Strategy for the Development of Low Carbon Communities on Outlying Islands Kinmen

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1 International Journal of Environment and Resource, Volume 6, 2017 doi: /ijer Strategy for the Development of Low Carbon Communities on Outlying Islands Kinmen Hua-Yueh Liu Associate Professor, Department of Architecture, National Quemoy University, 1 University Road, Jinning Township, Kinmen 892, Taiwan lhyhmhs@nqu.edu.tw Abstract In recent years, increasing awareness of global warming and climate change has led to active promotion of sustainable energy and environmental policies globally. For Kinmen, an outlying island on which almost all resources are obtained from outside, it is important to use a sustainable approach to construct buildings and further attain the goal of a low-carbon or even no-carbon community. Thus, raising awareness of a low-carbon lifestyle by educating local residents in the carbon neutral concept is crucial. Using passive designs in building, such as solar and wind power, green roofs, rain water and wastewater recycling, and insulation of the external walls of buildings, will help to accomplish the target of carbon neutrality. This should be done in both macro aspects (the international energy situation and prospects) and micro aspects (energy-efficient solutions for buildings). By a detailed survey, appropriate communities suitable for development as low-carbon communities were identified. Specific strategies for the candidate communities were planned and further proposed as a project to construct model low-carbon communities. This study will not only lead Kinmen towards becoming a low-carbon society through sustainable development; the outcomes can also be a great example for other cities to follow in order to develop their own low-carbon communities. Keywords Passive Designs ; Carbon Neutrality; Low-Carbon Communities Introduction In recent years, increasing loss of life and effects on the environment and economy caused by extreme weather has forced all the countries in the world to take action in response to climate change. Therefore, the construction of a "low-carbon city" has become a priority task for all countries to actively advocate. The city is the center of the population and economy, a major consumer of energy, and also an important source of greenhouse gas emissions. If a city adopts a low-carbon strategy through proper planning, greenhouse gas emissions can effectively be reduced. Because almost 100% of electricity is generated by the thermal power plant on Kinmen Island, we are forced to actively participate in the carbon-reduction strategy. Therefore, we hope that we can play an important role in this global issue. Motives Kinmen is located off the southeast coast of mainland China, and with its lack of resources, the development of the island is deeply affected by the natural environment and human environmental interaction. The transition from military administration to tourism development in 1984 was a major turning point and brought large numbers of tourists in, thus affecting the ecosystem of the island. However, in June 2004, the Kinmen County Government completed the "Kinmen sustainable development strategic planning book," which aims to improve the quality of residents lives. The plan is based on the ecological environment, and uses the biological environment capacity as the development constraints. It aims to solve the environmental and ecological issues collaboratively and to create islands with a sustainable development philosophy. In order to reduce carbon emissions and make Kinmen a sustainable and low-carbon model island, we proposed this low-carbon demonstration community planning study, which establishes a low-carbon model community that can be taken as an example for other communities and gradually expanded to all other towns. 1

2 International Journal of Environment and Resource, Volume 6, 2017 Objectives The total annual emission of greenhouse gases in 2009 in Kinmen County is 355,796 tonnes, and the emissions per capita is 3.79 tonnes. Energy-related gas emissions account for approximately 88.8% of the total emissions. Further analysis of the energy sector emissions showed energy production accounts for up to 49.4%, followed by the transport sector, which accounts for about 26.3%. In terms of power consumption, the emissions from the residential and commercial sectors account for up to 81.8% (Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI) 2011). Many communities in Kinmen have the potential to become "low-carbon model communities". Developments in other Countries and in Taiwan In the United States, the US Department of Energy aims to achieve zero net energy for all new commercial buildings by 2030; 50% of commercial buildings are to be zero net energy by 2040 for all established buildings; and all commercial buildings are to achieve this target by 2050 (DOE 2015). In order to commit to the Kyoto Protocol and learn lessons from the Tōhoku earthquake, Japan is pushing for buildings to be zero net energy by 2030, and both the public and private sectors are aiming to achieve the target (NIES 2009). In Europe, EU countries