited by the relatively small size of Syria's reserves striving to natural gas resources. The rest of the industrial economy is divided roughly between three areas: chemicals, rubber and plastics; textiles and leather goods; and food and drink. The major environmental concerns are deforestation; overgrazing; soil erosion; desertification; water pollution from discharging of untreated sewage and wastes from petroleum refining; and inadequate supplies of potable water. Water supply has faced severe problems in Syria over several years. The reduction in rainfall of the last decade and the overdraft withdrawal of groundwater has resulted in consistent and significant lowering of water tables. This is exacerbated by the increasing pollution of water supplies from industrial and domestic waste, and from fertilizers and pesticides. Over 90% of water use is for agricultural purposes, with the rest used for human and industrial consumption. The current water supply system represents an increasing risk of depletion of reserves and has a negative implication for the environment and sustainable development. Urban areas meet the increasing demand from existing wells which yield poor quality water. The Syrian coastline extends for about 183 km along the Mediterranean Sea. Freshwater input into the sea is very low due to the existence of dams along the coastal rivers. This results in higher pollution concentration in the coastal rivers and in their estuaries. Consequently, the seawater along the Syrian coastline is generally oligotrophic. The National Diagnostic Analysis (NDA) (UNEP/MASP 2003) states that common environmental problems in the Syrian coastal region originate from the urban environment; industrial development; and physical alterations and destruction of habitats. Concerning the urban environment, urban activities affect the marine environment in two aspects: municipal sewage and municipal solid waste. Regarding industrial development, impacts result from major industrial complexes such as the Banias oil refinery, the Tartous cement plant, the phosphate loading dock at the Port of Tartous, the two oil terminals of Banias and Tartous, and the thermal power generation station in Banias. Small-scale industries scattered throughout the whole country also affect the environment including steel rolling mills, food processing, beverage, olive oil mills, cattle and sheep slaughter houses, textiles, and various agricultural related activities such as confined animal facilities and green houses. LDK ECO SA 173

183 5.9.1 Major sources of pollution from urban wastewater, municipal solid waste and industrial emissions The key environmental challenges concern the depletion, salination and pollution of water supplies, and degradation of the land. This situation has arisen in large part due to a lack of or inadequate environmental impact studies of development projects, especially in agriculture and industry Urban wastewater Wastewater treatment is characterised by only 30% of water undergoing treatment, the rest being used untreated for irrigation. Monitoring programmes undertaken in the past showed that surface and groundwater in many areas are contaminated with urban and industrial wastewater. This results in a high risk of water borne disease and negative effects on the environment. The rate of the population with access to a good sanitary network during , rose from 44.1% to 45.2 % in rural areas and dropped from 96.5 % to 94.5 % in urban areas. This decrease in the rate is due to the fast population growth and spread of arbitrary housing units in cities. The government, within the context of the tenth five year plan, is committed to take all measures required to reduce this phenomenon and give priority to address and manage this trend. The following aspects characterize the municipal sewage problem in the Syria: There are many cities and villages which discharge raw sewage directly to the sea and surface water bodies; Fresh water input into the mixed storm-sanitary sewers has decreased dramatically due to dams and irrigation; The sewage network in most cities is old and deteriorating; The capacity of the sewage network is very low and cannot deal with the joint storm water discharges; Sewage networks can carry untreated industrial wastewater and suspended solids which precipitate on the ground and get mixed with sewage water during rainwater precipitation; and Mainly rural population is not connected to a sewage network and uses cesspits, or is connected to networks which discharge into rivers and lakes. Realising these problems, the Syrian government initiated a programme for the construction and operation of domestic and industrial wastewater treatment plants and sewage networks. Sewerage networks have been constructed in many urban areas in Syria, as well as a number of wastewater treatment plants. This programme for construction of wastewater treatment plants has been initiated by the Ministry of Housing and Utilities, in collaboration with the governorates and municipalities. A number of these plants have been commissioned including the two largest in Syria serving Damascus and Aleppo. The construction programme for the wastewater treatment plants in Syriain includes the following cities: Damascus, Rural Damascus (Zabadani), Rural Damascus (Al Nabek) (under construction), Rural Damascus (Huran Al Awamid), (operational) Alepo, Latakuia, Homs, Tartous, Daraa, Hama, Al Sweida, Idleb, AL Hassakeh (Ras Al Ain), (operational), Al Salamiah. From the majority of them the treated wastewater is used for irrgation purposes apart from the WWTPs at Latakia and Tartous which discharge into the sea, and the WWTP at Hama which discharges into the river. Currently, work is underway to expand and rehabilitate sewerage networks in small towns and rural areas. Low cost-effective treatment units are being developed for population centres between 1,000 and 10,000. For population centres less than 1,000 people, septic tanks are being used without the need for constructing integrated sewerage networks. The domestic wastewater treatment authorities and related governmental agencies are currently enforcing strict regulations for controlling industrial wastewater discharged to public sewerage networks. This is intended in order to ensure that the waste stream does not contain any toxic LDK ECO SA 174

