THE HASHEMITE KINGDOM OF JORDAN NATURAL RESOURCES AUTHORITY OIL SHALE RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT IN JORDAN

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1 THE HASHEMITE KINGDOM OF JORDAN NATURAL RESOURCES AUTHORITY OIL SHALE RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT IN JORDAN BY : DR. YOUSEF HAMARNEH Expert Petroleum Engineering Director I Advisor Amman

2 Contents Chapter One: Oil Shale Development In Jordan 1. General 2. Geology, Structure, Lithology and Petrography 3. Utilization 4. Previous activities 5. Strategy for oil shale exploitation 6. Conclusions Summary of studies and investigations on oil shale deposits Chapter Two: Oil Shale Deposits In Jordan 2.1. El-Lajjun Oil Shale Introduction The E1-Lajjun Drilling program Oil Shale Composition, Shale Oil yields and Properties Conclusions - Exploitation and Utilization of El-Lajjun Oil Shale Direct combustion - Retorting - Water Requirements - Review of the Efforts of Consultants of El-lajjoun oil shale deposit - The cooperation with the German Federal Institute for Natural Resources and Geological Sciences BGR - The cooperation with the German Consortium Klockner - Lurgi. - Cooperation with the BGR on Ground water development for the water supply of the E1- lajjun oil shale complex - The cooperation with the Soviet Technoprom Export - Cooperation with SINOPEC INTL. - Gasification of El-Lajjun oil shale - Cooperation with Mitsubishi Corporation - Cooperation with Hy-crude - Other activities Sultani Oil Shale Review Of Efforts In Exploitation And Development Of Sultani Oil Shale Conclusions Jurf Ed-Darawish Oil Shale Deposit El-Hasa Oil Shale Deposit 2.5. Attarat Umm. Ghudran Oil Shale Deposit 2.6 Wadi Maghar Oil Shale Deposit 2.7. Khan Ez-Zabib Oil Shale Deposit 2.8. Oil Shale Deposits in Northern Jordan 2.9. Eth - Thamad Oil Shale Deposit Azraq and El-Jafr Basin Oil Shale occurrences Chapter Three: Composition and properties of oil shale. Laboratory procedures. Chapter Four Environmental Considerations Synfuels Glossary Bibliography Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January

3 CHAPTER ONE OIL SHALE DEVELOPMENT IN JORDAN 1. GENERAL: Jordan is totally dependent on imported crude oil and petroleum products to meet all its energy requirements. The daily petroleum consumption exceeds bbl I day with an average rate of growth of 3% per annum, which is a significant drain of foreign exchange on Jordan s economy. This will have a noticeable impact on the balance of payments. The presently known indigenous energy resources consist of large oil shale deposits and tar sands, modest hydro potential, and low geothermal resources. To date no commercially exploitable coal or lignite reserves have been discovered. Small deposits of oil were discovered in Azraq in 1984 and produce 30 bbls/day. In 1987 gas was discovered in Risha, and 30 million cubic feet of gas are produced daily from this field, to generate 120 MW Jordan is endowed with a highinsolationintensityaveraging5to7 kwh/m 3 that is one of the highest intensities recorded any where in the world. Jordan offers an excellent solar regime for deploying photovoltaic and low to high temperature solar systems for power generation Jordan also has a potential wind regime suitable for electricity generation and direct water pumping. It is estimated that about 2 to 3% of total fuel consumption in Jordan can be substituted by solar and wind energy generation. Recent studies show that biogas from animal and domestic wastes can substitute for about 4% of imported fuel. Biogas offers great potential to energy deficient and isolated areas in Jordan. So far, the only known major source of fossil energy fuel is oil shale, whose use as a substitute for petroleum is of crucial importance for Jordan s development. One of the key elements of Jordan s energy strategy is to diversify its energy supply sources to meet the energy need in next decades of the twenty first century. Oil shale had been known from ancient times; evidence of this is found in mosaics and floors of the palaces, churches and mosques from the Greek, Roman, Byzantinian, Ummaidi and Abbaside periods. Modern interest in oil shale began during the 1 st World War, east of the Jordan River, especially in the Yarmouk Region (Clapp 1936, Blake 1939 Quennell 1951, Burdon 1959, Bender 1968), but no intensive investigations were conducted. More detailed reconnaissance of Jordanian oil shale occurrences did not begin until EL Lajjun oil shale deposit was discovered by the German Geological Mission. Jordan possesses a very large energy resource in its vast reserves of oil shale (over 50 billion tons of geological reserves). There are 24 known surface, near surface and deep deposits of oil shale occurrences have been reported in most of the Jordanian districts. The geological studies and exploration for water, oil, and minerals showed that oil shale is widely distributed in many parts of the country, either cropping out at the surface or encountered in the exploratory wells. The following are the main localities of oil shale ( fig 1): A. In Northern Jordan (Irbid District), for example at Yarmouk River, Buweida & Beit Ras villages, and at the Risha Rueished area in the northern east panhandle. B. In Central Jordan (Karak District), in the area between Husseinieh in the south and Daba a in the north along the desert highway, and also in the EI-Lajjun area. C. Southern Jordan (Ma an District), at the Jafr area. D. Madaba District at Eth Thamad area. From the above-mentioned deposits, there are 24 known surface and near surface deposits of oil shale. Eight of these deposits i.e. El- Lajjun, Sultani, Jurf Ed Darawish, Attarat Umm Ghudran, Wadi Maghar, Siwaqa, Khan Al Zabib & Eth Thamad, were investigated to different degrees. So far, only the deposits of El- Lajjun, Sultani, and Jurf Ed- Darawish have been geologically investigated in detail. During the last two decades geological, techno- Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January

