Integrated Water Resources Management In Syria

Transcription

1 Sengupta, M. and Dalwani, R. (Editors) Proceedings of Taal 2007: The 12th World Lake Conference: Integrated Water Resources Management In Syria Wsam Kout Ministry of Irrigation, Integrated Water Resources Management Section, Alfardos Street, Damascus, Syria INTRODUCTION The population of Syria have been estimated to be (17.5) millions in 2002 with a current increasing rate 2.16 % which is one of the highest rates in the region, and the relation between the population growth and resources is considered to be among the important definitions of development because population growth means consumption and over use for non renewable resources, though the quick population growth leads to over pressure on the natural resources especially water resources and to misbalance between population and available resources. From what mentioned above comes the importance of preparing water resources study in Syria, putting water balance for the hydrological basins, studying water quality and forecasting what changes may happen in water systems and putting the technical solutions about water resources development and utilizing in optimal way. Water strategy of SAR has been aimed at maximum utilization of country s water resources ( to use every drop of water ). The first priority of the national water supply strategy has been the provision of safe drinking water and sufficient water for hygiene purposes for urban as well as for rural population. Next priority is given to irrigation to increase agriculture production and achieve food self-sufficiency and security and provide a base for development of relevant industrial sectors (food staffs and textile). NATURAL WATER RESOURCES Geographic and Climatic Features The Syrian Arab Republic lies along the eastern coast or the Mediterranean sea between the longitudes and E and the latitudes and N. It is bordered to the North by Turkey (845 km); to the East and South East by Iraq (596 km); to the South-West by Jordan (356 km) and to the west (looking from South to North) by Palestine (74 km), Lebanon (359 km) and the Mediterranean sea (183 km) (Figure 1). The total length of the state s boundaries is 2274km of which 150 km are river systems: The Tigris river 39 km with Turkey and 5 km with Iraq; The South Al Kabeer river 56 km with Lebanon; The Yarmouk river 40km with Jordan. The total area of the SAR within these boundaries is km 2. Figure 1: Syrian Arab Republic Geomorphological & natural regions On the base of the prevailing landforms and the topographical features the territory of the country can be divided into four zones as shown in Figure 2: The Coastal Zone It is a narrow plain with variable width up to 30 km running along the Mediterranean coast and the western slopes of the Coastal mountain range dissected by several steams and rivers. The plain extends from South Kabeer river in the south to the boundary with Turkey in the North forming a total coast line distance of about 170 km. The Mountainous Zone Consists of two parallel mountainous chains separated by the Al Ghab depression. The Coastal chain, situated parallel to the Mediterranean coast and rising up to 1755 m. asl is an extension to the north of the Lebanon mountain chain (3088 m). The eastern mountain chains extend parallel to the Lebanon and Syrian Coasted chains and consist of the eastern flank of El Sheikh or Harmon mountain (with the highest peak in Syria of 2814 m.asl); Anti- Lebanon (2629) and the high lands extending to the north (Zawiyah mountain with altitudes not exceeding 1000 m.asl). The Palmyrian Mountains branch from the Anti-Lebanon northeastwards reaching to the right bank of Euphrates river by Bishri mountain. The volcanic high lands of Gabon (1200 m); Jabal Arab Mountain (1800 m) in the

2 south, and Abdul Aziz Mountain (920 m) in northern Syria must also be mentioned. The Syrian Coastal chain mountains extends toward northeast on Turkish territory into the Kurd Dagh mountain spurs and the Anti Towrous mountainous ranges which swing eastward, through southeastern Turkey (Anatolia) to the Zagros mountain chains in Iran. The entire system of mountain chains is forming a giant U-shaped mountainous barrier open to the south which influences significantly the climate of the inland areas of Syria. Figure 2: Geomorphological & Natural Regions Syrian Plateau Ministry of Irrigation Water Resources Directorate The Syrian Plateau is an extension of the Arabia platform and covers most of the country. The plateau dips from 700 m asl at its western edge, along the Anti Lebanon and Zawiyah mountains, to m asl in the depression, in which the Euphrates river flows. The main regions outlined in the plateau from south to north are: Houran plateau, Damascus plain, Homs and Hamah plain, Aleppo plain and Jazirah plain in the Northeast. The Syrian steppe or desert region (called Badia) extend to the southeast. Climate The climate of Syria belongs to the hot temperate zone of the Mediterranean Climate, which is generally characterized by a clod, rainy winter and a hot, dry summer, separated by short transitional seasons of spring and autumn. There are three diffirent climatic regions: - The Coastal Area has a moderate rainy climate. - The interior mountainous area with rains and moderate climate. - The interior zone which is characterized with scarcity and cold weather. Precipitation and climatic regions The precipitation in Syria is characterized with scarcity for the most of the country s territory, great variability from one year to the next, irregular spatial and uneven seasonal distribution, with rainy winter season and rainless summer. The winter rainfalls in Syria are caused by intrusion of rain-bearing air masses from an Atlantic region of low pressure, crossing the Mediterranean Sea and reaching its northeastern coast. The irregularities of such air mass circulation induce irregularity in the amount of annual rainfall over the area of the country. When air mass from Atlantic Ocean low pressure region shift further north across the central Europe, the Syrian territory experiences severe droughts. Such shifts can bring unpredictable series of dry years, which can be followed by years of abundant rainfalls. The annual rainfall variability in the region notably increases with the decrease of the amount of the precipitation, i.e. from west to east and from north to south. The higher variability of the annual rainfall in the inland areas can be attributed to the uncertainties of the penetration to the east of the western rain-bearing winds (air masses). (This is illustrated by the values of the coefficient of variation of the annual rainfall series, which increase with the decrease of the average value of the annual rainfall. The amount of mean annual precipitation over the country varies from less than 100 mm, and more than 1500 mm. The biggest precipitation amounts in Syria fall in the coastal area, especially in its mountainous region (Figure 3). The mean annual amount of precipitation is about 850 mm along the seashore. In the mountain it gradually increases, reaching up to mm on its ridges. Nearly every year, the annual amount is above 600 mm along the seashore and above 700 mm in the mountain. The number of days with precipitation exceeding 1.0 mm are about 65-70, and the number of days with precipitation exceeding 10.0 mm are on the average 30 days per year along the seashore, and 50 days in the mountain. 2301