184 components. Standards for Limitation of Discharged Liquid Wastes of Economic Activities in Sewer Network have been adopted by the Syrian Government. The standards set the allowable limits for contaminants discharged to public sewerage networks Municipal Solid Waste The following aspects characterize the municipal solid problem in the Syria: Lack of properly designed and constructed landfills which results in percolation of leachate (often contaminated with pathogenic and toxic agents) to the groundwater; washing of contaminants with surface water run-off to rivers and sea, noxious odours; spread of waste objects carried by wind action; and open air burning practices; Inappropriate locations for waste disposal Inappropriate handling practices of municipal waste Illegal dumping of construction waste along highway shoulders, side roads, and in open lands The overwhelming majority of collected waste is disposed of at open dump sites located in the outskirts of towns. Total domestic wastes transported to municipal landfills are estimated at around 5000 tons/day. In addition, medical and other hazardous industrial wastes are mixed with domestic waste prior to disposal. Open burning of waste is quite common in Syria. It is carried out either to reduce waste quantities; control insects and rodents; or to enable access to non-combustible materials such as metals. None of the landfill sites has gas control or leachate collection and treatment systems. Nor is there any control over the types of wastes deposited, or any segregation of hazardous wastes. Some of large cities cover from time to time the deposited waste piles with intermediate soil layers in an effort to improve environmental standards. The City of Damascus owns and operates the only waste composting plant in Syria which converts organic wastes into fertilizers. Generally, there are no centralized separation or recycling of waste, however irregular waste collection and segregation is quite widespread Industrial emissions Air pollution is a major problem in highly populated areas in Syria. In principle, this problem stems from the country s economic development, rapid industrialization, population growth and related commercial and social activities, particularly the public transport system, and migration from rural areas to urban centres. Many agricultural lands adjacent to urban and industrial centres are polluted with domestic and industrial wastes, in addition to gaseous emissions and suspended particulates (emissions of cement plants). Also, areas in the proximity of oil refineries (Homs and Banias) and some green areas around Damascus are experiencing considerable pollution. Soil contamination of agricultural lands is considered one of the main environmental problems in Syria. And although there are no systematic national data to support this fact, however, some hot spots have been identified. Areas surrounding Damascus: Soil contaminated with lead smelting wastes, and other industrial wastes (tanneries) is causing the contamination of crops cultivated for food supply. High concentrations of lead, cadmium, chromium and arsenic were detected in cultivated plants. Areas surrounding Homs: Soil contamination caused by wastes from the chemical industry (particularly the phosphates fertilizer plant), poses significant risks for an environmentally vulnerable area; the high soil permeability enables pollutants to reach the groundwater encountered at low depths. The groundwater aquifer constitutes the main supply of drinking water for the area. Areas adjacent to Aleppo: Analysis on cultivated vegetables irrigated with the polluted water of Al Quaik River has shown considerable concentrations of arsenic exceeding the allowable limits. LDK ECO SA 175

185 Regarding industrial air pollution, industry is a major contributor to gas emissions, whether as a result of fuel combustion, or due to the nature of the industrial processes. Emissions consist mainly of suspended particulates, which impact workers health and nearby inhabitants, in addition to soil and plant life. Major air polluters include the petroleum industry, cement and fertilizers manufacturers, power generation plants, in addition to other industrial processes such as asphalt mixing plants and crushed stone quarries, which can be found in urban and rural areas, scattered all over the country. Concentrations of heavy metals including copper, zinc and cadmium are within allowable limits in most residential areas, with the exception of cadmium in the eastern Damascus area, where concentrations levels reached 33 ng/m 3 (allowable limit is 10 to 20 ng/m 3 ). Factors contributing to increased air pollution in urban areas from industrial sources include: Most major Syrian cities are surrounded by various types of industries with significant environmental impacts, such as cement manufacturers and quarries, etc. For example, the average dust precipitation near the Tartous cement factory varied from 77 to 518 tons/km2/month. In neighbouring villages located about 5 km from the factory, the average dust precipitation varied from 18 to 100 tons/km2/month, even though the allowable limit is 9 tons/km2/month. Dust filtration systems were introduced in a number of cement manufacturing plants (Adra and Tartous), in line with government policies and plans. These actions had positive impacts resulting in the improvement of the environmental situation. Expansion of cities limits into areas where industrial activities are being carried out, resulting in the encroachment of residential neighbourhoods with industrial centres. Factories employing aging production technologies. For example, boilers operating on fuel or diesel, and containing high levels of sulphur (3% in fuel and 0.7% in diesel), result in high sulphur dioxide emissions. Regarding industrial emissions, the strategic interventions of the government is the management of industrial installations and power generation stations and their development so as to comply with international standards, in addition to applying cleaner production principles and procedures. Industrial wastes generated from large-scale industries such as fertilizers plants and slaughterhouses are transported directly to landfill sites. Industrial solid wastes are generally collected in dumpsters, and disposed of by any means available to the local municipalities. Some small-scale industries are disposing their wastes in dumpsters designated for municipal waste. A study conducted in 2002 with the assistance of the United Nation s Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) indicated that Syria has an inventory of about 530 tons of expired and unused herbicides. Below are mentioned some of the typically polluting industrial units in Syria. 1. The Banias oil refinery is one of the major polluters in the coastal region. The refinery currently handles 7.2 million cubic meters of crude oil, half of which is exported as petroleum products. The Banias refinery discharges its aqueous effluent through a joint pipeline with the Banias oil terminal directly to the sea. Effluents originate from the industrial processes, segregation of water from petroleum crude in the storage tanks, and surface water run-off contaminated with spills that typically overflows the retention basins during heavy rainfall periods. Industrial wastewater effluent is treated in physical, chemical and biological processes. However, the treatment processes are currently under review and major improvements will need to be incorporated to increase capacity and improve treatment efficiency and effectiveness. 2. The oil terminals of Banias and Tartous handle approximately 37 million cubic meters of crude oil every year. Aqueous effluents consist of hydrocarbon contaminated surface water run-off that originates from two sources: segregated water from the petroleum products in the storage tanks, and oil spills around the petroleum tanks. During heavy rainfall periods, surface water run-off floods the basins containing the segregated water that overflows and ultimately discharges to the sea. No wastewater treatment is undertaken for the effluent at the Banias oil terminal, whereas partial treatment is performed for the effluents to the Hussein River at the Tartous oil terminal that ultimately ends to the Mediterranean Sea. LDK ECO SA 176

