WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS OF RIVER GANGA: A CASE-STUDY OF RISHIKESH-HARIDWAR-GARHMUKTESHWAR STRETCH

Transcription

1 ` WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS OF RIVER GANGA: A CASE-STUDY OF RISHIKESH-HARIDWAR-GARHMUKTESHWAR STRETCH A DISSERTATION submitted for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of MASTER OF TECHNOLOGY in ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING (CIVIL ENGINEERING) By SWATI BORA ( ) Under the supervision of PROF. SURINDER DESWAL DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY KURUKSHETRA, HARYANA, JUNE, 2016

2 CERTIFICATE I hereby certify that work presented in this dissertation entitled Water Quality Analysis of River Ganga: A Case-Study of Rishikesh-Haridwar-Garhmukteshwar Stretch which is being submitted to National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra in partial fulfilment of the award in Degree of Master of Technology in Civil Engineering (Environmental Engineering), is an authentic record of my own work carried out during the period from July 2015 to June 2016 under the supervision and guidance of Prof. Surinder Deswal, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology Kurukshetra, Haryana, India. I have not submitted the matter presented in this dissertation for the award of any other degree of this or any other institute. Dated: (SWATI BORA) Place: ROLL NO This is to certify that above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my knowledge. (SURINDER DESWAL) Professor Department of Civil Engineering National Institute of Technology Kurukshetra, Haryan, India. (i)

3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am highly grateful to National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra for providing this opportunity to carry out the present thesis work. The constant guidance and encouragement received from my supervisor Prof Surinder Deswal; Professor, Civil Department, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra has been of great help in carrying out the present work and is acknowledged with reverential thanks. I am thankful to our HOD Dr. S. K. Madan for administrative help and support to carry out research work. I am thankful to assistant professor Anshul Sheokand for his help throughout my project work. I would like to thank my friends Vineet Verma, Mohit Verma, Sugeet Vohra, Amrendra Kumar Singh for their help throughout my project work and Lab assistants Mr. Baliram and Mr. Amit for their valuable support to access laboratories. I am very grateful to my respected parents and my brother Mr. Nitin Bora for their ever willing support and encouragement. Finally, I am thankful to all whosoever have contributed in this work directly or indirectly. Swati Bora (ii)

4 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page No. Certificate...(i) Acknowledgement...(ii) Table of Contents...(iii) List of Figures...(vi) List of Tables...(vii) List of Abbreviations...(viii) Abstract...(ix) 1. Introduction General Description of River Ganga Pollution of River Ganga Organisation of Thesis Objective of Thesis Literature Review Pollution Harmful Effects of Water Pollution The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of India, National Water Policy - Ministry of Water Resources (2012) The Ganga Action Plan (GAP) National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA) Supreme Court of India National mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) Namami Gange Clean Ganga Fund Bhuvan Ganga Literature Review of Previous Studies...16

5 3. Description of Study Area Monitoring Stations in the Study Area Rishikesh Haridwar Garhmukhteswar Upper Ganga Canal Materials andmethods Phase I: Compilation of the Available Information Phase II: Analysis of Physico-chemical and Biological parameters Location of Sampling Sample Collection Parameter Analyzed Methods of Analysis and Their Significance Phase III : Statistical Analysis Correlation Water Quality Index (WQI) ANOVA (Analysis of Varience) Results and Discussions Interpretation of Monthly Water Quality Data of River Ganga Interpretation of Monthly Water Quality Data of Upper Ganga Canal Trend analysis and Year-Wise Variation in Water Quality in Last Decade Statistical Analysis Correlation Water Quality Index ANNOVA: Single Factor Conclusions and Recommendations Conclusions Recommendations...68 (iv)

6 6.3 Future Scope...70 References...72 APPENDIX A List of Publications...77 (v)

7 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Caption Page 1.1 The Ganga River Basin Upper Ganga River Stretch Showing Various Zones Temperature ( C) and ph Values at Sample Locations Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l) and Turbidity (NTU) at Sample Locations Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) and Biological Oxygen Demand (mg/l) at Sample Locations Total Coliform (MPN/100 ml) at Sample Locations Temperature ( C), ph and Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l) Values at Upper Ganga Canal Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l), Biological Oxygen Demand (mg/l) and Total Coliform (MPN/100 ml) at Upper Ganga Canal Year-Wise Variation in ph of Microbial Count and Conductvity with Time Year-Wise Variation in Conductivity (mhos/cm) Year-Wise Variation in Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) Year-Wise Variation in Biological Oxygen Demand (mg/l) Year-Wise Variation in Faecal Coliform (MPN/100 ml) Year-Wise Variation in Total Coliform (MPN/100 ml) (vi)