3 Figure 3: Precipitation and climatic regions Dislocated plains These plains are the northern segment of the main Red Sea-Dead Sea-Jordan Valley-Bekaa s Rift valley system (Syrian Rift), which is a part (extension) of the African Graben (Great Rift Valley) within Syrian territory. The Homs-Tripoli gap, a basalt saddle at 600-m altitude, interrupts the Bekaa plain and Lebanon ranges but the Syrian trench re-appears further north in the Ghab depression and continues to Al Rouj and Al Amuk plains. Evaporation The thermal power resources of the area, the amount and regime of precipitation and the depth of groundwater table govern the regime of actual evaporation (evapotranspiration). In humid zone actual evaporation is close to potential evaporation. Under arid conditions, the depth of groundwater substantially affects evaporation. With greater depth of the groundwater (more than 3.0 m) evaporation is determined mainly by the precipitation regime. The evaporation is little affected by precipitation increase (above this amount) and its maximum value comes close to 350 mm, despite of 2302

4 the fact that potential evaporation amounts to mm. In the warm period, the evaporation resources are limited to the accumulated in winter soil moisture, amounting to about mm. The evaporation in the cold period is approximately mm, when precipitation is higher than these values. The deficit for plant alimentation is estimated to about 800 to 1000 mm and more. Wind: On the coastal line the north east wind prevails in winter where in other seasons the south west to south winds are prevailed in summer. and structural and geomorphologic conditions. It is noticed the availability of many water layers in the rocks and Basalt (Quaternary-Neogene) in Al jazeira and Aleppo regions. The aquifers of great importance consist of cracked carbonic rocks and karst of Eocene and Miocene age and these aquifers are considered among the most productive aquifers in the country. Ministry of Irrigation Water Resources Directorate PLANTS AND SOILS Water resources and their use are closely related to the soil characteristics and rainfall patterns found in the various regions of the country. Soil groups are described as follows: Red Mediterranean Soils - (850,000 ha) clay loam and loam carped. Include the western hills of Syria; Receive 600 mm annual rainfall; Could be utilized after clearing of stones and terracing; Characterized by very high population density. Desert Soils - (4244,000 ha), highly calcareous; Receive 150 mm rainfall; Grazing land, steppe. Gypsiferous Soils - (5528,000 ha) Erosive, crust; Low quality grazing land; Agriculture is possible only under irrigation. Alluvial Soils - (531,000 ha) Sand loamy to clay; Found mainly in the Euphrates river valley; Used for under irrigation cotton and suitable for various forms crops. Ground water soils - (366,000 ha). As the climate is arid (and the evaporation exceeds the precipitation) it is estimated that 70 percent of the soils under irrigation are potentially saline. Land resources and land use On the whole, the cultivable lands amounting to 5981 thousand Ha account to 32% of the total area of Syria. Steppe and pasture and forest lands, with area of 8807 thousand Ha, represent 48% of the country s territory and the remaining 3370 or 18% consists of uncultivable lands including rocky and sandy lands, buildings, roads, lakes and mashes. HYDROGEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS Hydrogeological studies shows the availability of groundwater in most of the formations with ages from Jurassic to Quaternary age (Figure 4). Water availability depths, quantity and quality differ from one place to another according to lithological changes of the aquifers, its physical characteristics Figure 4: The Geological Map of Syria Water Streams and Hydrographical Conditions The major topographic features divide the territory of Syria between the Mediterranean Sea drainage basin; Arab gulf (Indian Ocean) drainage basin and the Dead sea basin, separated by a number of closed inland basins without hydrological (drainage) outlet to the World Ocean. For the purpose of a countrywide water resources assessment and management, Syria has been divided into eight main Water Resources Management basins or units (as shown in Figure 5). The boundaries of these units coincide, in general, with the natural water divides of the hydrological basins, but in some cases are modified according to the boundaries of the administrative units. 2303