186 3. The Banias thermal power station consists of four power generation units: two old units, which have been converted to operate on fuel or natural gas, and two new units which operate on fuel. The power plant consumes 800,000 tons of fuel per year when all four units are operational. Wastewater originates from four sources: regeneration water of the softeners, industrial process water, boilers blow down, and hydrocarbon-contaminated surface water runoff from spills around the fuel tanks. Wastewater is treated in the two new units, but little treatment is carried out in the older units. Under normal operating conditions, combined domestic and industrial wastewater effluents estimated to be 50 m 3 /hour. 4. The Tartous cement factory is surrounded by agricultural lands cultivated with olive trees. The plant is located at a distance of 1.5 km from the Mediterranean Sea. Production capacity is 1.8 million tons of cement per year. Cement dust in the form of suspended particulates is emitted from the manufacturing process, and may be carried to distances exceeding 10 km, eventually precipitating on land and sea. Electrostatic precipitators have been installed to retain particulates prior to discharge to the atmosphere. However, these units continue to face numerous problems resulting in reduced efficiency. According to figures reported in the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP 2003), average concentrations of total suspended particulates in the proximity of the Tartous cement factory vary from 115 to 486 µg/m 3 that exceeds WHO allowable limits of 150 µg/m The phosphate loading dock at the Port of Tartous is also an important source of suspended particulates. The port handles over one million tons of phosphate per year (wet and dry types). Emissions result from the processes of phosphate mineral handling, storage, and loading onto ships. Concentrations of particulates exceed allowable WHO limits. According to estimations (National Baseline Budget of Syria, UNEP/MAP 2003), total phosphorus emissions is around 20 tons of phosphate dust per year. 6. Tanneries area in Baraba basin where high concentrations of Cr+3 reaching 10mg/l in Al Daiyani river and exceeding the allowable limits by 10 times in the water wells of Al Zablatini area. 7. Al Sajjour River (near Alepo) where water quality is very poor mainly due to discharges of untreated sewage water and industrial wastewater. 8. Olive Oil Mills: the problem with the olive oil presses is that they are dispersed over the regions, thus their emissions are diffuse, and discharges occur mainly only during the months of October and November from each year.. The NDA of Syria has identified Al Kabir Al Shimali River and Al Hussein River as two ecosystems adversely impacted by olive oil waste effluents. 9. Steel Rolling Mills: the Steel rolling mills are mainly encountered in Lattakia, Jableh, Haffeh, and Tartous (five in the Lattakia governorate and one in Tartous). Total yearly production capacity, when all mills are operational, exceeds 780,000 tons. Pollutants in the effluent wastewater include hydrocarbon mineral oil resulting from adding emulsified rolling oils directly to the water sprayed on the metal as it is being rolled. Effluent water also contains fine scale and metal chips droppings, which settle very slowly in water. Wastewater is typically recycled and reused in the industrial process. Settled solids with mineral oil adhering to the solids surface are disposed of without further treatment to the receiving environment. 10. Slaughterhouses: most of the slaughterhouses in the country lack the character of proper industrial facilities. They are influenced in their operational and control methods largely by the cultural habits of the local inhabitants. As a result, these facilities are encountered wherever local communities are found. The amount of slaughtered product they handle is typically small, on an individual basis. The discharges from the slaughterhouses typically end-up in the local sewers discharging directly or indirectly to the sea and surface water bodies Institutional setting The environmental institutional framework in Syria comprises three levels. The first level is the Council for Environmental Safety and Sustainable Development chaired by the Prime Minister. It LDK ECO SA 177