are heading towards zero-carbon buildings by 2020 for all new buildings, and all countries have initiated several zero-carbon development programs and implemented new energy-saving regulations to promote the target of zero-carbon buildings (ECEEE 2009). Figures 1 and 2 show the per capita carbon emissions and total carbon emissions of different countries. Although the total carbon emissions of Taiwan are lower than most other countries, the per capita carbon emissions of Taiwan are however very high (11.31 metric tons per capita), second only to that of the US (16.94 metric tons per capita) in FIG. 1 CO2 EMISSIONS OF THE UNITED STATES, JAPAN, EUROPE, CHINA, HONG KONG, AND TAIWAN DATA SOURCES: IEA 2013 & CURRENT STUDY. FIG. 2 CO2 EMISSIONS/POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, JAPAN, EUROPE, CHINA, HONG KONG, AND TAIWAN. DATA SOURCES: IEA 2013 & CURRENT STUDY. With regards to the development of low-carbon communities abroad, the England Beddington Zero (Fossil) Energy Development (BedZED) is a prime example. "One Planet Communities" is one of the major programs, based on the 2

3 International Journal of Environment and Resource, Volume 6, BedZED community experience, which actively promotes the development of low-carbon communities (BioRegional Development Group 2011). This study used "an Earth Community" as the basic principle, and analyzed the national and international low-carbon development strategies and the current status of the research program to form a reference for Kinmen low-carbon communities. Development in other Countries 1) The United Kingdom The initial purpose of the "Carbon Emissions Reduction Target" (CERT) was to maintain the UK's carbon emissions below the constrained carbon emission level in the carbon reduction agreement, the "Kyoto Protocol" (during the period of , to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 12.5%, lower than the status in 1990) and to also meet the "Climate Change Act 2008" requirements (to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 80%, lower than the status in 1990). In 2006, the British government promised that in 2016, new homes must all be "carbon-free"; they also published the "Sustainable Housing Act" (Code for Sustainable Homes), under which all new homes can take advantage to achieve different levels of energy-saving efficiency (Cheng 2012). 2) USA The U.S. population accounts for only 3-4% of the world's population, while the carbon dioxide emissions account for over 25% of the global emissions. It is the largest country in terms of the production of greenhouse gas emissions in the world. After the UN climate summit conference was held in Copenhagen, the U.S. House of Representatives passed a bill in June requesting that emissions of greenhouse gases must be reduced by 17% of the status of the year 2005 before 2020, and by 83% before 2050 (Ove Arup & Partners Hong Kong Ltd (Taipei Branch) 2013). 3) Australia Australia's carbon emissions are expected to increase by 24% from 2000 to The "Kyoto Protocol", which was signed in 2007, recorded that during the meeting (2008 to 2012) Australia agreed to limit carbon pollution to 108% of the average amount of the year They promised to reduce the carbon emissions by 5-15% or below 25% of the status of 2000 in 2020, and moreover, 5% is the goal that must be achieved by then. (Department of the Environment and Energy, Austrialian Government 2013) 4) Japan Japan s goal is to reduce the carbon emissions in 2020 to 25% of those in Japan signed the "Kyoto Protocol" with the objective of reducing the carbon emissions by 6% of those of 1990 by (Greenhouse Gas Inventory Office of Japan 2013) 5) Denmark With regards to the "Kyoto Protocol" being signed at the United Nations Framework Convention (UNFCCC) on climate change and the resolution for burden-sharing being proposed by the Council of Europe (European Council), Denmark is expected to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 21% by (United Nations Framework Convention On Climate Change) Current Development Status of Taiwan After the "Kyoto Protocol" was enacted in 1997, Taiwan held its first national energy conference the following year, and officially joined the global carbon reduction operation. After the meeting, the Taiwanese government established several important decrees and regulations relating to carbon reduction through carbon reduction methods to conserve energy and reduce carbon emissions, such as the Draft of Greenhouse Gas Reduction Act (in 2006), the Energy Tax Regulation (in 2006), and Green Building Rating (in 1999 and 2004). Subsequently, more regulations were passed, such as the development platform for the National Greenhouse Gas Registry (2007), the Amendment to Energy Management Act (2009), and the Renewable Energy Development Act (2009). Furthermore, The Executive Yuan of Taiwan presented a carbon reduction plan to promote the establishment of energy-saving and carbon reduction plans in 2009, followed by Master Plan of Energy Conservation and Carbon Reduction (2010). A projection 3