5 Coastal Water Streams With Permanent Flow Al Kabir As Shamali River As Sin River Al Kabir Al Janobi River With Seasonal Flow Al Sanawber, Al Howeiz, Al Ghamqa, Al Husein, Khalifeh. Ministry Of Irrigation Water Resources Directorate basin of Tigris in Turkey is km 2. The average annual flow entering into Iraq is estimated to million m 3.The drainage basin of the river increases downstream with km 2 ( km 2 Iraq s and km 2 Iran s territories) and the average annual flow grows up to 52 billion m 3. Ministry Of Irrigation Water Resources Directorate Figure 5: Water Resources Management Basins Hydrological Basins of Syria Shared Rivers and Water streams Euphrates: The Euphrates is the biggest river flowing in Syria. The river rises on the Anatolian plateau in Turkey, at an altitude masl, runs across Syria and Iraq and flows into the Arabian Gulf. The total length of the river is km with area of the drainage basin, quoted between km 2 and km 2.The Euphrates crosses Syria from the towns of Jarablus (325 masl) to Abu Kamal (166 masl) for a distance of 680 km at a quite steep slope of 0.23.The Balikh River on the left and the Sajour River on the right are the only significant tributaries of Euphrates, in addition (except for) Khabour River (Figure 6). Tigris: originates in the eastern Tourus Mountains in Turkey, at altitude ranging between 1000 m and 3000 m. Downstream the Turkish town of Cizre; it forms the border between Syria and Turkey for 37 km and between Syria and Iraq for 7 km. The drainage Figure 6: The Hydrographical Map of Syria Orontes: The area of Orontes basin in Syria is set-up at km 2 of which km 2 of the main river stream basin and 1717 km 2 of the Afrin river basin. The western mountains receive precipitation ranging from 600 mm to mm. Precipitation in the eastern parts of the basin is much lower, ranging from 400 mm to 600 mm. The Orontes River originates in Lebanon, runs through the territory of Syria from south to north and drains into the Mediterranean Sea. (The Orontes is the only river in the region, flowing to the north direction, what has given the river s Arab name Al Assi or the inverse river).the length of the Orontes river in Lebanon is 65 km and in Syria 342 km. The Orontes River and its tributaries collect the runoff from the highlands and plateau areas situated on the both sides of the rift valley. The average annual flow of the Orontes river is estimated at million m 3 equivalent to 76.1 m 3 /s (maximum and minimum daily discharges are 10 m 3 /s and 400 m 3 /s respectively). 2304

6 Al Kabir Al Janobi: Emerges from Syria and Lebanon and flows in the Mediterranean Sea. The South Kabir river and the North Kabir river are the largest rivers in the Coastal basin both by catchment areas (960 km 2 and 1097 km 2 respectively) and by the volume of the river flow. The river stream of South Kabir is a frontier with Lebanon for 56 km and the average annual flow is about 7.95 m 3 /s (251 mill. m 3 /year), down to its confluence in the sea. Al Yarmouk: flows from Dara to join the Jordan River, some 10 kms below lake Tiberies. The continuation (extension) of the river upstream from Dara to a point on the watershed a little north of Salkhad (on Jabal Arab) is known as Wadi Zeide. The average annual precipitation over the Syrian part of the Yarmouk basin is estimated to about 340 mm. The water resources of the Yarmouk basin are greatly influenced by the presence of ground water, discharged by more than 390 springs. The flow of the springs emerging inside the basin is wholly utilized or lost by evaporation and infiltration and dose not reach to the outlet point of the basin. The most important are the springs emerging at the region of Mzeireeb and in the valley of low reach of the Hreir River. The discharge of these springs accounts for 40 to 80% of the Yarmouk river flow depending on the precipitation amount of particular year. The mean annual yield of the springs in the Yarmouk basin is estimated to 245 million m 3 and with 181 million m 3 mean annual surface runoff make the total water resources of the basin to 475 million m 3. Internal Permanent and seasonal Rivers Al Khabour Al ballaikh Barada Al Awaj Water Resources management Units (Basins) The water resources management units consist of the following basins: Yarmouk Basin Damascus Basin (Barada & Awaj) Coastal Basin Orontes basin (Al Assi) Steppe or Badia Basin Euphrates and Aleppo Basin Tigris and Khabour Basins A brief description of the main characteristic features and the water resources situation in each basin are given in the following discussion: Yarmouk Basin The Yarmouk basin comprises km 2 of the Jordan River drainage basins located in the most southeast part of Syria. The basin is situated (lies) within the administrative boundaries of the Mohafazats Dara, Sweida and Quneitra. The major relief forms include the basalt Leja plateau in the northeast and the Hawran plateau, with variable mantle of clayey deposits, in the central part. The largest amounts of precipitation, up to 800 mm and more, fall in the west over the Golan Heights and the piedmonts of the Ash Sheikh Mountain. The amount of precipitation decreases eastward and ranges between 230 to 270 mm in the central plain parts. Further to the east the precipitation increases again, with the increase of the elevation of the slopes of the Al Arab range reaching to 530 mm for the highest areas. The Average annual precipitation is estimated to about 290 mm/year (1930 mill.m 3 ). WATER RESOURCES: Surface Water The long-term average annual surface runoff of the basin is about 180 million m 3 characterized with extreme multi annual variation. The seasonal distribution of the stream flows of the rivers (in the Yarmouk basin) follows the seasonal pattern of the rainfall, with floods during winter and springs. The river flow occurs only after the amount of rainfall fallen on the basin has reached 100 to 120 mm. The number of dams is 42 with estimated total volume 245 mill.m 3. This Basin had been divided into 5 subbasins : Sub-Basin The average annual surface runoff (mill.m 3 /year) Al Rakkad 84 Al Allan 37 Al Yarmouk 24 Al Dahab 12 Al Zidi Wadi 23 Total 180 Groundwater The amount of renewed groundwater in the Basin is estimated to 267 mill.m 3. The water resources of the Yarmouk basin are greatly influenced by the presence of ground water, discharged by more than 390 springs. The majority of these are small springs of local importance. The flow of the springs emerging inside the basin is wholly utilized or lost by evaporation and infiltration and dose not reach to the outlet point of the basin. The most important are the springs emerging at the region of Mzeireeb and in the valley of low reach of the Hreir River. The discharge of these springs accounts for 40 to 80% of the Yarmouk river flow depending on the precipitation amount of particular year. The mean annual yield of the springs in the Yarmouk basin is estimated to 170 million m

