The Ecology of Transportation: Managing Mobility for the Environment

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2 The Ecology of Transportation: Managing Mobility for the Environment

3 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION VOLUME 10 Editors Brian J. Alloway, Department of Soil Science, The University of Reading, U.K. Jack T. Trevors, Department of Environmental Biology, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada Editorial Board T. Anderson, The Institute of Environmental and Human Health, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, U.S.A. T.H. Christensen, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Danish Technical University, Lyngby, Denmark I. Colbeck, Institute for Environmental Research, Department of Biological Sciences, University of Essex, Colchester, U.K. K.C. Jones, Institute of Environmental and Natural Sciences, Lancaster University, U.K. W. Salomons, GKSS Research Center, Geesthacht, Germany The titles published in this series are listed at the end of this volume.

4 The Ecology of Transportation: Managing Mobility for the Environment edited by John Davenport University College Cork, Ireland and Julia L. Davenport University College Cork, Ireland

5 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data ISBN (HB) ISBN (HB) ISBN (e-book) ISBN (e-book) Published by Springer, P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands. Printed on acid-free paper All Rights Reserved 2006 Springer No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Printed in the Netherlands.

6 CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgments Contributors XIII XV XVII Introduction 1 Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Ecological effects of aviation 5 T. Kelly and J. Allan 1. Introduction 5 2. A brief history of aviation and its ecological 5 impacts 2.1 Commercial civil aviation General aviation Military aviation Other forms of aviation 7 3. The ecological effects of air transport The non-lethal effects of aircraft on wildlife Non-lethal interaction between aircraft and 9 animals at airports 3.3 Reduction of the negative impact of non-lethal 10 aviation 3.4 Military aviation and aerial bombing campaigns The wildlife hazard problem Ecological effects of air transport: numbers of 12 animal fatalities 4.2 Species killed by aircraft Airports in the environment Direct impact of airport infrastructure Impact of ancillary structures Ecosystem management for air safety Summary of environmental impacts Aviation and the transport of alien species 19 The local costs to ecological services associated 25 with high seas global transport R. Mann 1. Introduction Time frames of evolution of species assemblages in 26 coastal environments with emphasis on keystone species 3. Impacts of human society on species assemblages 28 and physical structure in coastal environments 4. Rates of change of communities in response to 30 changing volume and types of vectors over human history 5. Restoration options: native community structure 31 and function versus ecological function in isolation 6. The regulatory environment 32 V

7 VI Chapter 3 CONTENTS 7. Approaches to restoration of native species Approaches supporting use of non-native species as 34 a restoration tool 9. Future prospects 36 Shipwrecked Shipping impacts on the biota of 39 the Mediterranean Sea B.S. Galil 1. Introduction Shipping- related petroleum hydrocarbons in the 39 Mediterranean Sea 2.1 The distribution and accumulation of shipping- 39 related petroleum hydrocarbons in the Mediterranean sea 2.2 The distribution and accumulation of tar in the 43 Mediterranean 2.3 Impact of petroleum hydrocarbons on the 44 Mediterranean biota 2.4 The policy and management of shipping-related 45 oil pollution in the Mediterranean sea 3. Ship-generated marine litter in the Mediterranean 47 Sea 3. 1 Distribution and accumulation of ship-generated 47 litter in the Mediterranean 3.2 Impact of ship-generated litter on the 48 Mediterranean biota 3.3 Policy and management of ship-generated litter Ship-generated noise in the Mediterranean Sea Distribution of ship-generated noise in the 51 Mediterranean 4.2 Impact of ship-generated noise on the 51 Mediterranean biota 4.3 Policy and management of ship-generated noise Shipping-transported alien biota in the 52 Mediterranean 5.1 Distribution of shipping-transported alien biota 52 in the Mediterranean 5.2 Impact of shipping transported aliens on the 58 Mediterranean biota 5.3 Policy and management of shipping-transported 59 biota 6. Shipping-derived antifouling biocides in the 60 Mediterranean Sea 6.1 The distribution and accumulation of biocidal 60 antifoulants in the Mediterranean sea 6.2 Impact of antifouling biocides on the 62 Mediterranean biota 6.3 Policy and management of TBT in the 63 Mediterranean sea 7. Coda 63