187 consists of 17 ministries in addition to the State Planning Commission and a number of grass-root organizations and chambers of commerce and industry. The Council for Environmental Safety and Sustainable Development is considered the highest body responsible for setting environmental policies and coordinating environmental management activities in Syria.. The second level is the Ministry of Environment, which was established in September 2003, merged from the preceding Ministry of State of Environmental Affairs with the Ministry of Local Administration (MLA). MoE has a regulatory and research function and is responsible for developing environmental policy; monitoring implementation of environmental legislation and inter-sector coordination. MoE is assisted by a Consultative Technical Committee and nine Environmental Committees reflecting sectoral interests. A technical consultative committee and a number of secondary technical committees assist the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs, which operates through the following executive agencies: The General Council for Environmental Affairs (GCEA), which is the technical arm to the Ministry. The Scientific and Environmental Research Center (SERC), which is the research arm to the Ministry. GCEA has a direct responsibility for providing the legislative framework and support required for environmental management including regulations, standards, and guidelines and for supplying policy and technical advice at the central and local levels. SERC is a national centre for scientific and environmental study and research. Its mandate also includes monitoring pollution, and co-ordination with international research organizations. At the third level of the hierarchy for implementation and enforcement of environmental policies at the local level, General Environment Directorates (GEDs) have been established in 11 of the 7 water basins and Local Environment Committees (LECs) in each governorate. GEDs are staffed by MSEA to provide technical support, enforce national legislation, and administer regional initiatives and coordinate a response to issues involving more than one Governorate. LECs are employed by the Governorates to identify local environment problems and, where there is no GED, to administer the environmental permitting process. Secondary environmental committees were also established in each governorate. There is currently a drive to move towards local governance in Syria, which should give strength to the MoE as the 11 local Governorates are closely affiliated with the former MLA. However, this new structure and the role of different bodies are not yet clearly defined. Regarding the water sector in Syria it is administered by a number of ministries and establishments, with a slight overlap in responsibilities. These ministries are all represented in the Higher Water Committee, which is presided over by the vice prime minister for services affairs. The Ministry of Irrigation and its directorates are responsible for administering and developing water resources; regular monitoring of surface and groundwater quality; and ensuring the availability of water resources for irrigation purposes. The Ministry of Irrigation is also responsible for controlling drilled wells, and for licensing future wells. The Ministry of Housing and Utilities is responsible for the drinking water distribution networks in urban and rural areas and for domestic wastewater treatment. The MoE is responsible for monitoring and controlling water quality, and for issuing national standards for the protection of water resources. The Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform is responsible for the economic uses of water for agricultural purposes. This includes the provision of modern techniques for water savings, and for cultivating crops with lower water demands. Regarding solid waste, it is the responsibility of each Governorate to plan and implement regional solid waste management strategies while the Municipalities hold the responsibility for all solid waste management activities, such as day-to-day management and operations, fee and tax collection and private sector services contracting. As the competent authority, the Ministry of Local Administration is involved indirectly through the supervision of municipal activities. It is the responsibility of the LDK ECO SA 178

188 Ministry of Environment to implement and enforce the environmental law and for developing national waste management strategies. Collection of municipal solid waste and transportation to the final disposal sites is the responsibility of the administrative units operating in the municipalities and governorates. In addition to the MoE, the Syrian Environmental Association (SEA) was founded in August 2001 and aims to develop a national strategy in cooperation with the government to protect the environment and to enact laws that help propagate this protection. It also aims to increase public awareness of environmental issues and develop positive attitudes towards the country s heritage. In order to attain set objectives, SEA uses up to date scientific research findings concerning the environment and works in co-ordination with local, Arab and international organisations concerned. Since its foundation, SEA has launched a number of successful campaigns and has started an annual project to work within schools to raise the environmental awareness of children Legal framework Environmental legislation is still under-developed in Syria. The country had no environmental legislation before the publication of the framework Environment Law in 2002 (Law 50), and executive regulations implementing this law are yet to be finalised (although the importance of producing them is recognised). Water, wastewater In 2002, the Council for Environmental Safety approved national standards that set the limits for discharges (urban and industrial wastewater) to the environment. However, the lack of executive regulations affects Syria s ability to meet the requirements of the international environmental conventions it has ratified. The main instrument for water quality management is the old Water Law. Decree No 2145 (1971) and Law No 17 (1982) regulate water exploitation and water quality monitoring. A large number of testing stations have been set up along the major waterways to monitor progress. Finally, the Legislative Decree No 30 on the Protection of Aquatic Life (1964) prohibits discharging of effluent in public waters. There are a number of laws governing water ownership and use, and a new water law is currently under review. Industrial emissions Apart from the adoption (13/5/2002) of allowable limits for gaseous emissions into the atmosphere, and related air quality standards by the Council, currently there are no laws governing atmospheric emissions from industrial facilities, although the new Environmental Law makes provision for it and executive regulations are pending. However, a number of guidance documents setting limits on industrial air emissions exist. The Resolution No. 67 concerns the air quality standards and maximum consented limits for air pollution. This Resolution provides for the Syrian Standardization and Metrology standards for air quality, the maximum consented limits for water pollution caused by industrial drainage, the maximum consented limits for air pollution at the pollution source, the classification of hazardous solid industrial waste and for industrial operations producing hazardous solid waste. There is currently no specific legislation for IPPC in Syria, although there are a number of guidance documents setting limits on industrial air emissions. However, these regulations are not effectively enforced and there is a lack of financial incentives to reduce emissions. Despite this, self-regulation has been taken up by a number of companies which have implemented ISO and other environmental tools. Syria has a national chemical strategy profile which aims to develop an integrated management system in this sector. Urban waste There are no laws for solid waste management and no national policy or solid waste management strategy. It is the responsibility of each Governorate to plan and implement regional solid waste LDK ECO SA 179