4 economic and pre feasibility studies for the exploitation of the El- Lajjun, and the Sultani deposits for direct combustion and retorting, have been undertaken by the Ministry of Energy & Mineral Resources, the Jordan Electricity Authority & Natural Resources Authority in collaboration with American, Canadian, Chinese, German, Russian & Swiss consultants. Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January

5 Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January

6 The major deposits of commercial scale interest are located south of Amman in central Jordan and are easily accessible from the desert highway between Amman and Aqaba. These are: A. El Lajjun, which is located at about 100 kms south of Amman, about 15 kms east of Karak, and west of Qatrana. B. Sultani which is located at about 115 kms south of Amman just south of Qatrana adjacent to the desert highway. C. Jurf Ed- Darawish that is located 145 kms south of Amman near the desert highway and the town of Jurf EdDarawish. D. Attarat Umm Ghudran that is located approximately 34 kms east of Qatrana. E. Wadi El Maghar which is located approximately 40 kms south east of Qatrana F. Siwaqa that is located about 9 kms north east of the abandoned Siwaqa railway station. G. Khan EZ- Zabib which is located approximately 15 kms north east of the Khan Ez- Zabib abandoned railway station Proven reserves at El- lajjoun and Sultani deposits are together approximately 2 billion tons. Over 90% of these reserves are exploitable by open cast mining. The reserves of Jurf Ed- Darawish are estimated at 8.5 billion tons, Attarat Umm Ghudran at 11.3 billion tons and Wadi El Maghar at 31.6 billion tons. The mean oil content of El lajjoun, Sultani, Jun EdDarawish, Attarat Umm Ghudran and Wadi El Maghar are 10.5, 5.7, 9.7, 11 & 6.8 wt% respectively. The deposits are shallow with essentially horizontal beds. The overburden is unconsolidated sedimentary rock consisting of gravels and silt with some marl and limestone stringers. The thickness of overburden ranges from: meters at El-Lajjoun meters at Sultani meters at Jurf El- Darawish meters at Attarat Umm Ghudran meters at Wadi El- Maghar meters at Eth Thamad. The average thickness of oil shale deposits vary from 30 m in the ElLajjoun area to 400m in the Yarmouk area A conservative estimate of oil shale reserves in Jordan is 50 billion tons. It is clear that what is really important is not the total reserves that may exist, but the mineable reserves in deposits with favorable characteristics for large-scale economical development. 1.1 The Natural Resources Authority has been exploring oil shale deposits using the following criteria Favorable conditions for surface mining such as: a. Minimal overburden. b. Absence of significant structural disturbances c. Absence or limitation of intrusive rock bodies. 1.2 Characteristics of oil shale layers namely: a) Number of layers b) Thickness of layers 1.3 Properties of oil shale: a. Oil content, calorific value b. Moisture content c. Acceptable properties for processing. 1.4 Adequate reserves to justify installing a commercial processing plant. The deposits in central Jordan have been selected for detailed studies due to the following factors: a. They are the shallowest known deposits, offering favorable mining conditions. b. The area is crossed by main road, in the central part of the country where reasonable infrastructure exists. c. The availability of adequate amounts of water for the industrial utilization. Among Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January

7 the deposits in central Jordan El-Lajjun and Sultani were selected for feasibility studies. 2. The Geology, Structure, Lithology and Petrography. 2.1 Geologically, oil shale belongs to the upper Cretaceous and lower Tertiary formations, which are wide spread in Jordan. The oil shale is generally not exposed, and all the geological investigations so far conducted were based mainly upon shallow boreholes. The following drilling densities were achieved during the various survey periods: El-Lajjun 135 boreholes. Sultani, 57 boreholes; Jun Ed Darawish 50 boreholes; Attarat Umm Ghudran 41 boreholes: Wadi Al- Maghar 21 boreholes; and Eth Thamad 12 boreholes. Most of the core samples were analyzed in the N. R. A. laboratories and in the BGR. 2.2 The economically important bituminous facies occurs in Central Jordan in the lower part of the marine Chalk- Marl Unit. The underlying formation is made up of the hard limestone and chert layers of the Phosphorite Unit, whose upper 5 to 10 meters may also be bituminous. This lower sequence is, in Central Jordan, of Maastrichtian age and consists of phosphatic limestone. Mineable accumulations of phosphate occur in the Phosphorite Unit as at El- Hasa between Sultani and Jurf Ed- Darawish, and at Wadi Al Abyad south of the Sultani oil shale deposit. The age of the oil shale of Jurf Ed-Darawish was also classified as Maastrichtian (Bender, 1968; Heinbach, 1976: and Weiss 1969). Tectonically, the area between Qatrana and Jurf Ed- Darawish forms part of an east Jordanian block- faulted zone. Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments dip gently towards the east and southeast to the El-Jafr basin and are cross cut by a system of faults trending north west and north north west (Bender 1968) The surveyed oil shale deposits are bounded by faults to varying degrees. Traditionally, oil shale are defined as sedimentary rocks whose solid organic content is insoluble in organic solvents, but which form liquid oil-like hydrocarbons when exposed to destructive distillations, i.e. to temperatures up- to c, with a minimum oil yield of around 5%. The Jordanian oil shale are naturally bituminous marls and are varying shade of brown, grey or black with typical bluish light-grey color when weathered. Another characteristic feature is their content of light fine-grained phosphatic xenocrysts, some of which is accumulated in bone beds. The oil shale has few microfossils. The organic material of the oil shale consists largely prebitumen bituminous ground-mass (Huffnagel 1981). This was formed during sedimentation or in the early diagenetic process by mainly microbial influence, from initial plant and animal materials with a lipidic composition. A special feature of Jordanian oil shale is the fact that the foraminiferal shells are filled with bitumen instead of the usual calcite (Jacob 1983). Very small humic and intertinitic (charcoallike) small particles also exist. A vitrinite reflectance of 0.32% has been measured in El-Lajjun samples, which means that the organic substance has not sufficiently matured to generate petroleum. This was also confirmed by the organic geochemical investigations conducted by A. Abed (1982) on hydrocarbons extractable from shale from the El Lajjun and Yarmouk areas. The oil contents show considerable variations within the stratigraphic sequence, and between the individual deposits. Throughout the world an oil content of 5% is considered the minimum for any technical exploitation and especially for direct combustion. The oil shale calorific value shows considerable fluctuations, just like the oil content. The mean figures are 5480 kj/kg, for El- Lajjun, 5940 kj/kg for Sultani and 4700 kj/kg, for Jurf Ed Darawish. An interesting feature from the point of view of technical utilization is that 20-30% of the original thermal content remains in the retorted residue (the ash, or spent shale) which accordingly contains sufficient energy to be used as fuel for generating electricity, or for producing heat required for Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January