8 LIST OF TABLES Table Caption Page 2.1 Water Quality Standards for Outdoor Bathing (CLASS B) Summary of GAP I and GAP II Analytical Methods and Equpiment Used Water Quality Standards (IS ) Water Quality Criteria by CPCB Water Quality Index and Status of Water Quality Descriptive Statistics of Water Quality Parameters at Rishikesh Descriptive Statistics of Water Quality Parameters at Haridwar Descriptive Statistics of Water Quality Parameters at Garhmukteshwar Correlation Matrix at Rishikesh Correlation Matrix at Haridwar Correlation Matrix at Garhmukteshwar Linear Correlation Coefficientand Regression Equation for Some Pairs of Parameters Which Have Sgnificant Value of Correlation Drinking Water Standards Recommending Agencies and Unit Weights at Rishikesh and Haridwar Drinking Water Standards Recommending Agencies and Unit Weights at Garhmukteshwar Physico-Chemical Status and Water Quality Index of River Ganga at Rishikes Physico-Chemical Status and Water Quality Index of River Ganga at Haridwar Physico-Chemical Status and Water Quality Index of River Ganga at Garhmukteshwar Data Used for ANOVA ANOVA Data Summary ANOVA Results (vii)

9 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS o C Degree Celsius APHA CPCB DO BOD COD MPN TDS L ml mg/l American Public Health Association Central Pollution Control Board Dissolved Oxygen Biochemical Oxygen Demand Chemical Oxygen Demand Most Probable Number Total Dissolved Solids Litre Millilitre Milligram per Litre (viii)

10 ABSTRACT The post independent era has witnessed a rapid growth in urbanization and industrialization along the bank of river Ganga. More than one third of India s population lives in the towns of the Ganga basin. As a result the river has been reduced to a channel receiving and transporting urban waste away from the urban towns. Water quality of river Ganga has been observed to be deteriorating due to mass bathing, floral offerings, cremation of dead bodies on its banks, discharge of untreated waste water from ashrams, construction of dams, barrages and discharge of industrial and domestic sewage which causes both organic and bacteriological pollution. Thus, present study has been undertaken to evolve a basis and develop suitable methodology for analyzing the trends in river water quality parameters of Rishikesh- Haridwar-Garhmukteshwar stretch. For this purpose water samples from the selected stretch were analyzed for various physico-chemical and biological parameters for a period of eleven months from August 2015 to June Attempts are also been made to collect additional data from the year 2003 to 2012 to study some specific aspect that could help in understanding the year-wise variations in the water quality parameters. Further, systematic statistical analysis has been carried out of river water quality data to assess the temporal and spatial variation in various parameters. Overall, based on the analysis, it has been observed that water quality of river Ganga has been deteriorating. The trends depict a systematic deterioration in various physical, chemical and biological parameters, especially at Haridwar and Garhmukteshwar. High values of BOD at Garhmukteshwar indicate serious water pollution due to addition of industrial waste water into the river. Further,high count of coliforms in the selected stretch calls for a strong need to enforce water quality standards through environmental management plans for improving the quality of life as this water is being used for drinking and bathing purpose. (ix)

11 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 General Rivers add up to the main inland water resource for domestic, industrial, irrigation and other uses in many areas, and play an important role in hydrologic and biogeochemical cycles. However, few rivers are maintained in their pristine condition due to intensive human activities, and surface water pollution is today of great environmental concern worldwide (Zhao et al., 2011). Rivers are extremely vulnerable water bodies because of their role in carrying off and assimilating pollutants from both point sources (municipal waste-water and industrial discharge) as well as non-point sources (agricultural and urban runoff, atmospheric deposition). Municipal and industrial waste-water discharge constitutes an unvarying polluting source whereas surface runoff is a seasonal phenomenon which is mostly affected by climatic conditions within the river basin. Seasonal variation in precipitation, surface runoff, interflow, groundwater flow and anthropogenic transfers have a strong effect on river discharge and, subsequently, on the concentration of pollutants in river water (Vega et al., 1998). Industrial, agricultural and domestic consumer processes produce large quantities of waste products for which the natural water-ways provides the cheapest form of disposal. India is a developing country which means infrastructure sector is growing on at a much higher rate, leads to the development of core industries like metals, chemicals, fertilizers, drugs and petroleum etc. and other industries such as plastics, pesticides, detergents, solvents, paints, dyes, and food disposed their effluents and emissions on land and water bodies and polluting our environment. Owing to these complexities, water quality experts and decision-makers often deal with significant challenges in their efforts to control water pollution. By identifying spatial and temporal patterns in river water quality, an improved understanding of the environmental conditions may help experts establish priorities for sustainable water management schemes. Watershed-scale analysis of water quality can point up the changing influence of various anthropogenic activities in different sub-basins and as one proceeds from upstream to downstream reaches. 1