4 International Journal of Environment and Resource, Volume 6, 2017 was made that by 2014, six low-carbon cities will be built nationwide. In addition to actively planning and promoting the construction of low-carbon developments in Penghu and Kinmen Islands, the main island of Taiwan also selected four target cities with carbon reduction potential and the executive power for low-carbon implementations (The Environmental Protection Administration (EPA), Taiwan. business overview and plan for compilation of law and regulation, 2011). In addition, Taiwan EPA handled three benchmark-type plans, first and foremost of which is the development of low-carbon communities, the goal being to build a low-carbon Kinmen Island. Its objectives are: 1. Energy saving goals: from 2008, over the next eight years, to improve energy efficiency by over 2% per year so that the energy density in 2015 compared to 2005 will decrease by over 20%. 2. Carbon reduction objectives: to restore the national carbon dioxide emissions back to the status of 2005 by 2020, and to restore the emissions back to the annual emissions of 2000 by The Island of Kinmen low-carbon construction project plan (Kinmen County Government Environmental Protection Agency, 2011) has the following structure (Cheng 2011): 1. Renewable energy: wind electromechanical thermal applications, solar photovoltaic, solar water heaters, small wind turbines, biodiesel, desalination plant applications, improvement of eutrophication, ocean energy. 2. Energy saving: the smart grid, promotion of energy-saving appliances, promotion of energy-efficient lighting, LED lights, introduce Energy service company (ESCO) to produce comprehensive energy solution, district heating and cooling optimization. 3. Green transportation: battery exchange and energy storage, electric motors, electric cars, bicycle road network, B2 biodiesel, electric buses. 4. Low-carbon construction: green building, old building renovation. 5. Low-carbon life: education advocacy, public participation, low-carbon travel, demonstration sites. 6. Resource recycling: sea drift material to be returned in situ, multiple water resources, forestry waste, and biomass carbonization. 7. Green environment: afforestation, restoration minefield to green enlivenment. 8. Carbon education: low-carbon campus. For execution of the plan for , the estimated investment cost is approximately NT$ billion, and the expected total environmental benefits are: renewable energy 35.3 GWh, electricity saving 32.0 GWh, gas saving 247,000 kg, fuel saving 2,486 kiloliters, water and waste reduction 424,000 10,950 tons, and a carbon reduction of 98,019 tons (Executive Yuan 2013). Current Energy Usage in Kinmen In general, the development of an island is limited by its supply of energy, of which electricity and water are the most important. After the abolishment of military administration in 1984, the number of the tourists visiting Kinmen has grown rapidly. Therefore, the electricity-generating capacity of Kinmen is no longer adequate. Because almost 100% of the energy requirement of the island is provided by thermal power plants, in order to develop into a lowcarbon model island, Kinmen is facing a big challenge (Liu 2012a). Conventional Power The electricity consumption of Kinmen is rapidly growing, from 150,000,000 kwh in 2000 to 240,000,000 kwh in 2009, with a slight reduction to 230,000,000 in Analysis of the electricity consumption in 2010 showed that the usage was 39% for residential use, 20% for the top 20 major customers, 19% for industrial and commercial electricity customers (excluding the top 20 major customers), 8% for street lighting and 14% for other uses. The generator loading of the power plant is lowest in March and highest in August, which indicates that the loading is generally correlated with the tourism season. According to the electricity consumption in 2009 (240,000,000 kwh), a total of 4

5 International Journal of Environment and Resource, Volume 6, ,000,000 liters of fuel was used (0.2 liters of heavy fuel oil can generate 1 kwh of electricity; Taiwan Power Company (Tai power) 2006 statistics), which generated 143,000 tons of CO2 (1 liter of heavy fuel oil produces 2.98 kg CO2). Renewable Energy Kinmen has already built 2 2MW wind turbines and 624KW solar photovoltaic cells. However, close examination of the power generation records shows that the power generated from wind and solar power generators is considerably variable, and the total electricity generated is not as high as predicted. Whether summer or winter, the actual supply of renewable energy accounts for only up to about 4% in Kinmen (Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI) 2011). Therefore, there is still a lot of room for the development of renewable energy to make the usage of renewable energy more efficient in Kinmen. Solar water-heating systems are the most used renewable energy system in Kinmen. However, the demand for hot water is lower in summer and higher in winter. Because less solar energy and more wind power is available in winter, it is necessary for the government to increase the capital subsidy to encourage more residents to be willing to install solar water-heating systems. Other Power-generating Systems Currently, Kinmen County government does not consider the use