7 Water Use Uses Consumed Water(mill.m 3 /year) Irrigation 400 Domestic Water 89 Industry 7 Total 496 Barad and Awaj Basin (Damascus Basin) Damascus basin is a closed hydrological basin with drainage area of 8596 Km 2 situated between the areas drained by the Mediterranean Sea to the north, (upper Orontes River) and the drainage basin of Dead sea (upper Jordan River) to the south and west. The spatial variation of the precipitation over the basin is large. The annual amount of precipitation varies from 130 mm in the areas of the Ateibeh and Hijaneh lakes to 1800 mm in the Jabal Sheikh Mountain. The average annual precipitation is estimated to 267 mm, and in an average year the volume of precipitation within the basin is estimated to 2.3 bill.m 3. Water Resources: The total average annual amount of the water resources is estimated to 850 mill. m 3. The surface runoff is estimated to 141 million m 3 (4.45 m 3 /s) and the spring discharge to 578 million m 3 (18.35 m 3 /s) 153 million m 3 (4.85 m 3 /s) of the groundwater flow come from outside the basin. Most of the natural flow in the basin is formed in the basin areas of upper and middle reaches of the Barada and Awaj rivers mainly. Surface water The surface runoff is equal to 63 million m 3 (2 m 3 /s) or 14% of the annual flow. Both Barada and Awaj are snowmelt and rain-fed streams with high flow period in the winter and spring seasons and numerous minor floods caused by occasional rainfalls. However, their permanent flow is due to the spring discharge. The average surface water amount is estimated to 12 mill. m 3 /year. Groundwater The contribution of the groundwater to the stream flow reaches to 90% for Barada river and 80% for the Awaj river in the average. Depending on the size of the drainage basin area and the type of hydraulic connection with groundwater, peculiar to these streams are either single rainfall floods or a general seasonal (winter-spring) flood wave with occasional rainfall floods; the average springs discharge is estimated to 18.9 m 3 /sec (595 mill.m 3 /year). The rest of the groundwater (243 mill.m 3 ) is stored in the aquifers and withdrawed by wells. This basin was divided into 21 sub-basins. Table 1 shows the parameters of water balance. Table 1: The Water Balance of the Sub-Basins in Barada & Awaj Basin Name of sub-basin Area Km 2 Precipitation Mill.m 3 /year Evaporation Mill.m 3 /year Water resources Mill.m 3 /year A-I A-I A-I A-I A-I A-I A-I A-I A-I A-II A-II A-II A-II A-II A-II B-I B-I B-I B-II B-III B-III Total

8 Water Use The water use in this basin is estimated to 1443 Mill.m 3, (340 Mill.m 3 for water supply and industrial use, 1100 Mill.m 3 for irrigation). The discharge (yield) of Al Feijeh spring will be least affected by the groundwater withdrawal as the aquifers and recharge areas of the spring are located high in the mountains, where man s activities have hitherto less intensive, so there is a big deficiency in this basin, and this situation caused a critical case for water supply that the grounwater level has decreased from 5 to 50 m. Uses Consumed Water(mill.m 3 /year) Irrigation 983 Domestic Water 270 Industry 76 Total 1329 Figeh Sprind is cosidered the only source for drinking water of Damascus City. The average discharge of this spring is about 240 mill.m 3. Coastal Basin The coastal basin is located to west of Syria with a narrow sea shore 3-15 km and an area about 5086 km 2, where the Mediterranean climate is prevailing in this basin. The Average annual precipitation is estimated to 960 mm/year (4880 mill.m 3 ). WATER RESOURCES: Surface Water The dam construction in the basin began in 1967 with comparatively small dams. Eight of the dams built before 1985 have a total storage capacity 11 MCM and only one dam has a storage reservoir 15.5 MCM. The 16 th November dam on the North Kabeer river (completed in 1985), with storage capacity 215 MCM, is the biggest dam reservoir in the Coastal region. The numbers of the dams in 1999 increased to 16 and 3 dams were under-construction. The storage reservoir volume rose to 473 MCM and with the volume of the dams under construction will reach almost 600 MCM. Only three of the built dams account for 416 MCM of the total storage volume, or 70 % of the available reservoir storage in the basin. Most of the rivers in this basin run from east to west and flow in Mediterranean sea; e.g. Alkabir Alshimali, Wadi Kandil, Alsonoubar, Alsinn, Banias, Markia, Alhousein, Alabrash, and Alkabir Aljanoubi between Syria and Libanon. The average surface runoff is estimated to 1557 mill.m 3, There are 21 dams in the coastal basin with storage capacity 602 mill.m 3 for irrigation and water supply. The basin has been divided into 13 hydrlogical subbasins: The average annual Sub-Basin surface runoff (mill.m 3 ) Alkabir Aljanoubi River 367 Alabrash River 76 Alghamka River 50 Alhousein River 98 Markia River 88 Banias Basin (Streams) 13 Joubar River 35 Horeisoun River 72 Alsinn River 17 Alros River 35 Alsonoubar River 117 Alkabir Alshimali River 183 The rest of rivers in the Coastal Basin 406 Total 1557 Groundwater The amount of groundwater which can be used is estimated to 778 mill.m 3. There are large amounts of groundwater (about 1 bill.m 3 ) stored either in deep aquifers or flow under the Sea as submarine springs. This basin was divided into two sub-basins (Albasit and western foot of Alansaria Mountain which includs 6 sub-basins) as shown in this table: Total Groundwater Amount Sub-Basin The Second Sub-Basin Groundwater Springs Total Albasit Area I Albasit Area I Total II-1 Slonfa-Alkordaha II western foot of Alansaria Mountain II-2 Tartous Roof II-3 Lattakia Roof II-4 Alkabir Alshimali II-5 Coastline II-6 Akkar plain Total The total in the whole Coastal Basin