12 1.2 Description of River Ganga As a symbol of India s age-old heritage and culture, the river Ganga, occupies a scared place in the ethos of Indian people. The river Ganga, the life line of millions of people, is considered sacrosanct for providing the life-giving and life-sustaining succor for the environment and ecology. Not only has it been prime source of water supply to farms, households industries, etc., but also remained important from religious point of view. In reverence Ganga Snan is consider as holy dip to get rid of sins and is believed to be the gateway to heavenly abode for the pious souls. Its banks have been places of worship of God. The spiritual, cultural and emotional bondage with India s civilization has given Ganga its uniqueness. The Ganga river basin is one of the largest in the world covering 26.3% of India s total geographical area. Figure 1.1 depicts the Ganga river basin along with the prominent cities/towns situated on the bank of River Ganga. The Ganga begins at the confluence of Bhagirathi and Alaknanda river at Devprayag in Uttarakhand. The Bhagirathi rises from the Gangotri glacier at 30 55' N, 79 7' E, at 4100 m above MSL in Uttarakhand. It cuts its course through the Himalayas and covers a distance of about 205 Kilometers from Gaumukh and transverses through Uttarkashi and Tehri to reach Devprayag where it joins, the Alaknanda to form holy Ganga. The Ganga flows through Uttarakhand and Uttar Pradesh (1,425 km), Bihar(475 km), Delhi, and parts of Punjab, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and West Bengal(625 km) before debouching into the Bay of Bengal. Covering a distance of 2,500 km the river supports 29 class I cities, 23 class II cities and 48 towns, plus thousands of villages. The river has a large number of tributaries, namely, Kali, Yamuna, Ramganga, Gomti, Ghaghara, Gandak, and Kosi. The densely populate Ganga basin is inhabited by 37 per cent of India s total population. The entire basin system effectively drains eight states of India and about 47 per cent of total irrigation area in India is located in the Ganga river basin. The river has been the major source of navigation and communication since ancient times. 2

13 Figure 1.1 The Ganga River Basin 3

14 1.3 Pollution of River Ganga During its course from hills to the sea, domestic and municipal waste water from various residential and urban centers, trade effluent from large number of industries and pollution from various other sources are released into the river. Mass bathing and offerings in river Ganga takes place at time of Kumbh Mela, Kanvar Mela, solar eclipse and major festivals in addition to daily bath and offerings (flowers, food, diyas, milk, oil, etc.) by the pilgrims. Animal carcasses, half-burned and unburned human dead bodies thrown into the river, ritualistic practices, defecation on the banks by the low-income people, discharge of untreated sewage by ashrams slows down the self -purifying capacity of the river which is derived from its high ability to retain DO, this lack of adequate DO leads to septic condition and increases the BOD of the river and results in deterioration of aquatic life. The entire ecology has been degraded by gradual disappearance of fishes and other aquatic fauna along the course of river. There has been a rapid increase in the urban areas along the course of river. As a result the river has been reduced to a channel receiving and transporting urban waste away from the urban towns. More than one third of India s population lives in the towns of the Ganga basin. Out of 2300 towns in India, 692 are located in the Ganga river basin and of these, 100 are located along the river bank. According to a World Bank Sponsored Study (State of Environment Report- U.P.) (In: Mallikarjun, 2003), pollution levels in the Ganga are contributing 9-12% of total disease burden in Uttar Pradesh (U.P.).According to Markandya and Murty (2000), 1.3 billion liters of sewage, 260 million liters of industrial waste, runoff from 6 million tonnes of fertilizers and 9000 tonnes of pesticides used in agriculture, and large quantities of solid wastes, are daily released into the river. The total annual volume of untreated household and industrial effluents in the Ganga river basin amounts to million kiloliters (MoEF, 1996). Dams and barrages constructed for generation of hydropower in the upper stretches and civil constructions in the catchments, canal irrigation, combined with deforestation, mining have shattered much of its ability to flow. The development of hydropower projects including Tehri dam, are depleting the discharge of river. The water is being recycled to maintain storage in the dam for generation of electricity. Further the diversion of water by Upper ganga canal at Haridwar and the lower Ganga canal near Aligarh, and diversion of water into smaller canals of irrigation and other purposes results in the reduction of flow and deteriorates the self- purifying 4