of new techniques still in the experimental stage, for example, refuse-derived energy from general solid waste and tidal power. Summary Electricity generated from renewable energy is more unstable than that generated from conventional energy. In Kinmen, owing to the reduction in wind in the summer, wind power is unable to generate enough electricity for the high-demand period. On the other hand, more solar energy is available in summer. Based on the experience of King Island, Australia, which also has subtropical weather, by integrating wind, solar and storage capacity into the local grid, it is possible to replace the Island s power with renewable sources. In Kinmen, wind power alone is not adequate. Although solar energy may generate more power during most seasons, a modern management technique is still required to achieve a satisfactory target. Therefore, the integration of wind and solar energy in combination with an appropriate energy storage technology will be necessary for Kinmen to develop a successful renewable energy strategy. This will enable storage of excess electricity during the low-loading period for use in the highdemand period and will improve the system stability (Liu 2012b). Concept for Low-carbon Communities Development Framework: Point, Line and Area The plan for the development of Kinmen as low-carbon demonstration community includes different scale of viewpoints. This study proposes a point, line, surface development framework (Liu,2014): 1) Point - the Entrance Portal: Entrance/gate: the Equivalent of a Low-carbon Community Portal Images. Buildings: to Employ Green Building Construction Methods and Foster Environmental Coexistence. 2) Line - landscape Axis, Sightseeing Road Corridors, Waterfront Green Belt Landscape axis: create street lines of trees to become attractions and the focus of the community landscape. By planting trees and flowers, seasonal leaf and flower color changes strengthen the overall road landscape. Planting trees also can conserve water resources. Waterfront green belt: trees combined with wetlands improve rainwater recycling and also increase biodiversity habitats. 3) Area - Landscape Highlights, Public Farm, Nature Area View highlights: build a low-carbon and healthy community environment. Public farm: employ an urban agricultural land policy, based on subsistence farming, meaning that farming is combined with street block parks and wetlands, extending the ecological corridor. Ecological areas: reforestation and the planting of large trees, which 5

6 International Journal of Environment and Resource, Volume 6, 2017 can conserve water and improve the water shortage problem Kinmen, and in the winter can be a barrier to the northeast monsoon. Buildings of the Low-carbon Model Community Based on the features of carbon emissions in Kinmen and the characteristics of greenhouse gas emissions, this study proposes 10 key actions. These 10 actions form the basis for the development of a "low-carbon model of community planning and design standards program" and a "low-carbon buildings equipment standards program". The 10 key actions are (Liu 2012b): 1. Ecological green environment: increase the green area (green landscaping sidewalks, parks and green belts, bike paths... etc.), set the requirement to create building green space landscaping, and construct water conservation facilities. 2. Building energy-saving: promote green buildings, develop energy-saving design guidelines, encourage localized architectural design, use ecological building materials, enhance building facades and roof insulation, and use rooftop solar energy equipment. 3. Energy-saving equipment: use a smart grid to save energy, improve the energy efficiency of street lighting, air conditioning, appliances, and home lighting. 4. Renewable energy: build a new community, introduce public rooftop solar photovoltaic systems, and use residential small wind turbine power generation systems in housing cooperatives. 5. Green transportation: create bicycle lanes, and assign parking spaces especially for low-carbon vehicles. 6. Resource recycling: recycle rainwater and wastewater, use water saving equipment, and recycle building materials and construction waste. 7. Low-carbon lifestyle: promote energy conservation and carbon reduction standards, promote low-carbon activities, and collaborate with community colleges and schools to promote programs of low-carbon life. 8. Disaster prevention and adaptation: prepare for disaster and prevent damage, manage sanitation maintenance and waste disposal. 9. Economic and fiscal law: promote low-carbon communities (cities)-related laws and regulations. 10. Social and behavioral sciences appraisal tools: develop a low-carbon sustainable development manifesto, promote low-carbon sustainable community certificates, and promote green building ratings. Design of a Low-carbon Model Community 1. Low-carbon communities differ from the general community in several aspects. Low-carbon communities offer electric shuttle buses as public transportation. The charging of the electric shuttle buses uses a solar-powered system installed in the parking lots. 2. Plant trees to improve energy-saving and increase the area of the green environment. 