9 Water use Orontes Basin The total area of this basin is about km 2. It is situated to the west of the middle of Syria, boardered to the west by the coastal mountains and to the east by Albadia (steppe). The amount of water resources in this basin is about bill.m 3. It has been devided into several sub-basins according to the Orontes River which emerges in Libanon and passes Syria to flow in the Mediterranean Sea. The length of the Orontes River is about 79 km. The average annual precipitation in the basin is estimated to 403 mm (8715 mill.m 3 ). Uses Consumed Water(mill.m 3 /year) Irrigation 566 Domestic Water 124 Industry 85 Total 775 WATER RESOURCES: Surface Water The renwed surface water amount is estimated to 1110 mill.m 3 flows into streams and valleys. There are several bid springs (Al Ghab, Al Rouj, and Al Zarka). The regulation of the Orontes river flow (in order to increase its irrigation capacity) began with the reconstruction of the ancient Quattineh dam (in 1937) and the construction of the dams at Rastan and Mhardeh on the main river stream in 1960 (the first big dams built in Syria). These reservoirs provide for control of about km 2 of Orontes drainage basin upstream Mhardeh. However, the total volume of the three dam reservoirs of 500 mill.m 3 is about 45% of the estimated average annual flow yield, from the basin area upstream the reservoirs. The dams built in the basin numbered 45 with total reservoir volume 1161 mill.m 3 or less than 40% of the total average annual runoff of the Orontes at the Darkush Village. All these dams were built on tributaries of the Orontes river and with comparatively small reservoir volumes. Among the dams with large reservoirs are the Zeita dam (80 mill.m 3 ) and the Zeizun dam (71 mill.m 3 ) which had been damaged in With the four new dams to be constructed, the total storage capacity of the dams in the basin will rise to about 1072 mill.m 3. The average surface runoff is estimated to bill.m 3, and the surface runoff at Libanon boundaries is about 91 mill.m 3. The sources of surface water into the basin are: Sub-Basin The average surface runoff Al Holah Plains 80 Al Sarot River 85 Al Abiad River 80 Ain Saizer Springs 150 Eastern Area Springs into Ghab Plains (12 springs) 200 Western Area Springs (21 Springs) 210 Total Groundwater Amount Sub-Basin The Second Sub-Basin groundwater Springs Total I-A Cretaceous Field The North area of I-B The Eastern Foot of Al Ansaria Mounts I Arabic Western I-C Al Ghab Depression Fault I-D Al Rouj Depression I-E The Lower Orontes Basin Total The North-West II-A The Eastern Libanon Mounts II ridge of Palmyra II-B Al Shomaria Mounts. 5-5 Mounts. II-C Al Kalamon depression The total of the Second Sub-Basin III Homs depression III-A The Eastern Part III-B Shin Plateau Total The South-West IV-A The North-West Part 4-4 IV Ridge of Aleppo Plateau IV-B The South-East Parts Total The Total of the study areas in the Orontes Basin Edlib/Efrin Efrin Depression/Aleppo Basin Total Amount of Water Resources in The Orontes Basin

10 Groundwater The irrigation with groundwater in the basin has been expanding steadily within the last decade. The intensive groundwater use resulted in depletion of the water storage in the underground reservoirs (aquifers), lowering of the groundwater table (The water table decreased m in 1999), and considerable reduction of the spring yield. The discharge of 26 springs in Al Ghab valley dropped from m 3 /s average annual discharge for the period to 9.7 m 3 /s mean annual discharge in 1992/93 and steadily decline to 4.2 m 3 /s in 1995/96. The amount of groundwater is estimated to 1607 mill.m 3, most of it flows as springs (1134 mill.m 3 ) and the rest (473 mill.m 3 ) is stored into aquifers and withdrawed by wells numbered wells for irrigation and water supply. This basin has been divided into 4 sub-basins, as shown in this table: Water Use The areas irrigated increased from ha in 1989 to ha in ha is irrigated by wells ha is irrigated by rivers and springs ha is irrigated by irrigation system The expansion of the irrigation with groundwater has been most intensive in the Al Ghab valley and the mohafazat of Idleb. In the Al Ghab region, the areas irrigated with groundwater raised, (in the same time) the areas irrigated with surface waters were reduced (955 mill.m 3 ). The amount of groundwater which is used by wells for water supply, irrigation and industry is more than 1607 mill. m 3, while the renewed amount in aquifers is less than 473 mill.m 3. This means 1134 mill.m 3 of unrenewed groundwater is pumped. Uses Consumed Water(mill.m 3 /year) Irrigation 2092 Domestic Water 240 Industry 229 Total 2561 Steppe Basin The total area of this basin is about km 2. The basin is situated within the administrative boundaries of several Mohafazats. The climate of the basin belongs to the semi arid climate, which is generally characterized by a clod winter and a hot, dry summer, separated by short transitional seasons of spring and autumn and less rains (the average annual rainfall is less than 138 mm/year). WATER RESOURCES: Surface Water The Basin has been divided into 7 sub-basins: Sub-Basin The Average Water Resources (Mill.m 3 /year) Al-Daw 18.7 Palmyra 9.2 Al-Sokhna 30.2 Al-Rasafa 32.5 Al-Miah 28.1 Al-Rakka 11.2 Abo-Kamal 3.2 Al-HAmmad 30.3 Total Region Groundwater Resources Rate 50% mill.m 3 Consumed Groundwater Total /ton Layer(I) Layer(II) Layer(I) Layer(II) Layer(I) Layer(II) Wells Springs Wells Springs Al-Daw Palmyra Al-Sokhna Al-Miah Abo-Kamal Al-Rasafa Al-Rabeha Al-Jabbol Orontes Sabkhat Al- Mouh Al-Miadin Al-Rakka Total