15 capacity of river. The permanent restructuring of the environment brought about by a variety of construction activities and replacement of a natural environment by a new built environment has a variety of far reaching and long lasting result, in term of existing biological species and physical conditions in the area (Bhadula et al., 2014). The industries such as chemical, paper and pulp, textile, leather, pharmaceuticals, tanning, electrical and electroplating, etc., are major source of pollution. Thus, to cleanse the river Ganga and restore it to its pristine quality, the Indian government has taken a lot of initiatives. The setting up of Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 is one such initiative. CPCB is a mandate to check that all water bodies are pollution-free. To prevent the pollution of river Ganga and to improve its water quality, Ganga Action Plan was formulated in the year 1984 on the basis of a comprehensive report of the Ganga Basin prepared by the Central Pollution Control Board under "Assessment and Development Study of River Basin Series (ADSORB)". Ganga Action Plan was formally launched in June Considerable efforts have been made to arrest the discharge of pollutant from various points and diffused sources in order to improve the river water quality. Water quality monitoring programme has been undertaken by CPCB, New Delhi and other monitoring agencies prior to the implementation of GAP. Also such programme form a part of GAP since its beginning under the legal power of National River Conservation Directorate (NRCD), Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF), Government of India, and are being carried out with the assistance of state pollution control boards, academic and research institutes. Considerable amount of data has been generated on water quality of river Ganga over past few decades. However, no systematic analysis has been carried out. Therefore an attempt has been made to analyze the trends in some of the important water quality parameter in the Rishikesh-Haridwar-Garhmukteshwar stretch. 1.4 Organization of the Thesis In this dissertation, the major emphasis is to investigate water quality of river Ganga and to examine the trends in water quality. 5

16 Chapter 1 This dissertation begins with the introduction of the topic and presents an insight into the different sources of pollution of river Ganga. The objective of study is also defined in this chapter. Chapter 2 The purpose of this chapter is to brush up the previous studies done in water quality assessment. Chapter 3 Description of study area is presented in this chapter. Chapter 4 This chapter presents the methodology adopted for the study. For achieving the objectives, the work is planned on the basis of work fundamentals described in this chapter. Chapter 5 Chapter five contains the analysis and results of the research. It presents outputs from various statistical analyses that were performed with software. Chapter 6 The conclusions of results and recommendations are presented in this chapter. 1.5 Objective of Thesis River Ganga has been receiving tonnes of organics, nutrient and variety of toxic metals from several point and non-point sources along its 2,525 km course from Gangotri to Bay of Bengal. With the increase in population there is a growth of industrial and agricultural activities and development of Urban Centers along the course of river which has led to the decrease in the flow of river due to extraction of water and deterioration of its water quality due to increase in the discharge of effluents and waste water. A study of water quality of river Ganga has been carried out in order to study the physicochemical and biological characteristic of the selected stretch. The main objective of the present study is to evolve a basis and develop methodology for analyzing the trends of water quality parameters of river Ganga. For this purpose, Rishikesh-Haridwar-Garhmukteshwar stretch has been selected. 6

17 Specifically the study was carried out on following lines- 1) Collection and compilation of available water quality data for the selected stretch in order to examine the change in water quality over last decades. 2) Evaluation of present water quality of selected stretch by analyzing: A. Physico-chemical parameters. B. Biological parameters. 3) Evaluation of suitability of water of selected stretch for various purposes. 4) Statistical analysis to assess the temporal and spatial variation in various parameters to evaluate the trends in water quality. In addition to Rishikesh-Haridwar-Garhmukteshwar stretch, water quality of Upper Ganga Canal is also analyzed in the present study. 7

18 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW River Action Plans, with the objective to clean and bring back the purity of river, has been formulated and launched time to time by Government of India. There are, however several issues raised in the implementation of the river action plans. Some of issues and concern relate to the improvements in the water quality of the river Ganga. Considerable efforts have been made in the latter half of nineteenth century to assess the water quality of river Ganga. The review of literature presented here focuses on water quality of river Ganga as the present research was initiated to address issues related to the changes that have occurred in the quality of water due to pollution. 2.1 Pollution Water, the most abundant natural resource on our planet, is extremely essential for survival of all living organisms. Nature is beyond the control of human being. But it is being affected by the unnecessary activities of human being who is running behind the illusion of rapid growth of advancement. But nowadays getting clean water is becoming a great challenge due to the human activities which are causing pollution and leads to misbalancing in the nature. There are two main categories in which water pollution are divided 1) Natural sources: Sometime time nature himself become the cause of pollution for example eruption of volcano degraded the water resources with its fly ashes and magma. Floods are also decreases the quality of water with the addition of the large amount of organic, inorganic, suspended particles etc. 2) Anthropogenic factors: It is also called with the name of man-made factors. Following are written the numerous man-made factors which creates water pollution: A. Thermal Pollutants B. Radioactive Materials in Water C. Sewage and Domestic Wastes D. Industrial Effluent E. Agricultural Discharge 8

