Sequestration and Storage

Transcription

1 LL_ ISSUES IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDITORS: R.E. HESTER AND R.M. HARRISON 29 Carbon Capture Sequestration and Storage V, TECH NI SCI IE INFORM AT i O N SE! 3 L i OTH E K UNI VERSIT ATSBIQLIOTHEK HANNOVER / RSC Publishing

2 Comparative Impacts of Fossil Fuels and Alternative Energy Sources 1 Klaus S. Lackner 1 Introduction 1 2 Climate Change 2 3 The Urgent Need for Energy 4 4 The Environmental Impact of Energy 7 5 Carbon Capture and Storage 8 6 Stabilising Atmospheric Carbon Dioxide Concentrations!0 7 Geo-Engineering as a Means of Stabilising Climate 13 8 Energy Sources, Energy Carriers and Energy Uses 15 9 A Matter of Scales Small Carbon-Neutral Energy Ocean Tides, Waves and Currents Hydroenergy Wind Biomass Geothermal The Three Truly Big Energy Resources Nuclear Energy Solar Energy Fossil Fuels with Carbon Dioxide Capture and Storage Summary Capture of Carbon Dioxide Directly from Ambient Air A Revolution in the Energy Sector Conclusions 34 Issues in Environmental Science and Technology, 29 Carbon Capture: Sequestration and Storage Edited by R.E. Hester and R.M. Harrison Royal Society of Chemistry 2010 Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry, vii

3 viii Fossil Power Generation with Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS): Policy Development for Technology Deployment 41 Jon Gibbins and Hannah Chalmers 1 Introduction 41 2 Reasons for Incentivising CCS Capture Projects Tranches Mode] for Commercial-Scale Development and Deployment Classes of Climate Change Mitigation Benefit with CCS 46 3 Features of Effective Incentives for Power Plants with CCS 47 4 Example CCS Incentives for the Electricity Sector Site and Project-Specific Funding Options for First Tranche Plants Electricity Emissions Performance Standards (EPSs) A Sectoral CCS Standard 54 5 Scope for Retrofitting CCS and the Role for Carbon Capture Ready (CCR) Plants 57 6 Conclusions 59 Acknowledgements 60 Appendix A Carbon Dioxide Capture Technologies Closest to Commercial Deployment 60 Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) in Australia 65 Allen Lowe, Burt Beasley and Thomas Berly 1 Background 65 2 CCS Programs and Strategies Genera] Policy Governmental CCS Initiatives and Funding Black Coal Mining Industry Initiatives 73 3 CCS R&D Activities in Australia Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Research Organisation (CSIRO) Cooperative Research Centre for Greenhouse Gas Technologies (C02CRC) Centre for Low Emission Technology (clet) University Research Activities 79 4 CCS Projects in Australia Commercial-Scale Projects Incorporating CCS Large-Scale Demonstration Projects Pilot-Scale Demonstrations Storage Projects 86 5 CCS Legislation and Regulation Regulatory Guiding Principles 91

4 Potential IX 5.2 Commonwealth Offshore Petroleum and Greenhouse Gas Storage Act 2006 (OPA) State CCS Legislation 94 6 CCS Challenges in Australia 96 Underground Coal Gasification (UCG) with Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) 102 Dermot Roddy and Gerardo Gonzalez 1 Introduction A Brief History of UCG The Economic Case for UCG An Introduction to UCG Technology Gasification Configuration and Control Directional Drilling Current Status of UCG Deployment Worldwide UK and Europe North America Asia Australia Africa Mechanism for Carbon Dioxide Storage in Gasified Coal Seam Voids Approaches to Environmental Risk Assessment Linking UCG to CCS North East England Case Study Concluding Remarks on Scale of Opportunity and Challenges 123 Towards Zero Emission Production - of Carbon Capture in Energy Intensive Industry 126 David Pocklington and Richard Leese 1 Overview Greenhouse Gas Reduction/Issues for Energy Intensive Industry Carbon Dioxide Emissions in Cement Manufacture Cement Manufacture Incentives for Carbon Reduction Costs Associated with Carbon Emissions Options for Mitigation Mitigation in Cement Manufacture Carbon Capture and Cement Manufacture Removing Barriers to Development Conclusions 150