11 The average annual surface runoff is estimated to 163 mill.m 3 in an average year. However, the construction of reservoirs on wadies (for irrigation purposes) is not always economically justified, because of unfavorable geological conditions (considerable seepage losses, through sand-gravel deposits of the valley), high evaporation losses and intensive silting of the reservoirs, 37 dams have been built in the steppe basin with total design storage capacity of the reservoirs more than 69 mill.m 3. Most of the dams are small earth fill structures, and used for irrigation ans animals. Goundwater This basin has been divided to 12 ground sub-basins. Water supply of the Syrian steppe area is mainly from underground sources. Surface water has a limited use. The springs (under natural conditions) provide for about 3-4 million m 3 /year. Intensive use of groundwater commenced during the last years. The groundwater shall be reserved for water supply for population centers and livestock watering on pasturelands. The remaining portion of groundwater resources may be used for irrigation. A possible amount of groundwater to be withdrawn for irrigation was estimated at 22.9 million m 3 per year. The available local water resources of the desert (both surface and groundwater resources) cannot solve the problem of fodder deficit under the conditions of growing livestock. The deficit in fodder in the summer-autumn period must be made up by the crops produced in the irrigated farming zones of Syria adjacent to the desert. The total amount of groundwater which be used is estimated to 183 mill.m 3 (into the two layers), as shown in this table: Water Use 46 mill.m3 of groundwater is used for water supply and industry, An essential part of water used by cattle is of substandard quality, i.e. it is characterized by high hardness and salinity containing excessive organic matter, etc. 68 mill.m 3 of grounwater is used for irrigation by wells (1860 legal wells irrigate ha and 3591 illegal wells irrigate ha). Uses Consumed Water(mill.m 3 /year) Irrigation 68 Domestic Water 44 Industry 2 Total 114 Euphorates and Aleppo Basin The Euphrates Water Resources Management Basin includes km 2 from the Euphrates basin and km 2 of Aleppo region, consisting of the adjacent to Euphrates closed basins of Jaboul depression and Mamlaha depression. The areas of Khabour river basin ( km 2 ) are not included. The Euphrates crosses Syria from the towns of Jarablus (325 masl) to Abu Kamal (166 masl) for a distance of 680 km at a quite steep slope of The mean annual rainfalls decrease from 300 mm in the north regions along the state border, to 150 mm in the middle reach of Euphrates valley and 100 mm at Albu Kamal. The patterns of the seasonal variation of the rainfall and the temperature are similar to elsewhere in the country. However, the multi annual variation of the rainfall is comparatively higher. The increase of the continentally and severity of the climate in east and southeast direction is marked by lower humidity, higher wind velocity and higher evaporation. From climatic point of view considerable part of the Euphrates basin (in Syria) belongs to the Syrian steppe (desert) zone with annual rainfall less than 200 mm. The average annual rainfall over the basin is estimated to about 250mm. The climate in Aleppo area, the northwestern part of the region, is transitional between Mediterranean and continental arid, with annual rainfall between 300mm and 400 mm. This basin has never been studying hydrogeologically before, but there was a detailed study about Euphorates River before and after studying the Euphorates Dam. By the previous studies it was found that the average annual renewed water resources amount was about 1249 mill.m 3 (without Euphorates river). WATER RESOURCES: Surface Water The average annual surface water is estimated to 478 mill.m 3 in an average year. The natural mean annual flow of Euphrates at the Syrian/Turkish border has been estimated at 31.4 billion km 3 or about 1000 m 3 /s. The Balikh River on the left and the Sajour River on the right are the only significant tributaries of Euphrates. Euphrates River and its tributaries in Syria receive most of their waters, including the recharge of the aquifers of the major springs, from areas outside Syria (in Turkey). Therefore, they are highly vulnerable and can be affected considerably from the water resources development and from the tapping of the respective aquifers on the Turkish side. The number of dams in the basin is 4 dams with total capacity mill.m 3. Groundwater The amount of groundwater in an average year is estimated to 771 mill.m 3 (67 mill.m 3 from springs and 704 mill.m 3 in aquifers). The number of wells in this basin is about wells. 2310