19 F. Detergents G. Toxic Metals 2.2 Harmful Effects of Water Pollution 1) Effect of Thermal Pollutants in Water: The rise in temperature in aquatic system has a profound effect on organisms as well as on water quality. These detrimental effects are as follows: A. Reduction in the dissolved oxygen. B. Increase in BOD. C. Excessive Eutrophication. D. Decrease in solubility of gases in water. E. Rapid setting of sediment load in water affecting aquatic food supply. 2) Effect of Radioactive Pollutants in Water: Polluted water containing radioisotopes produces a set of syndromes characterized by nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, epilation along with general weakness, which are known as radiation sickness. It destroys biological immune system i.e. body becomes less resistant towards a variety of diseases.it also causes somatic and genetic disorders, gene mutations and blood abnormalities in higher animals including man. Radioactive elements present in water accumulate in soil sediments, air and aquatic ecosystems. Trace amounts of radionuclide may lead to increase in rate of mutation of plants. 3) Effects of Sewage and Domestic Waste: Sewage is an excellent medium for the growth of pathogenic bacteria, viruses and protozoa. Domestic sewage, which is primarily composed of spent water containing soapy water, food material, makes water completely unfit for drinking and domestic use. Several pathogenic microorganisms introduced into the water cause deleterious effects and produces chronic diseases in man and animals. 4) Effects of Industrial Effluents: Due to the presence of toxic substances in the effluent it produces deleterious effects on living organisms and brings about death of sub lethal pathology of kidney, liver, brains, and lungs. Disinfectants, which are added in water to control algae growth and bacteria may persist in water bodies and may cause mortality of fish. Effluents containing acids and alkalis make the water corrosive. 9

20 5) Effect of Fertilizers: Excessive application of nitrogen fertilizers to the soil often leads to accumulation of nitrates in the water which when drunk by cattle and man get reduced to toxic nitrates by the intestinal bacteria. Nitrates enter the blood stream and react with hemoglobin, which has a stronger affinity for nitrates than for oxygen to cause blue baby disease. This causes damage to the respiratory and vascular systems, because of which suffocation and death may occur. Agricultural fertilizers crowd out essential nutrients present in the topsoil layers. The microbe-enriched humus enhances plant growth. But fertilizer enriched soil cannot support the microbial life for a long time. Fertilizers used to increase the growth of crops also increase the algal growth in surface water into which they are washed. This increased water fertility causing algal and water plant growth is called eutrophication. 2.3 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act of India, 1974 The act provides for the prevention and control of water pollution and maintaining and restoring the wholesomeness of water, for the establishment with a view to carrying out the purposes aforesaid, of Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution, for conferring on and arising to such Board powers and functions relating thereto and for matters connected therewith. The Central and State Pollution control Boards have been constituted in India under the provisions of this Act. The Committee is responsible for grant of consent for using an outlet for discharge of Trade/Sewage effluent, monitoring of effluent/sewage treatment plants prosecutions. The Committee has also powers under section 33-A to issue an order to any authority, which includes disconnection of power/water supply. The Water Act was first amended in It was again amended in 1988 to conform to the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, Objectives: This specialized legislative measure is meant to tackle one facet of environmental pollution. The fundamental objective of the Water Act is to provide clean drinking water to the citizens and its other main objectives are: 1. To provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and the maintaining or restoring of wholesomeness of water. 2. To establish Central and State Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution. 10