5 X Geological Storage of Carbon Dioxide 155 Nick Riley 1 Introduction Geology and C02 Storage Rock Characteristics C02 Properties and Geological Storage Pressure C02 Storage through Enhanced Hydrocarbon Recovery Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) Enhanced Gas Recovery (EGS) Enhanced Coal Bed Methane Recovery (ECBM) Shale Gas Storage Options C02 Storage in Salt Caverns Underground Coal Gasification Cavities CO, Storage as C02 Hydrates C02 Storage in Igneous/Metamorphic Rocks Storage Capacity The Resource Pyramid Estimating Storage Capacity Storage Site Operation Geological Characterisation Risk Assessment Measurement, Monitoring and Verification (MMV) Leakage Public Awareness of C02 Storage Conclusions 174 Acknowledgements 175 Carbon Sequestration in Soils 179 Stephen J. Chapman 1 Introduction to the Carbon Cycle in Soil Plant Production Decomposition Soil Organic Matter Characteristics and Age of Soil Carbon Losses to Water Factors Influencing Carbon Accumulation Climate Plant Inputs Other Organic Inputs Tillage 187

6 xi 2.5 Grazing Drainage/Irrigation Erosion Fire Cycles Land-Cover Classes and their Carbon-Sequestration Characteristics Arable Grassland Forest/Woodland Semi-Natural Land-Use Change Climatic Zones other than Cool Temperate Warm Temperate Tropical The Quantification of Carbon-Sequestration Strategies Worldwide Soil Carbon Sequestration Potential Soil Carbon Sequestration Potential for Europe Soil Carbon Sequestration Potential for the UK Biochar Additions Other Greenhouse Gases and Carbon Equivalents Whole Cycle Analysis Limitations and Challenges Realistic Goals Upper Limits and Timescales Competing Processes 200 Carbon Capture and Storage in Forests 203 Maria Nijnik 1 Introduction: The Role of Forestry in Climate Change Mitigation Carbon Pools and Flows in Forests Carbon Sink and Storage in Forests: Several Implications from Europe A Focus on the United Kingdom A Focus on Transitional Countries of Ukraine and Slovakia A Focus on The Netherlands A Focus on Tropical Forests Economic Considerations of Carbon Sink and Storage in Forests Uncertainties Pertaining to Carbon Sink and Storage in Forests Social Considerations of Carbon Sink and Storage in Forests Conclusions 232

7 xii Carbon Uptake, Transport and Storage by Oceans and the Consequences of Change 240 C. Turley, J. Blackford, N. Hardman-Mountford, E. Liu, C. Llewellyn, D. Lowe, P. Miller, P. Nightingale, A. Rees, T. Smyth, G. Tilstone and S. Widdicombe 1 Summary Carbon Uptake by Oceans Air-Sea Exchange of Carbon Dioxide and the Chemistry of Carbon in Seawater 24] 2.2 Carbon Fixation and Controlling Factors Carbon Transport and Storage by Oceans The Solubility Pump The Biological Pumps Consequences of Too Little Uptake Slow Down of the Physical Ocean Sink and Feedbacks to Climate Changes in Net Primary Productivity Consequences of Too Much Uptake Ocean Acidification Oxygen Depletion and Harmful Algal Blooms (HABs) 269 Methane Biogeochemistry and Carbon Stores in the Arctic Ocean: Hydrates and Permafrost 285 Vassilis Kitidis - 1 Introduction Methane: Marine Sources and Sinks Arctic Ocean Methane and Global Warming Methane Hydrates Methane Hydrates and Hydrate Stability The 'Clathrate Gun' Hypothesis Methane Hydrates Arctic Ocean Methane Hydrate Exploitation in the Arctic Permafrost Permafrost Relevance to Methane Permafrost and Global Warming Methane in the Arctic Ocean Distribution, Sources and Sinks Methane and Sea-Ice Conclusions 295 Subject Index 301