3. Suburban low-carbon communities do not have a great function as metropolitan communities. Therefore, suburban low-carbon communities need to have a multi-functional design. This can decrease the need of residents to travel outside their communities, and thus can reduce carbon emissions. 4. Weedy drainage ditches and permeable ditches are used instead of conventional ditches. Rainwater is collected into the wetland of the street block. 5. Solar-wind hybrid street light system: the community uses LED street lights powered by a solar-wind hybrid system. Vertical-axis wind turbines are the major type of wind turbines used in the community. Public electric facilities are powered by renewable energy. 6. Water recycling wetland system: in addition to the dual-system used in residential homes, the green areas and 6

7 International Journal of Environment and Resource, Volume 6, wetlands of the street block can further reclaim waste water. The reclaimed water can become the supply of underground water or be used for landscape watering. It can also regulate the microclimate of the community. 7. Ecological corridor: green areas around the community are linked and become ecological corridors. This can increase the local biodiversity. 8. Standardized building design: introduce several standardized building designs that residents can adopt when building new homes. This can fast-track the review process of applications for building new houses. 9. Added value: living style is adjusted according to nature. Carbon footprint, carbon offsets, carbon neutral, carbon tax or carbon sequestration are all key issues we need to face currently or in the near feature. Low-carbon communities increase the sense of identity of the residents. 10. Monitoring greenhouse gas reduction at the wetland of the street block: this study plans to use community-based small wetlands to reduce carbon emissions. Carbon dioxide and methane in the air and water are recorded, and atmospheric data are used to monitor the improvement of the community. Developing Low-carbon Buildings Equipment Regulations 1) Adaptation to Local Condition In order to avoid more external materials imported to the Island, adaptation to local condition is the principle of this study. The key concept of the reclaimed water system for residential buildings is to combine reclaimed water and rain water recycling systems that can re-use the water resources and avoid drilling wells for a water supply. By using these local agricultural and fishing products residues(fig.3) (Liu and Chen 2012), it is not only a cost-saving approach to manage the water resources, but it also reduces the carbon footprint as no imported materials required. FIG. 3 WASTEWATER TREATMENT SYSTEM OF KINMEN KAOLIANG LIQUOR INC. 2) Mechanism of Wholesale Power Suppliers/Marketers Calculation is based on a residential building has a solar system of at least 3.3 kw with optional wind power generation apparatus installed. According to the average sun hours per day in Kimmen is 4.0~4.5 hr, the average daily power generated by the solar system will be ~14 kw-h. The Wholesale Distribution Tariff in 2012 lists that the maximum tariff for rooftop photovoltaic system of 1-10 kw is NT$ 9.251/ kwh. As the cost for installation of a 3.3 kw photovoltaic system is NT$ 247,500 and when a 20-year wholesale contracts is made with Taipower, the costs and benefits analysis is listed as below: The average sun hours per day is 4.0~4.5 hr (days) = NT$ 44,570 / year (annual wholesale price) 247,500 / 44,570 = 5.5 years (approximately 5.5 years to cover the cost of investment) 20-year total profit = 44, (years) = ~NT$ 646,265. 7

8 International Journal of Environment and Resource, Volume 6, ) Double-layer Roof System In addition to reduce the dependence on imported materials, low-carbon community also considers to avoid waste of other resources. Therefore, the roof construction includes green roofs (Fig.4) and solar roofs (solar photovoltaic power and hot water systems). The dual-layer roof system can bring both great insulation with ecological function, and also provide electricity and hot water to the building (Liu 2010). FIG. 4 INFRARED THERMOGRAPHY OF THE ROOFTOP AND TERRACE GARDENS OF WU-XING ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 4) Adaptation to Local Condition climate Factors In Kinmen, March and April are the period with frequent incidences of fog. High humidity leads to indoor condensation on the floor and walls is uncomfortable. To solve this problem, in addition to have adequate ventilation, ground floor insulation provided a thermal break will solve the condensation problem. 5) Thermal Broke System on the Exterior Walls Using materials with lower thermal conductivity (K value) to achieve a comfortable indoor environment with pleasant temperature (Liu 2013). In tropical weather conditions such as those seen in Kinmen, a 1 C reduction in air conditioning will save 6% of electricity (Akbari and Taha,1990; Lee et al.,2005).it will also benefit for carbon reduction at the same time. 6) Replace Conventional Drains with Permeable Drains Replace sewer drains with permeable drains around the building, so it can avoid the bottom of the building has direct contact to soil. This can prevent moisture from entering the building, and avoid condensation. 