21 3. To provide for conferring on and assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating thereto and for matters connected therewith. 4. To provide penalties for the contravention of the provisions of the Water Act. 5. To establish Central and State water- testing laboratories to enable the Board to assess the extent of pollution, lay down standards and establish guilt or default. 2.4 National Water Policy - Ministry of Water Resources (2012) This document by the Ministry of Water Resources (MoWR), highlights the importance of water for human existence as well as for all economic and development related activities. It addresses the problem of scarcity of water and the need to conserve this resource through optimal, economical, sustainable and equitable means. It presented a review and update of the National Water Policy in 1987 and then again in 2012 by making some additions and suggestions. The document emphasizes the need for periodic modifications in the water policy. This is in terms of planning and management of water resources by taking into consideration the changes in economic, social, climatic, demographic situation of the country and the urgent need to conserve the available water resources. 2.5 Ganga Action Plan (GAP) The Central Pollution Control Board under "Assessment and Development Study of River Basin Series (ADSORB)" formulated the Ganga Action Plan or GAP in year 1984 on the basis of a comprehensive survey of the Ganga Basin. In Feb 1985, the Central Ganga Authority (CGA) with the PM as Chairman was formed, with an initial budget of Rs 350 crore. The Ganga Project Directorate (GPD) was established in June 1985 as a national body operating within the National Ministry of Environment and Forest. The GAP was formally launched on June 14, 1986 by Sh. Rajiv Gandhi at Varanasi. It was carried out in two phases. Objectives: The objective of GAP was initially to improve the water quality of Ganga to acceptable standards by preventing the pollution load from reaching the river. Later, in June 1987, the objective was re-casted as restoring the river water quality to the Designated Best Use class of 11

22 Ganga, which is Bathing Class (Class B). The standards as mentioned in the Report by MoEF, 1999 are given in Table 2.1 Table 2.1 Water Quality Standards for Outdoor Bathing (CLASS B) Parameters Values ph Dissolved Oxygen 5 mg/l or more Biological Oxygen Demand 3 mg/l Faecal coliform 500MPN/ 100 ml (Desirable) 2500 MPN/100 ml (Max. Permissible) The implementation of GAP has been successful in averting further deterioration of water quality of river, even though the pollution load has increased substantially with time. A comparison of pre-gap and post-gap values of the three critical parameters, namely DO, BOD and Coliforms reveals the following- DO: The value of DO is largely within acceptable limits. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) levels in the Allahabad-Varanasi stretch were in the range of 5.9 to 6.6 mg/l in The range had improved to 7.3 to 8.4 mg/l in BOD: In terms of BOD the stretch from Kannauj to Kanpur and Allahabad to Varanasi remains critical. Bio-chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), ranged from 5.5to 15.5 mg/l in the critical stretch from Kannauj to Varanasi in However the value in 2008 was mg/l and mg/l in the stretch Kannauj to Kanpur and Allahabad to Varanasi respectively, indicating improvement. Detailed perusal, station wise and year wise, reveals that the values exceeded the acceptable standard (3.0 mg/l) at Rishikesh and Haridwar only once and twice. Faecal Coliform: The fecal coliform counts exceeded the specified limit at Kannauj, Kanpur, Allahabad and Varanasi. Higher levels of coliforms are present almost throughout the river. GAP has not been able to adequately address the issue of coliforms. 12

23 Table 2.2 Summary of GAP I and GAP II FEATURES GANGA ACTION PLAN GANGA ACTION PLAN PHASE PHASE I (GAP I ) II (GAP II ) States Covered 3(UP, Bihar and West Bengal) 5 ( Uttarakhand, UP, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal) Towns Covered 25(UP-6, Bihar-4 and West 59 (Uttarakhand-10, UP-12, Bihar- Bengal-15) 13, Jharkhand-1,West Bengal-23) Schemes Sanctioned Schemes Completed Sewage Treatment Capacity to be Created 882MLD MLD(37 STPs) Sewage Treatment Capacity Created 869MLD MLD( 18 STPs) Table 2.2 provides the summary of GAP I and GAP II. However, Ganga Action Plan Phases I and II met with only partial success due to various factors. The issue of ensuring environmental flows in the river, run-off from agricultural fields, sediment yield and its deposit on the river, Connections of household toilets to the sewer system, solid waste management, and some other vital aspects of municipal activities were not addressed. Several parameters such as heavy metals, pesticides, nitrogen and phosphorous were not monitored. Further, problems of land acquisition, court cases, contractual issues and inadequate capacities in the local bodies/implementing agencies resulted in failure. The schemes generally relied on centralized systems this resulted in long sewer systems, involving pumping and treatment, which were capital and energy intensive. 2.6 National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA) The Central Government of India, on 20 February 2009 under Section 3 (3) of the Environment Protection Act, 1986 established National Ganga River Basin Authority' (NGRBA). It declared Ganges as the "National River" of India. 13