189 management strategies, while the municipalities are responsible for all solid waste management activities. There is no specific legal framework for hazardous waste. Provisions are made within the Environmental Law (Law 50), but supporting executive regulations have not yet been developed Policy environment and action programmes 1. The United Nations Development Assistance Framework UNDAF and the the Tenth Five-Year Plan ( ) The Syrian Arab Republic and the United Nations signed on September 2006 at State Planning Commission SPC the United Nations Development Assistance Framework UNDAF for the period of The UNDAF suggests a framework of development cooperation between Syria and different UN agencies operating in the country. The UNDAF was designed taking into consideration the National priorities as reflected in the 10th Five Year Plan FYP (which has been recently launched) and in accordance with coordination with the millennium development goals MDGs. In the Tenth Five-Year Plan ( ) the Government of Syria has set out a vision in which the country will have been transformed by 2020 into one that is fully integrated into the world economy and has the confidence, institutions and creative talents to compete effectively in international markets. Under this vision, the private sector would play the main role in economic activity, and major reforms would be introduced to encourage private savings and investment. The priorities set out in the Tenth Five-Year Plan and the specific areas of competence of the UN funds, programmes and agencies in Syria, the Government and the UN country team have identified five overarching outcomes as a focus for UN cooperation in the period , of which one of them is environment. Environment at the national, regional and local levels needs to be improved, through the integration of sustainable environmental management development plans, programmes and budgets. 2. The National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) The MoE in collaboration with other relevant ministries adopted the Syrian National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP, 2003) for the coming 10 years, which proposes several action sub-plans and programmes, which would lead to an overall sustainable development in Syria. The overall goal of NEAP is to formulate a national environmental action plan, with a detailed description of the proposed programmes and projects and to contribute to the protection of the health of the Syrian population, manage scarce materials and cultural resources in a rational and cost-effective manner and to allow economic growth to continue unimpeded by environmental degradation. NEAP actions target five priority areas, which were identified by a wide consultation exercise, supported by a thorough technical study. These are: I. Prevent misuse of land and water resources II. Improve living quality in urban areas III. Reduce effects of pollution on human healt. IV. Protect natural and cultural resources V. Capacity building, education and raising awareness of the general population The plan emphasises the importance of the proper management of water and land resources, improvement of air quality, combating desertification, protection of the marine environment, management of solid waste, and biodiversity. The scope of the plan covers common issues such as institutional set-up, and economic matters dealing with the environment. The proposed investments in the National Environmental Action plan, which are based on the environmental priorities, constitute an effective and efficient programme to protect human health and the environment. It is recommended that investments be undertaken in a progressively increasing trend during the implementation period up to In the initial phase, focus will be given to policy LDK ECO SA 180

190 development and capacity building actions, with major investment programmes following at a later stage. Full implementation of the NEAP will require an approximate doubling of the current expenditure on environment over the next ten years. The benefits of the investment programme in monetary terms alone would far outweigh the costs. This level of investment is entirely feasible in the current economic climate of Syria. The actions included in the NEAP, relevant to the sectors of urban effluents, solid wastes and industrial effluents are: Industrial wastewater discharges Policy Development Complete the legislation dealing with limits for discharge of wastewater to water bodies Adopt the polluter pays principle, and environmental impact assessments Implement the Syrian government s plan for wastewater treatment Adopt clean and environmentally friendly technologies Adopt the environmental management principles to eliminate, and prevent waste generation at source, and for the reuse and recycling of wastes in industries Promote the use of closed loop water circuits in industrial establishments Institutional Development Strengthen the coordination between ministries concerned with the management and utilization of water resources Ensure the systematic monitoring of water resources Develop the environmental inspection process for industrial establishments, and enforce national legislation Provide import incentives for pollution control equipment and for environmental friendly technologies Investment Programmes Construct pilot wastewater treatment plants in rural areas Construct pilot wastewater treatment plants for industrial discharges Establish industrial zones that satisfy the required environmental conditions, serviced by combined wastewater treatment plants, and provide incentives for industries to move into these zones (under implementation) Establish a fund financed by loans and grants, which provides low interest loans to small industries in order to implement environmental control projects (industrial wastewater treatment plants) Establish an integrated plan for the management of industrial wastewater in accordance with the requirements of environmental legislation Training and Information Training in the management and operation of domestic and industrial wastewater treatment plants Training in environmental impact assessments Training in the monitoring and analysis of solid, liquid and gaseous wastes Improve air quality Policy Development Adopt policies and projects which contribute to the decrease of green house gases, and to the reduction of pressures on natural resources, particularly in the following areas: 1. Promote the utilization of natural gas in the generation of electrical energy 2. Rehabilitate old energy generation stations in order to increase their efficiency 3. Plan for energy use and conservation in order to reduce the technical and commercial losses in the electrical system 4. Promote the utilization of renewable energy resources, and particularly the wind Develop urban master plans for cities and municipalities in accordance with international standards, which account for population growth and traffic movement, and provide car parking areas. Institutional and Legislative Development Control technical performance of vehicles, and develop appropriate rules and regulations in accordance with international standards for imports with the aim of preventing pollution Adhere to a regular and annual vehicles inspection system for monitoring exhaust gas emissions, and provide the necessary equipment for this task Complete the plan of supplying gasoline pumping stations in all Syrian cities with unleaded gasoline (in the implementation phase) Provide licenses for new industrial plants only based on environmental impact assessments, and ensure that these establishments will abide by the rules and environmental regulations in order to prevent the LDK ECO SA 181

191 emission of air pollutants in the future Establish enforcement patrols to control illegal emissions from vehicles exhausts, within and outside city limits Complete the legislative requirements for the Environmental Law concerning the allowable limits and standards for air emissions, and establish an integrated air emissions monitoring network, and carry out a national programme for monitoring of air pollutants in large cities, and in industrial areas Investment Programmes Improve the environmental standards in the extraction and refining of petroleum products Reduce the gaseous emissions, dust and other particulates to allowable limits (particularly in cement plants and chemical fertilizers industries) Reduce demand on vehicular transport; adjust peak periods; and substitute the individual vehicular traffic with an integrated public transport system Develop the technical capacities of the petroleum refineries in Homs and Banias in order to produce diesel and gasoline products in conformance with approved international standards Raise the efficiency of energy utilization in industry Develop the vehicular traffic system, and establish a network of bridges, access roads, and tunnels within city limits; solve the problem of cars parking on access roads, and organize pedestrians movement. Training and Information Evaluate the effectiveness of adopted measures based on monitoring and measurement data Solid waste management practices Policy Development Increase the participatory role of the private sector in the collection and disposal of wastes (implemented in Damascus) Apply economic instruments for reduction of generated waste Improve the current waste management practices Institutional Development Prepare an integrated waste management plan for Syria Specify the requirements for establishing sanitary landfills and waste treatment plants Investment Programmes Rehabilitate the existing waste dump sites (integrated solid waste management projects are currently being implemented in Aleppo, Homs, Lattakia, and Tartous) Establish waste segregation stations Establish a phased programme for the rehabilitation of existing waste dump sites, and for the construction of landfills, waste treatment plants (composting plants), waste recycling stations, and incinerators (general and special requirements guide for solid waste treatment has been published) Conduct a strategic study for solid waste management (a committee has been set-up in the Ministry of State for Environmental Affairs to undertake this task) Undertake a strategic study for the construction of central incinerators for hazardous and medical wastes in Syria Training and Information Train personnel from municipalities responsible for the administration of waste disposal sites Conduct a comprehensive survey of industrial wastes generated from small manufacturing plants LDK ECO SA 182