12 Water Use The expansion of the irrigation with groundwater has been most intensive in Aleppo region (79118 ha). The extensive discharge (yield) from the aquifers will be least affected by the groundwater withdrawal, so there is a big deficiency in this basin, and this situation caused a critical case for water supply that the grounwater level has decreased and this caused a salinity for groundwater in some areas of the basin. The same situation is in Deir Al Zour ( the irrigated lands are about ha), and there is a big deficiency in this area. Uses Consumed Water(mill.m 3 /year) Irrigation 5755 Domestic Water 322 Industry 86 Total 6163 Tigris and Khabour Basin The basin covers an area of km 2 of the High Jezireh (at the Northeast corner of Syria), including the Syrian parts of the drainage basins of Tigris River (1040 km 2 ) and Khabour River ( km 2 ). Except for a small part of low Khabour, the areas of the basin are entirely within the administrative boundaries of Mohafazat of Hassake. The region is located between the coastal Mediterranean and the continental climatic zones. Winters are relatively mild, but the temperature drops below 0 C o almost every year. The coldest month is January, when the temperature drops to - 8 C o occasionally. The annual precipitation (rainfall) gradually increases from 200 mm to 600 mm (along the Turkish border in the northeast). The average annual precipitation over the Basin is about 402 mm. Water Resources: The renwed water resources are estimated to 2388 mill.m 3. Surface Water The average annual surface runoff in an average year is about 788 mill.m 3. The prevalent parts of the surface runoff originate from the mountainous areas in Turkey and occur in the rainy winter season. Considerable annual variations and irregularities characterize the surface runoff. 12 dams has been constructed in this basin with total storage capacity 1045 mill.m 3 for irrigation and water supply. Groundwater The renewed groundwater amount in average years is estimated to 1600 mill.m 3. Groundwater flow discharges into the Khabour River mainly through the group of springs of Ras Al Ain and maintains a highly constant base flow of about 40 m 3 /s (1980), 14 m 3 /s (1998) and 7.38 m 3 /s (2003). The springs are emerging close to the Turkish border and are remarkable with the small seasonal and annual variation. Two dams has been constructed on the Ras Al Ain springs (Eastern&Western Alhasaka Dam) with total storage 322 mill.m 3 for irrigation and domestic use. Water Use Uses Consumed Water(mill.m 3 /year) Irrigation 4300 Domestic Water 38 Industry and petroleum fields 89 Total 4427 Water Resources of Syrian Arab Republic Rainfall is considered the main source of groundwater recharging. The rainfall increases with the increase of the occurrences of climate depressions, and with the increase of altitude from sea level, So the rainfall decreases from west and north towards east and south east. The average annual precipitation is estimated to bill.m 3 /year. The potential evaporation varies from west to east. The average evaporation is about bill.m 3 /year (78% of precipitation), and the average surface and grounwater is about bill.m 3 /year, as shown in this table: The total amount of water resources with the share of Syria from Euphorates and Tigris rivers is about bill.m 3 /year (6.627 bill.m 3 from Euphorates and 1.25 bill.m 3 from Tigris). 167 dams has been constructed with total capacity mill.m 3, as shown in this table: Basin Area Polpulation Aver. Annual Precipitation Aver. Annual Water Resources mm/year mill.m 3 Evaporation /year Surface Ground Total Yarmok Barada & Awaj Coastal Orontes Steppe Euphorates & Aleppo Tigris & Khabour Total

13 Basin Number of Dams Storage Coastal Tigris & Khabour Orontes Barada & Awaj 6 8 Yarmouk Steppe Total Euphorates & Aleppo Total Basin Irrigation Drink Industry Total Yarmouk Barada & Awaj Coastal Orontes Steppe Euphorates Tigris Total The number of boreholes is about 29 with total storage 3 mill.m 3 used mainly for cattle. The Water Use in Syria The Water Balance The total amount of water resources (for an average year) to be used in syria is about mill.m 3 /year, and the total water used is estimated to mill.m 3 /year, so there is a deficiency 374 mill.m 3 /year, as shown in this table: These tables show the Available water resources, the total demand and the water balance in Syria for the year 2003 with different probabilities (50% - 75% - 95%): Hydrological Basins Balance Components Unit Barada Euphorates & Tigris & Total yarmouk Coastal Orontes Steppe & Awaj Aleppo Khabour Surfaces & Grounwater mill.m Regulation Degree % Available water mill.m Resources Sewage Water mill.m Returning Agricultural Water Returning mill.m Total mill.m Irrigation mill.m Domestic mill.m Industry mill.m Evaporation mill.m Total mill.m Water Balance mill.m Water Resources Water Use Water Balance Items Unit Khabour & Tigris WATER BALANCE Available Water Resources (50 %) Water Demands Hydrological Basins Euphrates & Aleppo Orontes (Al Assi) Coastal (Al Sahel) Barada & Awaj Yarmouk Steppe (Badia) TOTAL (country) Basin in Syria km 2 21,129 51,238 21,624 5,049 8,630 6,724 70, ,180 Considered area km 2 21,129 51,238 18,362 5,049 8,630 5,764 70, ,958 Share of territory % 11.7% 28.3% 10.1% 2.8% 4.8% 3.2% 39.1% 100.0% Average Annual Precipitation million m 3 6,761 10,709 8,024 5,806 2,693 1,931 10,476 46,400 Average Annual Evaporation million m 3 6,127 9,838 5,876 3,464 1,847 1,527 10,122 38,801 Surface Water million m , ,744 Groundwater million m 3 1, ,417 TOTAL internal million m 3 1, , ,161 Available Water Resources Regulated TOTAL million m 3 1, , ,