24 2.7 Supreme Court of India In 2010 the government declared the stretch of river Ganga between Gaumukh and Uttarkashi an "eco-sensitive zone". 2.8 National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) is the usage wing of National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA) under Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation (MoWR,RD &GR). It is a registered society originally formed by Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change (MoEFCC) on 12 th August 2011 under the Societies Registration Act, NMCG at national level is the planning body and is being supported by States Level Program Management Groups (SPMGs) of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal which, are additionally enlisted as societies under Societies Registration Act, 1860 and a devoted Nodal Cell in Jharkhand. The Vision for Ganga Rejuvenation constitutes reestablishing the wholesomeness of the river defined in terms of assuring Aviral Dhara (Continuous Flow ), Nirmal Dhara ( Unpolluted Flow ), Geologic and ecological uprightness. Objectives The objectives of National Mission for Clean Ganga is to satisfy the mandate of National Ganga River Basin Authority (NGRBA) of 1) To ensure effective abatement of pollution and rejuvenation of the river Ganga by adopting a river basin approach to promote inter-sectoral co-ordination for comprehensive planning and management. 2) Maintaining minimum ecological flows in the river Ganga with the purpose of ensuring water quality and environmentally sustainable development Namami Gange Namami Gange is an integrated Ganga Conservation Mission that has been set up with a sum of Rs. 2,037 crores by the Government of India. Namami Gange approaches Ganga Rejuvenation by merging the current progressing endeavors and making arrangements for a solid activity arrangement for future. A sum of Rs. 100 crores has been dispensed for developments of 14

25 Ghats and beautification of River Fronts at Kedarnath, Haridwar, Kanpur, Varanasi, Allahabad, Patna and Delhi in the momentum monetary year. The interventions at Ghats and River fronts will encourage better national interface and set the tone for waterway driven urban planning process. Following are proposed to be taken up under Namami Gange: 1. Nirmal Dhara- ensuring sustainable municipal sewage management. 2. Nirmal Dhara- managing sewage from Rural Areas. 3. Nirmal Dhara- managing Industrial discharge. 4. Aviral Dhara 5. Ensuring ecological rejuvenation by conservation of aquatic life and biodiversity. 6. Promotion of Tourism and Shipping in a rational and sustainable manner. 7. Knowledge Management on Ganga through Ganga Knowledge Center Clean Ganga Fund As part of Namami Gange programme, Government of India, Clean Ganga Fund has been set up for encouraging contributions from Resident Indians, Non-Resident Indians, Persons of Indian Origin, Institutions, and Corporates towards Ganga Rejuvenation. The total contribution received as on 4th March 2016 in Clean Ganga Fund was Rs Crores. The Clean Ganga Fund will be utilized for undertaking different exercises under Namami Gange programme under the new initiatives including hybrid Annuity based Public Private Partnership (PPP) projects Bhuvan Ganga Bhuvan Ganga Mobile Application and web portal was launched by Union water Resource Minister Uma Bharti on 23, June 2015 by signing of an MoU between the National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG) and the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), ISRO to adequately plan and monitor the Centre s flagship Clean Ganga Mission. It is a Geo-spatial Support for National Mission for Clean Ganga. Bhuvan Ganga is a mobile application, where the general public can upload pictures of pollution sources of the Ganga river for further action by the 15

26 authorities concerned. This mobile app provides a platform for crowd sourcing to monitor pollution in river Ganga and help decision makers to prioritize interventions. 2.9 Literature Review of Previous Studies Several studies have been carried out in the past by various agencies, institute and organization over the past few decades on water quality monitoring of river Ganga. Bhargava (1997) carried out monitoring of river Ganga from Rishikesh to Varanasi. He pointed out Kannauj to Kanpur and then Varanasi as the most polluted stretch of river Ganga. Chakroborty et. al. (1965) investigated the water quality of river Ganga at intake point at J.K Rayon s and pumping station at Golaghat and Bhairoghat. They concluded that water quality deteriorated in summer due to dumping of waste water from various drains while passing from pumping station to the intake point. Lakshminarayana (1965) published a series of papers of studies carried out at Varanasi during the period between March, 1957 and March, The values of the most of the parameters decreased during rainy season while no marked variation was detected during winter and summer season. Saxena et. al. (1966) carried out a study of the physical, chemical and biological parameters of water of river Ganga at Kanpur. The study revealed that the water quality was satisfactory at the City s water intake ata Bhaironghat pumping station but the quality of water deteriorated in dredge channel after receiving pollution from city and the situation was worse at Jajmau where untreated trannery effluent was mixed with the river water for its disposal. They suggested setting up of treatment plants by various pollution generating industries. Agarwal et. al. (1976) studied the bacteriological population of the river. It was reported that addition of untreated waste and sewage was responsible for the presence of high value of MPN and few pathogenic organisms posing threat to the residents of the Varanasi city. Pahwa and Mehrotra (1966) carried out hydro biological study of river Ganga for a stretch of 1090 Kms from West in Kanpur to east in Rajmahal at Jharkhand. The study concluded that the value of ph of river water was maximum during January to May and minimum during June to 16