192 According to NEAP, the environmental priority problems requiring urgent remedial measures in relation to the three fields of the Initiative can be summarised: Problem Source of the problem Location Domestic wastewater discharge Fertilizers plant Waste form food industries Small business Orontes basin, Qatina lake Textile dyeing Barada & Awaj basin Contamination of water resources Air pollution Domestic wastewater discharges Tanneries and small industries Domestic wastewater discharge Sugar manufacturing Tanneries Waste discharged from olive oil presses Oil refinery Fertilizers plant Open waste dumps Cement plant Oil refinery Cement plant Energy generation plant Damascus Ghouta Tanneries area, Damascus Kuaik basin, Sajour river Coastal basin (Tartous), Daraa and Idleb Homs Adraa Banias Tartous Banias Inappropriate Industrial hazardous wastes Homs, Alepo disposal practices of solid waste Poorly managed dump sites Most governorates 3. The National Action Plan in the frame of the Strategic Action Programme for the protection of the Mediterranean from land-based pollution sources (UNEP/MAP) The MoE has prepared a NAP to address land-based pollution in the coastal Governorates of Lattakia and Tartous. The NAP has taken into consideration the general environmental strategy of the country, as it is drafted in the NEAP. The specific actions proposed in the NAP, which need to be implemented until 2010 in the coastal governorates of Lattakia and Tartous are: Rehabilitation of the Banias refinery IWWTP, including the construction of a landfill for industrial hazardous waste. The estimated cost is 6 million Euros, and will be financed from public funds Construction of the Tartous municipal WWTP. The estimated cost is 6 million Euros and it is proposed to be financed by a loan from France Construction of the Lattakia municipal WWTP. The estimated cost is 26 million Euros and it is proposed to be financed by a loan from France Exchange of fuel with natural gas for two power generation units at the Banias thermal power plant. The estimated cost is 53 million Euros, and will be financed from public funds Development of the municipal landfill of Tartous. The estimated cost is 2.5 million Euros, Construction of a WWTP in Jableh and a sewerage network for the industrial area of Al Fawar Spring. The estimated cost is 4.2 million Euros, and will be financed from public funds Construction of the Banias WWTP and sanitary sewers network. The estimated cost is 11 million Euros, LDK ECO SA 183

193 and will be financed from public funds Installation of fabric filters on the production line for the Tartous Cement Factory. The estimated cost is 1.2 million Euros, and will be financed from public funds Rehabilitation of the Old Jableh City sewerage network. The estimated cost is 1 million Euros, and will be financed from public funds and international donors. Pre-treatment of wastewater from food manufacturers at Fawar Spring area and Ugarit Beverages Company prior to discharge to public sanitary sewers 4. Actions on MDGs On 4th of September 2006, under the patronage of the Prime Minister, the Syrian Government, in cooperation with the United Nations launched the second report describing the country s progress toward achieving the Millennium development Goals (MDGs). Finally, the UN Country Team in Syria embarked upon the process of updating its Common Country Assessment in order to respond to new opportunities for partnership and collaboration with the Government and its other development partners Overview of completed and on-going projects In Syria exists the Department General for International Cooperation, which has as role: 1) The development of concrete foreign aid strategy: the profile and size of aid 2) The development of efficient policies to ensure the best use of external aid resources: structures and mechanisms to manage aid resources. By reviewing the ongoing and completed actions and programmes, in Syria, the action of foreign donors has been relatively significant with about 20 activities in the environmental fields under study. The three fields have received an equal interest by all donors. National environmental policy is strengthened by two key activities of foreign assistance: the support from the UN and the EC on environment matters. The completed UNEP/GEF funded activity, supported the government to produce the NES and NEAP, under which proposed investments target priority problems and the assistance and institutional strengthening, funded by SMAP III for the promotion of integrated coastal zone management. It is noted that national funded activities are limited to two activities for solid waste feasibility studies. Feasibility plans have already started for the coastal cities of Latakia and Tartous and for Alepo and Homs under the financial support of EC/EIB and Japan s Foreign Ministry (MOFA). These are in line with the priorities of the government mentioned in the NAP. Under METAP, EC/SMAP II has financed one of the most successful projects in the region Regional Solid Waste Management Project in METAP Mashreq and Maghreb Countries, which promotes the adoption of sustainable integrated waste management practices both at regional and national level through: strengthening policy, legal and institutional frameworks, clarifying financing and cost-recovery options and methods, addressing opportunities for enhanced private sector participation in the sector and defining appropriate public awareness and community participation strategies. Regarding urban wastewater activities, a variety of works were launched to improve sewerage network and renovate existing wastewater treatment plants. Foreign assistance is mainly for basic infrastructure and given by EC/EIB and German bilateral agencies. The majority of support for industrial emissions is from European Commission, through SMAP, MEDA and LIFE 3 rd countries programmes, as well as from bilateral donors such as Germany (BMZ, GTZ) and Japan. A number of the funded projects addressing industrial emissions are included in the NAP. Germany has funded a project which has contributed in strengthening the institutional setting and regulatory framework to effectively manage industrial pollution control. A Life 3 rd countries LDK ECO SA 184