14 Available from outside Syria million m , ,232 TOTAL available WR million m 3 2,090 7, , Return Irrigation water million m 3 1,516 1, ,096 Sewage Total million m Industrial waste water million m TOTAL WATER RESOURCES million m 3 3,680 9,682 2,86 1,613 1, ,810 Irrigated Areas (2003) Hectare 421, , ,000 72,200 69,000 34,000 6,800 1,343,000 Irrigation water Demand million m 3 5,052 6,120 2, ,227 Total Population ,315,097 5,551,626 3,478,069 1,790,629 3,678,816 1,098, ,452 17,550,000 DW Demand TOTAL (m 3 ) million m ,372 Industrial Water Demand million m Evaporation from Reservoir million m , ,955 Total Demand & Losses million m 3 5,327 8,254 2, , ,115 WATER BALANCE million m 3-1,647 1, Water Demands Water Balance Items Unit Khabour & Tigris Available Water Resources Water Demands WATER BALANCE Available Water Resources (75 %) Water Demands Hydrological Basins Euphrates & Aleppo Orontes (Al Assi) Coastal (Al Sahel) Barada & Awaj Yarmouk Steppe (Badia) TOTAL (country) Basin in Syria km 2 21,129 51,238 21,624 5,049 8,630 6,724 70, ,180 Considered area km 2 21,129 51,238 18,362 5,049 8,630 5,764 70, ,958 Share of territory % 11.7% 28.3% 10.1% 2.8% 4.8% 3.2% 39.1% 100.0% Average Annual Precipitation million m 3 5,321 8,428 6,315 4,570 2,119 1,520 8,245 36,517 Average Annual Evaporation million m 3 5,177 8,198 5,876 3,464 1,847 1,499 7,786 33,846 Surface Water million m ,332 Groundwater million m 3 1, ,568 TOTAL internal million m 3 1, ,305 1, ,900 Regulated TOTAL million m 3 1, , ,389 Available from outside Syria million m , ,232 TOTAL available WR million m 3 1,786 7,415 1,292 1, ,621 Return Irrigation water million m 3 1,516 1, ,096 Sewage Total million m Industrial waste water million m TOTAL WATER RESOURCES million m 3 3,376 9,512 2,052 1, ,752 Irrigated Areas (2003) Hectare 421, , ,000 72,200 69,000 34,000 6,800 1,343,000 Irrigation water Demand million m 3 5,052 6,120 2, ,227 Total Population ,315,097 5,551,626 3,478,069 1,790,629 3,678,816 1,098, ,452 17,550,000 DW Demand TOTAL (m 3 ) million m ,372 Industrial Water Demand million m Evaporation from Reservoir million m , ,826 Total Demand & Losses million m 3 5,261 8,254 2, , ,986 WATER BALANCE million m 3-1,885 1, ,233 Water Balance Items Unit Khabour & Tigris WATER BALANCE Available Water Resources (95 %) Water Demands Hydrological Basins Euphrates & Aleppo Orontes (Al Assi) Coastal (Al Sahel) Barada & Awaj Yarmouk Steppe (Badia) TOTAL (country) Basin in Syria km 2 21,129 51,238 21,624 5,049 8,630 6,724 70, ,180 Considered area km 2 21,129 51,238 18,362 5,049 8,630 5,764 70, ,958 Share of territory % 11.7% 28.3% 10.1% 2.8% 4.8% 3.2% 39.1% 100.0% Average Annual Precipitation million m 3 3,604 5,708 4,277 3,095 1,435 1,029 5,584 24,731 Average Annual Evaporation million m 3 3,592 5,636 4,131 2,525 1,381 1,009 5,592 23,866 Surface Water million m Groundwater million m 3 1, ,673 TOTAL internal million m 3 1, ,185 Regulated TOTAL million m 3 1, ,872 Available from outside Syria million m , ,232 TOTAL available WR million m 3 1,456 7, ,104 Available Water Resources Return Irrigation water million m 3 1,516 1, ,

15 Sewage Total million m Industrial waste water million m TOTAL WATER RESOURCES million m 3 3,046 9,371 1, ,235 Irrigated Areas (2003) Hectare 421, , ,000 72,200 69,000 34,000 6,800 1,343,000 Irrigation water Demand million m 3 5,052 6,120 2, ,227 Total Population ,315,097 5,551,626 3,478,069 1,790,629 3,678,816 1,098, ,452 17,550,000 DW Demand TOTAL (m 3 ) million m , Industrial Water Demand million m Evaporation from Reservoir million m , ,734 Total Demand & Losses million m 3 5,228 8,254 2, , ,894 WATER BALANCE million m 3-2,182 1,116-1, ,659 Water Demands CONCLUSIONS : The arid and semi arid desert lands cover a big area from the Syrian lands. Most of the water in Syria emerge from the lands outside Syrian borders, and there are no final agreements or Protocols between the three countries (Syria, Turkey and Iraq) about the way to use and utilize the total water. Integrated improvement and comprehensive development for water resources have many advantages and need further scientific researches. Works Will Be Done By Ministry of Irrigation Update water resources data and information, and establish national data base. Develop the conventional and unconventional water resources. Assessment of water resources. Adoption of new irrigation techniques. Update water resources studies and evaluate water quantity that can be regulated. Focus on increasing the efficiency of irrigation networks and other irrigation projects. Utilize the treated unconventional return water from irrigation. Protect water resources and control the pollution. Establish an integrated and comprehensive water plan for Syria. It is necessary to provide specialized training courses to achieve the required experiences in the field of water resources management. 2314