8 the further retorting of oil shale. The principal mineral component of the oil shale is calcite or more rarely quartz together with kaolinite and apatite and, on occasion feldspar, muscovite, Illite, goethite and gypsum as secondary components. Dolomite occurs in some individual carbonate beds as in the Arbeed limestone of El-Lajjun, the marker horizon between subunits A and B. The main elements of the oil shale, if organic carbon is excluded are calcium, and silicon; minor constituents are sulphur, aluminium, iron and phosphorous. The concentrations of the remaining components are generally low. The silicon is derived from two sources: clastic sediment input together with titanium, aluminium and iron; and from synsedimentary or early diagenetic silicification. The distribution of phosphorous is of particular interest. Its amount decreases from the bottom to the top of the bituminous sequence. Phosphorous content is not favorable in the utilization of the spent shale for the manufacture of cement. Molybdenum, chromium and tungsten are significantly enriched in the bituminous marl in comparison to limestone. Zinc, vanadium, nickel, copper, lanthanum and cobalt are also enriched, where as barium is depleted. The contents of arsenic and lead are low to moderate and do not pose any problem for the technical processes, nor for the environment. The uranium content is relatively high but it is clearly associated with phosphorous and not with the bituminous organic matter. Significant positive correlations exist between the oil content and the elements sulphur, chromium, nickel, copper, zinc and molybdenum as well as with the clastic components like silicon, aluminium, titanium, iron and probably zirconium. A pronounced positive correlation occurs between phosphorous, uranium, yttrium, and vanadium. In summary it can be stated that, although considerable concentrations of some trace elements occur locally, their concentration is not high enough to permit their extraction as a by product, nor to cause serious environmental pollution. The sulphur content ranges from 0.3 to 4.3%. Sulphur is of particular importance with regard to the use of the oil shale as energy source. About one third of the sulfur is organically bound (Huffnagel 1980). Alkylthiophenes provide more detailed information on subdivision of the several lithological facies; and on the palaeoenvironment than conventional biological markers (hydrocarbons). Further evidence is found that C25 highly branched isoprenoid thiophenes are markers for diatoms C37 and C38 mid chain 2.5 dialkyl thiophenes are markers for algae of the class of prymnxesiophyceae, and that C35 hopanoid thiophenes are markers for bacterial activity. Identification of organic sulphur compounds may lead to the recognition of unknown, biosynthesised functionalised lipids (e.g. C44, C48 mid-chain dimethyalkenes). APPENDIX I OIL SHALE RESERVES Deposit Geological Reserve Surface Area Overburden Oil Shale Oil % X 10 9 Km2 (m) (m) El-Lajjun Sultani Jurf Ed-Darawish Attarat Umm Ghudran Wadi Maghar Eth-Thamad Khan Ez-Zabib N.A N.A Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January

9 Drilled wells Moisture Ash S Density C. value (kj/kg) % % % g/cm3 El-Lajjun Sultani Jur Ed-Darawish Attarat Wadi Maghar Eth-Thamad Chemical Composition Of Bituminous Marl Component Jurf Ed-Darawish Sultani El-Lajjun SiO2% TiO2% Al2O3% Fe2O3% MnO% 0.00 n.d 0.01 Mn2O3% CaO% Na2O% K2O% P2O5% SO3% LOI% Component Jurf Ed-Darawish Sultani El-Lajjun As ppm Cu Mo Ni Pb Rb Sn n.d Sr Th U W n.d Y Zn Zr Ba Co Cr La V Elemental Composition Of Shale OIL Average Content% C H N O S AS Jurf Ed-DARAWISH <0.1 Sultani <0.1 Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January