8 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 CONTENTS VII Snakes and ladders: Navigable waterways as 71 invasion corridors B. S. Gali l and D. Minchin 1. Introduction Keystone invasive species Future trends Conclusions 74 The transport and the spread of living aquatic 77 species D. Minchin 1. Introduction Ships and other floating craft Transport and hull fouling Transport of organisms with ships ballast Aquatic products as cargo Overland transport Rail and road Transport by aircraft Long distance journeys Short distance journeys Discussion 89 Chapter 6 Small craft and the spread of exotic species 99 D. Minchin, O. Floerl, D. Savini and A. Occhipinti-Ambrogi 1. Introduction Incursions of non indigenous species associated 100 with small craft movements 3. Hull fouling on small craft: influencing factors and 102 prevalence in locations worldwide 3.1 Small craft marinas - sources of fouling Human factors influencing hull fouling Environmental factors influencing hull fouling Prevalence of hull-fouling organisms on small 103 craft in locations worldwide 4. Long distance routes and global patterns of small 107 craft movements 4.1 Voyages Domestic craft The increase in the private boating industry Risk assessment of leisure boat fouling Discussion 113 Chapter 7 The environmental impacts of private car 119 transport on the sustainability of Irish settlements R. Moles, W. Foley and B. O Regan 1. Introduction The development of settlements from the industrial 122 revolution to the age of sustainable development 3. The importance of accessibility, population density 123 and mixed land uses to a sustainable transport system

9 VIII CONTENTS 4. Transport and sustainability in Ireland The SFSPI study of the sustainability of transport in 130 Ireland 5.1 Settlement classes The significance of services Distance travelled between residence and 139 workplace in settlements 5.4 Results for analyses of settlement classes The effects of recent population change and 147 place in the spatial hierarchy on travel mode choice 6. Calculation of carbon dioxide emissions from 149 transport 6.1 CO 2 emissions for settlement classes CO 2 emissions for individual settlements Conclusions 159 Chapter 8 Mortality in wildlife due to transportation 165 A. Seiler and J.-O. Helldin 1. Introduction The extent of animal-vehicle collisions Evaluating animal-vehicle collisions Ethical, political and legal aspects Traffic safety and economical concern Population management and species 171 conservation 4. Factors and patterns in animal-vehicle collisions Animal abundance and activity Traffic intensity and vehicle speed Environmental factors Mitigation against animal-vehicle collisions Exclusion fences and fauna passages Guidelines for evaluation and mitigation Conclusions 183 Chapter 9 Habitat fragmentation due to transport 191 infrastructure: Practical considerations E. O Brien 1. What is habitat fragmentation? Impact of roads/railways on wildlife The barrier effect Road kill Other effects Route selection framework Decision making process Compensation Other economic and public relations issues Minimising habitat fragmentation permeability 199 measures 4.1 General principles Overpasses Underpasses for medium /large animals 201

10 CONTENTS IX Chapter 10 Chapter Underpasses for small animals Conclusions 203 Restoring habitat connectivity across transport 205 corridors: identifying high-priority locations for de-fragmentation with the use of an expert-based model E. A. van der Grift and R. Pouwels 1. Introduction Applied methods to identify de-fragmentation 206 locations 2.1 Surveying cross-barrier wildlife movements Predicting cross-barrier wildlife movements Population viability analysis (PVA) as a tool to 209 identify de-fragmentation locations 3.1 Why include PVA? How to include PVA? Case study: De-fragmentation of transport corridors 219 in The Netherlands 5. Combination of methods Future challenges in restoring habitat connectivity Integration of PVA in transport planning Planning research in early stages Dissemination of knowledge and best-practices Constructing more robust mitigation measures Acquiring public understanding and support 227 Habitat and corridor function of rights-of-way 233 M. P. Huijser and A. P. Clevenger 1. Introduction Extent of road, railroad and rights-of-way networks Habitat function of rights-of-way Partial habitat Complete habitat Corridor function of rights-of-way Home range movements Spread Dispersal Factors affecting the quality of rights-of-way as a 241 habitat or corridor 5.1 Traffic volume Width of rights-of-way Mowing and herbicides Soil disturbance and burning Vegetation structure & surrounding landscape Potential problems Road kill and population sink Invasive species Discussion and conclusion 248

11 X Chapter 12 Chapter 13 CONTENTS Impact of road traffic on breeding bird 255 populations R. Reijnen and R. Foppen 1. Introduction Effects on breeding densities Evidence for traffic as the main cause of reduced 255 densities near roads 2.2 How general is the effect? Effect size Probable causal factors and mode of action Introduction Correlations between effect on breeding density 262 and causal factors 3.3 Mode of action: effects on behaviour and 264 population dynamics 4. Effects of road traffic on breeding bird populations 266 at a regional scale: a case study for The Netherlands 4.1 Introduction Methods Results Discussion and conclusions Practical implications for road planning and 269 management 5.1 Avoidance Mitigation Compensation Conclusions 271 Towards the sustainable development of modern 275 road ecosystems L.M.J. Dolan et al. 1. Introduction The ecological footprint of modern road 276 ecosystems 2.1 Habitat loss Habitat fragmentation Non-native invasive species Landscape quality Pollution Associated or ribbon development Strategic environmental assessment The ecosystem approach and sustainable road 287 ecosystem development 4.1 The ecosystem approach and resource 288 management 4.2 Ecological engineering Stakeholders and public participation A transdisciplinary approach Planning Phase Route selection process 292