194 programme has also helped to the adaptation of eco-management practices in Maghreb and Mashreq countries and a GEF funded activity implemented by UNIDO supported the government to the introduction of national plan for the reduction of POPs. Other activities were individual industry projects, with the aim of supporting specific various enterprises (textiles, tanneries, pesticide units, oil refineries) in environmental improvements and rehabilitation. The following table is a brief presentation of the major past achieved and ongoing activities, grouped by environmental sector. A complete list of these activities is included in the Annex I, containing detailed information on each project. Activities Funding source Status Urban Wastewater Strengthening of the Ministry of Housing & Utilities, responsible for drinking water supply and wastewater disposal Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) in: - Al Kisweh WWTP to serve Khan Dannoun Camp and the surrounding area - Artouz WWTP to serve Khan Eshieh camp and the surrounding area. Germany (BMZ/GTZ) Sewerage networks in: - Damascus city KFAED - 14 municipalities located south of Damascus (development of new infrastructure) - old Aleppo City (rehabilitation of networks) Establishment of an Integrated Coastal Management Plan (ICMP) of the coastline between Jbeil/Amsheet in Lebanon and Latakia in Syria that will deliver immediate environmental and sanitary improvement Development of the Wastewater Management Plan and feasibility report for Banias area (pre-investment study) EC -MEDA/ EIB EC/ EIB, national funds Germany (BMZ/GTZ) EC/SMAP I UNEP/MAP Municipal Solid Waste Solid waste management in: - Alepo and Homs Cities (feasibility studies) EC-MEDA/EIB - Alepo and other local cities (improvement of equipment) Japan (MOFA) - Latakkia (phase 1) National funds - Tartous (phase 1) National funds Municipal Administration Modernisation Project: Institutional strengthening and improvements in the legislative framework of urban management, including solid waste management: -Municipalities of Aleppo, Deir Ezzor, Homs, -the costal cities of Latakia and Tartous, and -the Governorates of Damascus and Rural Damascus Regional Solid Waste Management Project in METAP Mashreq and Maghreb Countries: Promotion of the adoption of sustainable ISWM practices through: strengthening policy, legal and institutional frameworks, clarifying financing and cost-recovery options and methods, opportunities for private sector participation and defining public awareness and community participation strategies. Project activities are carried out at both regional and national levels. At national level, reinforcement of National and Local Capacities for Enhanced Municipal EC-MEDA, national funds EC /SMAP II, METAP LDK ECO SA 185

195 Activities Funding source Status Solid Waste Management Industrial emissions Environmental Protection Programme in Urban Industrial Areas - supports Syrian in anchoring obligatory environmental strategies; develop essential legal and institutional prerequisites for resolving environmental problems; Environmental audit and pollution prevention and control of the Syrian textile industry DELTA Phase III- Environmental upgrading of enterprises in Maghreb and Mashrek countries: development of eco-management practices in Jordan enterprises; institutional strengthening of DELTA networks; and development of individual skills to promote eco-efficiency in the future. Tannery waste collection and treatment in the Zablatani and Ain Karma areas Regional project on integrated waste management for the olive-oil pressing industries: establishment of national databases, introduction of cleaner production options and setting national effluent standards, building of demonstration pilot plants. Development of the Water Pollution Control Programme and feasibility report for the Banias Oil Refinery (pre-investment study) Construction of natural gas-fired combined cycle power plants in Deir Azzour and Deir Ali Training and Technology Transfer for the Arab States - Capacity Building for the Implementation of the Basel Convention Enabling activities for the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs): National Implementation Plan for Syria Supply-Side Efficiency and Energy Conservation and Planning; reduction of emissions from electric power generation and efficient consumption of carbon based fuels Horizontal Determination of Priority Actions for the Further Elaboration and Implementation of the Strategic Action Programme for the Mediterranean Sea Assistance and institutional strengthening, promotion of integrated coastal zone management (SMAP III Technical Assistance project) completed activities; ongoing activities; n/a: not available data Germany (BMZ/GTZ) LIFE 3rd countries LIFE 3rd countries IDB, national funds EC- SMAP II, RAC/CP, national funds UNEP/MAP EIB/ AFESD Finland (MFA) UNEP/GEF, national funds UNDP/GEF, national funds UNEP/GEF EC/SMAP III n/a Outcome of review Considering the problems Syria faces in relation to industrial emissions, urban waste and municipal wastewater and its framework for environmental policy and management, the required actions can be grouped in two strategic areas: Capacity to formulate and implement environmental legislation and improvements Environmental legislation in Syria is still at a very early stage, despite the fact that it was the first Arab country to establish a ministry for environment (set up in 1991). Before 2002, Syria had no environmental legislation and its ministries suffer a general lack of experience and credibility in relation to environmental protection. This situation is exacerbated by the limited financial resources. LDK ECO SA 186