10 3. Utilization: In the past oil shale has been used as a building or decorative material, as in the ancient mosaics and shrines of late antiquities, and as a raw material for obtaining special substances e.g. icbthyol or kerochemicals. Oil shale has also been employed for oil production, and used as a mix with coal to drive locomotives in World War I (Schmitz 1982). At present commercial utilization on economic basis is possible by retorting and direct combustion as in Estonia, and China, and in special cases possibly by gasification. Among the deposits in Central Jordan, El- lajjoun and Sultani had been selected for further studies because they offer very good conditions for retorting and direct combustion projects, to wit: - The oil shale is of good quality and equally suitable for retorting and direct combustion. - The ratio of overburden to shale is very low. - The layers are horizontal and structurally undisturbed. - Those portions worth mining do not contain any thick, sterile intercalations. - The overburden and oil shale do not present any special engineering difficulties for large operations. - The deposits are located in a thinly populated area, but have good roads connected with asphalted highways. 4. Previous Activities: The N.R.A (The Natural Resources Authority) has done extensive geological studies to determine the oil shale reserves at El-Lajjun and Sultani. In 1979, the N.R.A commissioned a study by the BGR (German Federal Institute) for the evaluation of El-Lajjun, Jurf Ed- Darawish, ElHisa and Sultani deposits in central Jordan, and a techno-economic pre-feasibility study for an oil shale retorting complex using Lurgi -Ruhrgas Process. The results of this study indicated that EL-Lajjun oil shale deposit shows continuity over an area of 18 sq. km with about 1 billion tons of oil shale reserves containing some 100 million tons of shale oil. The deposit was suitable for open cast mining and could support a 50,000 bbls/day oil shale retorting complex for 30 yrs. In October The N.R.A commissioned Phase I of the two prefeasibility studies for: a. An oil shale complex using the Lurgi-Ruhrgas (LR) process for extracting 50,000 bbls/day of shale oil. b. Installation of a power plant of 300 MW capacity utilizing El-Lajjun oil shale by means of Lurgi s circulating Fluidized bed combusting process (CFB). The studies were completed in 1982 and concluded that both options were technically viable. In March 1986 N.R.A contracted with the German Consortium Klockner-Lurgi to up date the previous study. The up date study consisted of a revised geological study, revised prefeasibility study, performance of retorting pilot tests, CFB combustion tests on 200 tons of El-Lajjun oil shale sample in Germany, and hydrogeological studies for water resources. In addition, Klockner-Lurgi also undertook an assessment of the possibility of burning the spent shale in the electric power generation plant of 350 MW by adopting Lurgi s F.B.C process. In 1985 another agreement was signed with the China Petrochemical International Company (SINOPEC) to carry out a proving test in order to determine whether a Fushun- Type retort would be technically feasible for processing El-Lajjun oil shale. The final report of the proving test was submitted in 1986 and the results emphasized that the Fushun - Type retort was quite suitable for processing E1-Lajjun oil shale and that the results were promising. SINOPEC International proposed the installation of a 100 tons/day Fushun-Type retort at a cost of 6 million U.S.$. Cooperation with SINOPEC was halted due to high operation costs. Since 1986,the Jordan Electricity Authority (JEA) and Natural Resources Authority (N.R.A) Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January

11 together with the assistance of U.S AID and CIDA (Canadian) and Brown Boveri and Company (Swiss), has been investigating the possibility of exploiting Sultani oil shale for direct combustion for power generation. This effort would utilize the state -of the - art Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) technology. Performance tests on Sultani oil shale done by B.B.C, Lummus/Combustion Eng. and Bechtel Pyropower (funded by CIDA and USAID) have demonstrated that Sultani oil shale is suitable as fuel for direct combustion in CFB power plants. Although oil shale retorting has a long history, the research conducted by the Americans and the Europeans after the 1973 oil crisis the resulting high prices led to further research and development of modern oil shale retorting processes. Lurgi technology and other processes based on tar sands in U.S and Canada has proven the technology on a pilot scale and the current lower level of oil prices has rendered commercial development and operation of such plants uneconomic. Therefore, in order to reduce financial risks associated with the construction of pilot retorting complex at El - Lajjun. The N.R.A should proceed carefully and review the experience and results prior to making a decision to make a large investment in such a project. As regards to CFB technology, In the last decade more than 60 plants were operating on low calorific value, fuels. However, none of these plants have been operated on oil shales. Further, the technical problems involved in the disposal and the utilization of spent ash have not been analyzed in detail. 5. Strategy For Oil Shale Exploitation: Since none of the new technologies (retorting or direct combustion by CFB) have been tested in an oil shale - based commercial plant, it is wise to wait for the start-up of a larger oil shale retorting unit and of an oil shale based commercial CFB plant. At the same time, monitoring of technological breakthroughs in commercial oil shale exploitation and evaluation of both the retorting and the direct combustion options should be undertaken. But, in view of the rapid growth rate in electricity demand and the planned grid interconnections between Jordan and Egypt and between Turkey, Jordan, Iraq, Syria, Egypt and Israel, it is recommended (after reviewing the results of techno-economic evaluation of cornmerciality elsewhere of both the retorting and CFB technologies,) to go forward with oil shale exploitation through joint venture and B.O.T. In the interim the N.R.A and the MEMR should continue to address the technical environmental and operational issues to be prepared for economic exploitation when either the retorting and for CFB technologies are proven commercially viable in the long run Geological Assessment of Oil Shale: Since most of the work on the assessment of Sultani, Jurf-Ed-Darawish, Attarat Um-Ghudran, Eth-Thamad, Wadi EL- Maghar, Khan Ez-Zabib and other deposits has been done in limited areas, the N.R.A would be advised to continue its geological, mining and techno-economic studies on these promising deposits in order to prove that the reserves are adequate to supply sufficient fuel to the commercial scale plants: bbls/day or 400 MW power plants (as visualized in the Technoprom Export and Bechtel studies). In addition, geological! geochemical studies and detailed hydrological investigations on El-Lajjun, Sultani and other similar deposits should be continued by N.R.A Evaluation of Water Resource Availability, Ash disposal and Environment: In conjunction with the geological assessment of the oil shale, N.R.A should undertake an evaluation of the extent of underground water which should be needed for the operation of a power plant and for a retorting plant in the context of National Water Resource Availability. Such an evaluation should also address the issues concerning the disposal and potential longterm environmental impact. Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January