12 CONTENTS XI Chapter Volume-oriented measures and pollution Land-take requirements Road decomissioning Planning for road users Greenways Sustainable design Habitat loss and the extent of landtake 6.2 Habitat fragmentation and wildlife crossing structures 6.3 Intersections between road ecosystems and 299 watercourses 6.4 Sustainable landscape design Restoration of landscape quality Soil stabilisation Technical design aspects: the road surface and 308 bed, and street furniture 6.8 Effect oriented measures Sustainable Construction Soil movement and storage Rock cuttings Disturbance of vegetation Salvaging plant material Control of invasive plant species Control of pollution Sustainable use of construction material Sustainable operation/use Road users Technical design aspects and vehicles Maintenance phase Road surface material Sustainable drainage systems Vegetation Invasive plant species Green lanes and modified bridges Road decommissioning phase Conclusion and recommendations 325 Environmental impacts of transport, related to 333 tourism and leisure activities J. Davenport and T. A. Switalski 1. Introduction Mass tourist transport Rail and Road transport infrastructure Ferries and Cruise ships Ecotourism transport Sight-seeing air tourism Individual leisure transport Land transport Water transport Air transport Conclusions 354

13 XII CONTENTS Chapter 15 Contaminants and pollutants 361 D. Stengel, S. O Reilly and J. O Halloran 1. Introduction Sources of contaminants and pollutants from 362 transport 2.1 Emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels Runoff Human wastes and servicing Oil pollution Antifouling agents Shipping accidents Consequences Atmospheric changes Aquatic systems Potential mitigation and solutions Overall reduction or elimination of emissions Treatment of runoff from road transportation Runoff from rail transport Aquatic transport Future perspectives 385 Index 391

14 PREFACE Human transport by land, sea and air has increased exponentially through time in intensity, paralleling rises in population, prosperity and rates of technological change. Transport has considerable ecological effects, many of them detrimental to environmental sustainability. The aim of this volume was to bring together experts from a variety of disciplines to review the ecological effects and their causes in terms of road, rail, ship and aircraft transport. It was also intended that the contributors should have different attitudes and agendas. Some are ecologists, some planners, others social scientists. Focus ranges from identification of threats, through to concentration on amelioration of damaging effects or design of transport systems to minimize environmental degradation. Some chapters consider restricted areas of the globe; others the globe itself. Views encompass deep pessimism and cautious optimism. Uniquely, the volume considers transport effects in all environments. Normally scientists who are involved in studying, managing or planning land transport systems have little contact with coastal or oceanic scientists and engineers. Ecotoxicologists often talk little with environmental managers. This is the first book that attempts to discuss the relationship between human transport and all ecosystems. Chapters operate at all scales. They consider impacts of ballast water on global biodiversity, and the contribution of motorway underpasses to sustaining mammal biodiversity in The Netherlands. Information on the spread of human disease by aircraft is balanced by accounts of the impact of snowmobiles on national parks. This book has its origins in international workshops organised at University College Cork in Ireland in 2004 and These were funded by a grant to the editors from the Higher Education Authority of Ireland as a result of the National Development Plan. Participants in the workshops decided upon the framework of the book and adopted the sobriquet of TRANSECOS for their group. TRANSECOS recruited additional authors to improve international and discipline coverage. The aim throughout was to write for a general audience of professionals interested in transport and the environment, whether these be scientists, engineers, planners, civil servants or politicians. Parts or the whole of the book should be useful to postgraduate students in a wide variety of disciplines. Almost all scientists, and the bulk of the world s media and political establishment, have finally accepted global climate change due to human activities as reality. Urbanisation has proceeded to the extent that about half the world s population lives in cities, entirely dependent on complex travel arrangements, and embedded in specialised urban ecosystems. The concept of peak oil and the prospect of continually declining fossil fuel resources over coming decades is now gaining increased acceptance amongst economists. However, there is presently a lack of logical thinking. Politicians express binding commitments to reeling in damaging human activities within the next few decades. However, industries and governments continue to drive forward agendas of enhanced airline activity, increased production of cars and trucks in more and more countries, more road building, extension of tourism and increasingly globalised trade. All of these agendas are incompatible with ecological (as opposed to economic) sustainability, since they inevitably place greater demands on the environment than can be offset by timely technological innovation. Hopefully this volume will help to provide information and ideas to aid in the creation of the necessary integrated thought. TRANSECOS MAY, 2005 XIII

15 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The editors would like to thank the contributing authors, the referees and the publishers for their invaluable help in bringing together this volume. The editors acknowledge the funding provided by the Higher Education Authority of Ireland as a result of the National Development Plan, which provided the impetus for the book. The editors thank Stig Persson whose photograph of a moose is reproduced on the front cover. XV