196 Environment has been given more prominence in the 9 th and 10 th 5-year Development Plans: the Ministry has been given an investment budget, as until 2002, the MoE had no budget to implement environmental projects. This new level of responsibility posed significant challenges as the Ministry first needs to establish its own role before it can use these funds effectively and appropriately. Given that Syria had no substantial environmental legislation until 2002, and that its MoE has only just been given a budget, enforcement has been a non-issue in Syria until now. It is likely to take some time before the MoE establishes itself in an effective enforcement role. As for institutional capacity, even though the institutions needed for environmental management have, for the most part, been established they still lack capacity to function effectively. There are very little experiences of modern environmental management practice available to Ministry of Environment and, in common with the remainder of public sector, they suffer from low salaries, have difficulty attracting and retaining qualified staff, and somehow scarcity of resource. The challenge now encountered by the Ministry of Environment is to ensure that the momentum developed during the NEAP process, with its current amendments towards sustainable development, continues to provide a stimulus for environmental management, and that the NEAP is implemented at both national and local levels. The amended NEAP identified a number of priorities within the environmental management system, such as it was recommended that the GCEA should be expanded and restructured, and that some form of permanent secretariat should be established to follow up and monitor the implementation of environmental programmes. Nationally, work is underway to assist governmental agencies develop and strengthen their environmental capacities, and to introduce environmental aspects into development strategies during the planning phase. The following summarizes areas where capacity building is required: Increasing the level of coordination and its effectiveness between the various ministries in the planning, use and preservation of environmental resources (in particular water, land and biodiversity); Soliciting additional resources for providing the necessary environmental services and for financing environmental projects; Rectifying the problem of lack of qualified specialists with skills and competencies in the fields of environmental economy, planning, impact assessment, law, and environmental health; Increasing the environmental awareness of personnel employed by various organizations; and agencies; Strengthening the concept of protection of cultural heritage as a major aspect in environmental protection. Effects of pollution on human health The adoption of the National Action Plan in the frame of the Strategic Action programme of UNEP/MAP, provides the necessary technical basis but also the stakeholders involvement for the implementation of specific priority actions to control pollution of the Mediterranean from land-based pollution sources, namely urban effluents, solid wastes and industrial emissions. Most of the obstacles or weaknesses in the proposed priority programmes and projects, particularly as for their effective implementation, are caused by the lack of financial support and related policy and non availability of advanced technology, in addition to the lack of legislative or regulation support related to sustainable development. The needed actions in this area are summarised: 1. Policy factors, including development of policies, strategies and planning and integrated management of environmental issues, development and implementation of EIA, public participation in environmental decision making, supporting of the Environmental Directorates in the Governorates and strengthen their cooperation among related agencies. 2. Institutional factors including issuing of legislation that regulate and control the environmental sustainability in a way that guarantees commitment to the enforced environmental standards, LDK ECO SA 187

197 establishing and accrediting environmental guidelines or standards for: a) Quality of water resources used for drinking, irrigation, industry, etc. b) Reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation. c) Disposal of industrial wastewater discharged in sewerage networks or water resources, raising awareness between policy makers and public, enhancing the capabilities of Environmental Directorate and other responsible authorities to perform continued pollution monitoring programmes and to conduct EIA. However, institutional immaturity dictates that there is still some way to go before environmental legislation becomes fully established, implemented and followed. LDK ECO SA 188

198 5.10 Tunisia Tunisia is geographically situated near the centre of the Mediterranean basin. The most northerly country in Africa, Tunisia faces both Europe and the Middle East and is considered to be a link between these two regions and cultures. The country's population of 9.5 million people (in 2003) is concentrated mainly in the coastal region. About two third of Tunisia s population live in urban areas with more than 40% in agglomerations of more than one million inhabitants. Tunisia, a semi-arid country, faces climatic challenges because of irregular and inadequate rainfall, a fragile ecosystem, limited natural resources and the risk of over-exploitation of these few resources. With its 1300 km of coast, the Tunisian littoral has various landscapes and important natural resources under a variety of pressure, including pollution, exploitation of sea resources and a concentration of human and economic activities along the coast causing environmental problems linked to the fragility of the marine ecosystems. Urbanization is the main issue affecting Tunisia s coastal areas, especially in the east. Tourism has been a major driver of urbanization, and brings associated environmental pressures. In the coastal areas, the major regions of environmental concern are the Gabes (discharge of phosphogypsum from production of fertilizers), Tunis (urban effluents), Sfax (urban and industrial effluents) and the Bizerta lagoon (industrial wastewater). Tunisia has so far succeeded in managing the sanitation sector such that at present these issues are not a serious problem in the country. The situation is especially favourable compared to that in other countries in this region. Some issues require great attention towards the stepping up of the capacity of wastewater treatments plants, improvements in the semi-urban and rural sanitation sector, and the efficient management of sludge. Municipal solid waste management remains a significant environmental issue in that waste transfer and disposal require major improvement. To date, waste is often dumped into designated areas without a proper sanitary landfill system. However there are plans to close and rehabilitate all wild dumps and to introduce an integrated management system for the municipal solid wastes management (collection, treatment, recycling, valorisation and proper sanitary land filling). Industrial pollution from untreated wastewater and solid wastes is important in some areas, especially in the coastal zone of the country (phosphogypsum at Gabes and Sfax). Industrial air pollution is not considered a severe problem, as air pollution levels are rather low. The lake of Bizerta is another national priority, because the wetland receives urban and industrial effluent, agricultural runoff rich in fertilizers and pesticides, as well as solid wastes from the neighbouring human activities. LDK ECO SA 189