12 5.3. TECHNICAL ISSUES: It is worthwhile for the N.R.A to discuss and review the technology and economics of the ongoing pilot and commercial oil shale retorting plants in U.S.A, Canada, Australia, Brazil, Japan, China, Israel, Europe, and other regions. Progress made in the development of oil shale technology the experience gained in oil shale retorting technology world wide, and the analysis performed in Jordan on oil shale studies should be combined to prepare a long term strategy for the economic production of shale oil from oil shale in order to meet Jordan s long-term demand of fuel. Since oil shale has not been used directly as a fuel in any CFB based power plants, JEA should carefully watch if such power plants are being put in the near future in other countries with similar conditions as Jordan, e.g. Israel for the commercial development of oil shale - based power plants, detailed feasibility studies based on the lesson from the world -_wide experience should be done. Major technical issues regarding handling of oil shale feed; disposal and utilization of spent shale; water availability: and comparative efficiency of air cooling versus water cooling should be further investigated. Since all proposals (Russian, German, Canadian Chinese and U.S) have been prepared by vendors with a bias towards utilizing their technology and over all plant design, it would be wise to conduct an integrated evaluation of all proposals and compare the relative benefits and the issues which need to be resolved in each proposal. Such a study would include both technical and economic parameters. Based on such evaluations, JEA can formulate its strategy of exploiting oil shale as a fuel in the long - term power generation plans of Jordan. 6. Conclusion: Progress made in the development of oil shale technologies and monitoring of the experience world wide, together with the analysis performed in Jordan in addressing the water resources availability and disposal and environmental and other operational issues, should be utilized to formulate the strategy for economic exploitation of oil shale to meet Jordan s energy requirements. Such a strategy should include: a. Formulation of guide-lines and codes for oil shale mining, ash disposal and water resource utilization. b. Preparation and regulatory framework to encourage private sector participation, including the option of build, operate, and turn over (B0T), both in oil shale mining and power plant investment. c. Reassessment of the economics of oil shale exploitation reflecting the changing alignment of the J.D against foreign currencies on investment, and the uncertainty of world oil prices. d. Preparation of investment plan for power generation evaluating alternative technology that optimally meet Jordan s long- term power need at least costs. Summary of Studies and Investigations on Oil Shale Deposits Type of Study Studied well Studied in general Not Studied 1. Geological Lajjun, Sultani Jurf, Attarat Wadi Maghar The rest 2. Hydrogeolgoical Lajjun The rest 3. Mining Lajjun, Sultani The rest 4. Oil shale utilization Lajjun Sultani The rest 5. Oil shale comminuition Lajjun Sultani 6. In-Situ Retorting All deposits 7. Retorting Lajjun The rest 8. Shale Oil utilization as is All deposits 9. Upgrading of shale oil Lajjun The rest 10. Transportation of shale oil 11. Refining of up-graded oil 12. Marketing 13. Environmental Lajjun, Sultani 14. Direct combustion Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January

13 CHAPTER TWO OIL SHALE DEPOSITS IN JORDAN 2.1. EL-LAJJUN OIL SHALE: INTRODUCTION: El-Lajjun oil shale deposit was discovered by the German Geological Mission (directed by professor Dr. Bender & Huffnagel, 1980). Studies of the El-Lajjun deposit were started in 1968 by the Natural Resources Authority (N.R.A). The studies consisted of core drilling and laboratory analysis. Reports reflecting these activities were prepared by Spears, 1969; Dinneen, 1970 ; Hamarneh 1970,and Omary, 1979 Operations were discontinued in 1969 owing to the low prices of crude oil, but as a result of the energy crises, investigations were resumed early in 1979 by the N.R.A with much greater interest. This program of operation was being assisted by the Federal Republic of Germany, represented by the Federal Institute of Natural Resources and Geosciences (BGR), and was recommended as part of the technical cooperation between Jordan and FRG ( Abu Ajamieh, 1980; Huffnagel, 1980; Nimry 1981 ). The program consisted of additional boreholes in the El- Lajjun area to delineate the deposit plus laboratory analysis and semi-industrial tests. These investigations proved that sufficient quantities of good quality oil shale are available at El-Lajjun for potential exploitation. On the basis of the encouraging results of these studies, it was decided to proceed on further pre.-feasibility studies. In October, 1980, the N.R.A commissioned the services of the German Consortium Klockner-Lurgi to conduct a mining and technical pre-feasibility study concerning the exploitation of El-Lajjun oil shale for retorting in bbls/day plant, and also for supplying a 300 MW power plant. The study was completed in 1982 and concluded that commercial utilization is economically viable and that retorting is cheaper than the generation of electricity by direct combustion. In March, 1986 the N.R.A contracted the West German Consortium again to up-date the previous studies, with a view to assessing the technical and economic feasibility of a large scale retorting complex. This study consisted of revised geological study, performance of a retorting pilot test with CFB combustion test, and hydrogeological studies for water resources. In 1980 the N.R.A commissioned a pre-feasibility study by TechnopromExport to assess the potential for direct burning of El-Lajjun oil shale in a 300 MW power plant (by a conventional combustion method). This study concluded that EI-Lajjun oil shale is suitable as a fuel for direct combustion. In 1985, the N.R.A contracted China Petro-Chemical International Company (SINOPEC Int-L) to perform tests on El-Lajjun oil shale using the existing Fushun type retort. The performance test proved the viability of using the Fushun type retort for the production of shale oil Location: The El-Lajjun oil shale deposit is located in the western part of Central Jordan 1. Located approximately 110 km south of Amman and mid way along the highway between Karak and Qatrana 1. The deposit is 10 kms long and 2 to 2.5 kms wide. 2. Main roads cross the area in the central part of the country where a reasonable infrastructure exists. This deposit is the shallowest known oil shale deposit that offers favorable conditions for open pit mining Geology: Stratigraphically consists of limestone, marl, cherts, shales and phosphates of Campanian - Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January