7) Home Lighting System LED light with daylight white color is used a light source for home, and direct current power is used that can easily integrate with energy-saving mode of the fitted solar and wind power system. This is also due to safety is the most important concern. 8) Kitchen Waste Reduction Indoor small organic fertilizer machine is used, which can complete the organic fertilizer making from kitchen waste in 12 hr. Conclusion The population of Kinmen is only about 60,000 people, and it is suitable to be turned into a low-carbon demonstration island. Due to Kinmen is almost totally dependent on imported energy resource and it is vulnerable to climate change, it is necessary to promote the establishment of low-carbon communities. In addition to Kinmen has more concentrated urban settlements, the residents of the island cherish the land inherited from their ancestors, and therefore it is related easier to promote low-carbon communities on this island. The construction of low-carbon model community is expected to be taken as an example for other city and gradually expanded to other part of Taiwan and even other countries. It also aims to raise the awareness of low-carbon and no-carbon lifestyle, which may through educating local residents about the carbon neutral concept. In addition, by using passive designs in building, the 8

9 International Journal of Environment and Resource, Volume 6, target of carbon neutrality can be achieved. This will be the main goal of this study. The strategies and solutions proposed in this study will not make it possible for Kinmen to become a sustainable low-carbon island, they will also provide as a great practical example for other cities when they consider different approaches. ACKNOWLEDGMENT This article thanks the Ministry of Science and Technology Taiwan be partly funded grant program No. MOST H REFERENCES [1] Akbari Hashem, R. and Haider Taha. "Recent Developments in Heat Island Studies: Techical and Policy.In Controlling Summer Heat Islands.", ed. K. Garbesi et al. Berkeley: Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory, [2] Bioregional Development Group. Common International Targets. United Kingdom: BioRegional, [3] Cheng, F.T. " Green City Index. Establishment of a Happiness Southern Taiwan - Water and Green and Low-carbon Urban Future." Youth Conference on National Affairs, (Article in Chinese) [4] Cheng, W.H. "An Analysis on Efficiency Assessment and Influencing Factors of Low Carbon Cities." Master Diss., National Cheng Kung University, [5] Department of the Environment and Energy, Austrialian Government. Accessed May 2013, [6] ECEEE. Net Zero Energy Buildings: Definitions, Issues and Experience. Stockholm, Sweden: European Council for an Energy Efficient Economy (ECEEE), [7] Executive Yuan. The Island of Kinmen Low-Carbon Construction Project Plan. Taiwan: Executive Yuan, (Article in Chinese) [8] Greenhouse Gas Inventory Office of Japan. Accessed May 2013, [9] IEA. CO2 Emissions from Fuel Combustion Highlights (2013 Editions). Paris, France: International Energy Agency, [10] Industrial Technology Research Institute (ITRI). "Construction plan for Kinmen Island as a Low-Carbon Island. " Taiwan, ITRI, (Article in Chinese) [11] Lee K.P., Lee C.H., Huang J.C., Lee Z.R. and Chen Z.H. "Analysis of the Impact of Temperature Setting on Building Energy Consumption." 17th Conference Architectural Institute of Taiwan, (Article in Chinese) [12] Liu H.Y. & Chen S. "Landscape and Water Recycle System - Kinmen Kaoliang Liquor Inc. as an example." Cross-strait Forum: Water Resource and Conservation, (Article in Chinese) [13] Liu, H.Y. "Application of Infrared Thermography on Architecture Energy Conservation and Carbon Reduction." Taipei, Taiwan: Chansbook Publisher, (Article in Chinese) [14] Liu, H.Y. "From Cold War Island to Low Carbon Island: A Study of Kinmen Island," International Journal of Technology and Human Interaction (IJTHI) 8(4): 63-74, 2012a. doi: /jthi [15] Liu, H.Y. "From Low-carbon Building to No-carbon House-LowtoNo, Thematic Research Projects." Taiwan: National Science Council, 2012b. (Article in Chinese) [16] Liu, H.Y. "Sustainable Approach in Architectural Education: from Low Carbon to No Carbon LowtoNo." 11th International Conference "Sustainable Development, Culture Education" of JTEFS/BBCC, Saint-Petersburg, Russia, Jun 4-7, [17] NIES. Japan Roadmaps towards Low-Carbon Societies (LCSs). Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan: National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), [18] Ove Arup & Partners Hong Kong Ltd. (Taipei Branch). "Low (Zero) Masterplanning and Building Demonstration Cases Parallel Evaluation Plan. " Taipei, Taiwan: Environmental Protection Administration, [19] United Nations Framework Convention On Climate Change. Accessed May 2013, 9

10 International Journal of Environment and Resource, Volume 6, 2017 [20] The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). Buildings Energy Data Book. United States: Department of Energy. Accessed May 30,