14 Maestrichtian to Holocene ages, and is situated in a north -south trending graben. The average thickness of oil shale is 30 m. The average stripping ratio is 0.9: The estimation of the reserves was based on detailed calculations based on: isopach maps of the bituminous chalk - marl - unit and on the oil content as determined by Fischer~ Assay. The proven reserve amounts to 1.3 billion tons of oil shale having oil content of 125 million tons. One hundred and seventy three boreholes were drilled during the periods 1968/1969, 1979, and The drilled thickness varies from 1.4 to86.5 m. The BGR and Klockner - Lurgi reports confirmed the oil shale reserves both in quality and quantity Structure: In the investigated area the main structural feature is the El- Lajjun graben, controlling a morphological depression bordered from east and west by faults striking generally N - S Stratigraphy: The bituminous facies in the area occur in the upper portion of the Phosphorite Unit as well as i the Lower Chalk Marl Unit (in which the best grades of oil shale occur). The stratigraphy of the bituminous layers of the chalk marl unit is based on drill hole data. On the basis of the oil content determined by Fischer Assay, the bituminous sequence of the chalk marl unit has been subdivided into several sub - units (Huffnagel, 1980). The deposit is a homogenous one. This is shown by the uniformity of lithology, as well as the distribution of several constituents such as moisture, oil and sulphur. The following sub - units have been recognized from bottom to top: 1. Sub-Unit P. This is the upper most bituminous part of the phosphorite unit, which reaches 7 meters in thickness. Sub - unit P is characterized by an average oil content ranging between 5.5 and 7.5%, with a very high P 2 O 5 content and variable CaCO Sub - Unit A. This unit has the highest average oil content (12.6%). It is the thickest of all units (12-18m), and is characterized by high average sulphur content (3-5%). 3. Sub- Unit AL. This unit includes the dolomitic limestone (Arbid limestone). This sub - unit is slightly bituminous with approximately 3% oil content 4. Sub - Unit B This sub - unit consists of the section between the Arbid limestone and the first appearance of limestone concretions and is characterized by high average oil yield (12.3%), the highest Si0 2 content (26.1%) and the lowest CaCO 3 content (33%). 5. Sub-Unit C. This sub-unit is relatively thin (5-6m) and has low oil content (7.8%). The CaCO 3 content is greater than in sub-unit B (5.3%) while the SiO 2 content is less (11.5%). 6. Sub-Unit D. In this sub-unit the bituminous chalk - marl reaches a maximum thickness of 11m. The average oil content is11.1%. 7. Sub-Unit E. This sub-unit is approximately 27 m thick and consists of average oil content of 6%. The CaCO 3 content averages (56%) (which is higher than the CaCO 3 content in sub-unit D) and the Al in this sub-unit is the highest in the whole bituminous sequence - 6.7%. The average P 2 O 5 content falls below 2%. 8. Sub-Unit F. The thickness of this sub-unit reaches about 17 m and the average oil content 9%. The CaCO 3 Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January

15 content exceeds 7% as in sub-unit G. 9. Sub-Unit G. The average oil content in this sub-unit is 4.3%. Below, the average physico - chemical characteristics of the sub - units are listed Sub-unit Oil% Moisture S C-org. Cal. Value CaCO3 Al2O3 P2O5 SiO2 (m) G F E D C B AL A P The El-Lajjun Deposit Drilling Program: One hundred and thirteen boreholes were drilled during the period, 1968/1969, 1979/1982. The drilled thickness varies between 1.4 and 86.5m. The core recovery in the oil shale and the overlying chalky marl and Phosphorite was excellent (over 85%). In 1983 a new drilling program started aimed at providing accurate figures for the proven reserves of the different subunits. The core-hole spacing was 300 meters Oil Shale Composition, Shale Oil Yields And Properties Previous activities: The technical analysis which started in 1968 were performed by N.R.A & BGR, and in eluded Fischer Assay Analysis, in which the oil shale was pyrolysed up to c and the amounts of oil, water, gas and the residue (spent shale) were recorded. Other analyses included the determination of organic matter, sulphur, moisture, trace elements and other inorganic constituents. Representative samples were analyzed in different institutions and organizations such as the U.S.G.S, B.G.R, I.G.S, B.P, JOSECO SINOPEC, Acad. of SeienceUSSR,AOSTRA, and Ahlstrom Finland. The results of these investigations were reflected in the reports submitted to N.R.A by Speer s of the BP, (1969) Dinneen of the U.S.G.S, (1970) Jacob of the BGR, (1969) Huffnagel, (1980) Hamarneh,(1979) Oman, Abu Ajamieh, (1980) lladdadin (1975) and others. This program of different investigations was terminated by N.R.A in 1970 because of the low oil prices. As oil prices continuously increased from 1973 onwards, N.R.A resumed its studies of this deposit in The need for a complete assessment of this oil shale deposit became inevitable and Omary of the N.R.A analyses the previous work done in This was followed by a detailed study by Abu Ajamieh (1980, 1988) and Hamarneh,( ) Further studies of El-Lajjun deposit were conducted in 1979 by N.R.A in cooperation with the Federal Institute of Natural Resources and Geosciences (BGR) of the Federal Republic of Germany. The work done in that program included: 1. Mapping and completion of 1:10000 geological map. 2. Electric Resistivity Survey. 3. Additional core drilling. 4. Laboratory and industrial tests. The laboratory tests included: Fischer Assay analysis, organic matter determination, moisture, sulphur, X-Ray diffraction, XRF, TGA, and flash retorting tests. In a new drilling program started aimed at drilling about 60 more boreholes in the Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January

16 southern part of the deposit and including laboratory analysis of core samples in order to assess the reserves in that area Composition of EL-Lajjun Oil Shale: Analysis of some representative samples are given below: Fischer Assay High Lean Average Oil Water Spent shale Gas and loss Sp.Gr.of oil F 60 0 F Carbon, % Raw Shale Total C% Mineral C% Mineral calculated as CaCO Organic carbon %. Calculated as total organic matter Spent Shale, % Total carbon Mineral carbon Organic carbon Total Sulphur Distribution % in Raw Shale In spent shale 25.4 In total volatiles 74.6 a - in shale oil 31.1 b-in gas 41. c-in water 2.5 Fractions of Shale Oil Obtained By Fischer Assay: Type of hydrocarbon High grade Lean Average Saturated hydrocarbons Aromatic hydrocarbons Asphaltic compounds Soluble Bitumen from Raw Shale: Methanol Soluble Chloroform Soluble Organic Matter Distribution in low temperature carbonization: Yields from organic matter % by wt Total shale oil 54.7 Total shale oil 5.8 Gas 18.3 Ash 21.2 Sum of useful products (only combustibles) 73 Properties of Shale Oil produced by F.A Specific Gravity 60 o f /60 o f Sulphur content % by wt Carbon content % by wt Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January

17 Nitrogen content % by wt Asphaltenes % by wt Wax % by wt. 4.8 Pour point, 0 F +30. Acidity mg kcm/gm 3.3 Nickel, p.p.m. 8. Vanadium ppm. 9. Bromine No Initial boiling point 0 C 77. Distilled up to C 48-62% (pre vol) Sulphur content In Shale Oil Fractions: Fraction LBP C 3.68 Fraction C 9.52 Fraction oc Identification of group chemical constituents tithe gas %by vol CO CO 1 Paraffines 28.4 H H 21.6 Olefines 9.3 Potential Heat Distribution: Potential heat of the raw shale (100%) 2340kca1/kg Potential heat of oil shale 54. % Potential heat of gas 16.9% Potential heat of spent shale 30.1 % Calorific value of the gas 9380 kcal /M 3 Inorganic Chemical Analysis of Raw Shale: SiO2 Wt, % CaO MgO 035 Al2O Fe2O3 1.5 P S AS ppm. <0.1 Cu 92. Mo 73. Ni 167. Sr U 29. Zn 451. Ba 113. Cr 341. V 162 Bulk properties: High Calorific value KcaI/kg 1270 Low Calorific value Kcal/Kg 1390 Mean Calorific value Kcal/kg 1590 Average Oil content, 4 by wt 10.5 Density (g/cmt 3 ) Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January

18 El - Lajjun Oil Shale, Bore Hole Data B.H. No. Thickness (m) oil yield, % gals/ton Organic% SM El - Lajjun Oil Shale, Bore Hole Data cont. B.H. No. Thickness (m) oil yield, % gals/ton Organic% Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January

19 Oil Content: The yields of low-temperature carbonization process (Fischer Assay) are oil, water, gas and residue (spent shale). Oil content is one of the main parameters that determine the suitability of the deposit to be used as a source of oil production by retorting. The analysis were carried out in aluminum cast retort, where the oil shale was pyrolysed up to 520 k and the amounts of water, oil, gas and residue (spent shale) were recorded. The recommended final pyrolysis temperature may not be an appropriate temperature for appraisal of oil yield of El-Lajjun oil shale. Oil yield determination was made at different final pyrolysis temperatures to obtain a highest oil yield value of EI-Lajjun oil shale as shown below. Oil yield determined at various final temperatures: Final T-true 0 c Oil yield % The oil content in the deposit varied from 0.5 to 18.5% and the average content of the whole deposit ( as concluded by Lurgi - Klockner ) was 10.5% : hence the amount of recoverable oil varies considerably, but reaches L/T. Organic Carbon: The organic carbon was determined using the Leco carbon analyser, after the removal of (mineral) carbonates by dilute (10%) HCL. The results of analysis showed that El-Lajjun oil shale contains organic material relatively uniform in composition and correlates well with the oil yield as shown in the figs. Annex (2). The correlation factor (coefficient ). This determination can be recommended as a replacement for the Fischer Assay, since it is less expensive. Calorific Value: The results of analysis showed that the mean gross calorific value was 2000 Kcal/kg and that the organic carbon content and the gross calorific value correlate very well as shown in figs of appendix 2. Therefore, it is possible to estimate with sufficient accuracy the gross calorific values, if only the content of organic carbon is known. It was also concluded that, on the basis of the gross calorific values in parallel with other geological and chemical data, the high oil shale contains energy sufficient for generating electricity by direct combustion. This is the case if modern methods are used to overcome the obstacle of the high sulphur content, and if operation is at temperatures below the initial deformation temperatures of carbonates ( C ) in order to avoid intensive fouling on the water walls of the boiler furnace and other heating surfaces. Otherwise slag deposits may form on the water walls, especially in the high temperature zone. Deposits of dense slag may also occur on the super heater and economizer tubes which lead to abrasive wear of these tubes. High ash fusing point determation of El- Lajjun oil shale gives an initial depormation temperature (Ti) of C while the softening temperature (T2) and fusing temperature ( T3) are 1250 and 1260 respectively. Sulphur: The total sulphur content was determined by wet chemical methods and by combustion in oxygen with a Leco analyser. The sulphur content of the oil shale varies from 0.4 % to 4 % and gradually decreases from bottom to top as shown below: Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January

20 Sub-Unite S% G 1.9 F 1.7 E 2.6 D 3.3 C 2.3 B 3.2 AL 1.7 A 3.5 P 1.9 The high sulphur content in the retorted oil indicates that a considerable part of the sulphur is chemically bound to the organic material. Others: The high percentage of carbonates in the ash is an indication to cementation ability, which may lead to serious difficulties in the operation of ash disposal system. The presence of P affects the operation of electrostatic precipitator, bringing down efficiency. Carbonate Content: The carbonate (mineral C0 2 ) of El-Lajjun oil shale is as high as more than 18.1%. The higher content of carbonates especially calcium carbonate is favorable to using the shale ash as cement raw material, provided that the contents of P and S are within the acceptable limits. Density: Density is one of the important parameters for the calculation of the reserves. The bulk density of the El-Lajjun oil shale was determined to be 1.81 g/cm 3. Mineralogical Composition: The mineralogical composition was determined mainly by X-ray diffraction. The results of investigations showed that the mineralogy of ElLajjoun oil shale as a whole is uniform with depth. The mineralogical composition can be described as follows. Calcite main constituent Quartz Kaolinite 5-10 Apatite 4-14 Minor component Dolomite Feldspar 5 Pyrite 5 Traces Muscoviteillite 5 Geothite 5 Gypsum 5 Opal Present As seen from the above mentioned data the major constituents of ElLajjoun oil shale are calcite and quartz, while the other constituents are either minor or in trace. Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January

21 Chemical Composition: The chemical compositions were determined by wet chemical analysis and X-Ray Fluorescence. The results are given below in wt % SiO Na 2 O TiO K AL P 2 O Fe2O SO MnO 0.01 CaO MgO L.O.I The presence of P 2 O 5 in a maximum range of wt % is harmful for cement production and limits the use of shale ash to a large extent. Cement blend and other uses in the production of construction materials are possible. Organic Matter: The organic matter content ranges from % by wt. The greater part is insoluble in organic solvent, i.e. kerogen. The soluble part (bitumen) forms 2.6% of the total organic matter. Pyrolysis Of Oil Shale And Endothermic Heat Of Reaction: Differential Scanning Calorimetry was used to conduct pyrolysis testing of pulverized oil shale (<200 mesh). The initial pyrolysis temperature was C and the final temperature was about C. The endothermic heat of pyrolysis as calculated was 42.4 kcal/kg Rock Eval apparatus was also used to conduct pyrolysis of a pulverized (< 80 mesh) sample of El - Lajjun oil shale. The data on hydrocarbon evolution is as follows: Peak temp T max. Adsorbed H/C,S1 Pyrolysis H/C,S2 C mg/g mg/g Potential S1+S~mg/g CO 2 S 3 mg/g Organic matter Degradation % wt It was concluded that, at a pyrolysis temperature of C the cumulative hydrocarbon (liquid and gas) evolution is 35.5%. At a pyrolysis temperature of C the cumulative hydrocarbon evolution is already 84%. When the pyrolysis temperature reaches C, the cumulative hydrocarbon evolution reaches 98.5%. The hydrocarbon potential of El-Lajjun oil shale is mg/g, (organic matter degradation is 79.39% ). If the calorific value is taken into consideration the sum of calorific value of pyroysis products (oil & gas) accounts for about 73% of that of the raw shale. Thermal Tests: Thermal analysis tests were carried out by the differential thermal analysis, apparatus (D.T.A) and the thermal gravimetric apparatus. The D.T.A is a measure of the change in temperature of a sample heated at a constant rate. Any physical or chemical change involving the release or Dr. Yousef Hamarneh: Expert Petroleum, Engineering,January