27 August. It also revealed that dissolved oxygen was having the maximum value in January and February while monsoon witness minimum value of dissolved oxygen. Pandey et. al. (1980) carried out physico-chemical monitoring of river Ganga at Kanpur on monthly bases for the year Total nine sampling stations were selected and analysis was carried out. The study revealed that the total effluent flowing into river while passing through Kanpur were above assimilation capacity of the river during winter and summer. Bhargava et. al. (1982) carried out a survey and calculate water quality index of water of river Ganga at Kanpur and found that the value was far beyond the prescribed standards. He also concluded that water of river Ganga has the capacity to bring down B.O.D because of fast regenerating capacity due to the presence of micro-organisms. It was also found that Ganga water was rich in polymers due to excretion by various bacteria. The turbidity was removed by coagulation due to polymers which were good coagulants. Ajmal et. al. (1987) studied the concentration of heavy metals in the sediments of river Ganga. The concentrations of cadmium, nickel, lead, copper, cobalt, chromium iron, manganese and zinc in the water and sediments of the Ganges river were calculated by Atomic Absorption Spectro photometry. The respective ranges of concentrations of cadmium, during the past two decades cobalt, chromium, copper, iron, manganese, nickel, lead and zinc were found in both water and in the sediments. The data showed that there was considerable variation in the elements from one sampling station to the other. Garg et. al. (1992) collected samples at locations where the river entered and left Kanpur. Kanpur is one of the largest industrial cities located on the bank of the river Ganges the city discharges large quantities of industrial effluents into the river. Heavy metals were analyzed monthly for a period of three years from July 1986 to June Time series analysis was performed using a moving average hypothesis to estimate the trend values. The two independent and identically distributed de-seasonalized series for upstream and down-stream were compared by the analysis of variance technique (ANOVA) to find out the space and time effect of different metal levels in water of river Ganga. The measured and trend values were completely in accordance with the observed pattern. Significant site-related effects were observed from chromium because of the presence of a large number of industries, particularly tanneries, 17

28 electroplating and metal processing industries. A time-of-year-related effect on the levels of nickel, copper, zinc, and lead were observed. These differences might be attributed to drought and other natural events. Khwaja et. al. (2001) studied the effects of wastes on the physico-chemical characteristics of water of river Ganga and its sediments in Kanpur. Two sampling sites were chosen near tanneries one after the other. It was concluded that most of the parameters values were increased between these two points. The sediments form chromium at the second site revealed the leakage of chromium into the water of river Ganga. An increase in the level of 10-fold in chromium in the sediment collected from downstream Jajmau area was found in the water of river Ganga. Zafer and Sultana (2002), during July 2002 to June 2004, carried out study of seasonal variation in water quality of river Ganga at Kanpur. Three sites namely, Bithoor, Bhairoghat and Jajmau were selected and samples were collected for the examination of various parameters like temperature, turbidity, turbidity, transparency, ph, alkalinity, hardness, chloride, phosphate, BOD and COD. It was found that the pollution of river water increased from Site I i.e. Bithoor to site II i.e. Bhairoghat and site III i.e. Jajmau. It was concluded that the water of river Ganga should not be used for drinking purpose without treatment. High ph values were recorded at sites where industrial effluent was discharged. Singh et. al. (2002) carried out an investigation to quantify the impact of urban activities on the river sediment quality taking into consideration important urban centres of the Ganga Plain. Sediments from six urban centres of the Ganga Plain were analyzed for heavy metals concentrations. This study concluded that the stream sediments and various urbanization activities had a controlling effect on the accumulation and transportation of anthropogenically originated toxic heavy metals in the rivers of the Ganga Plain. Metal enrichment factors of Cr, Ni, Cu, Zn, Pb and Cd had revealed that these urban centers act as anthropogenic source of heavy metal inputs into rivers of the Ganga Plain. Tare et. al. (2003) studied the most polluted Kannauj-Kanpur stretch. They concluded that despite the implementation of phase I of GAP and its consequent diversion followed by reduction of organic loading in the river BOD level has increased in the river and the DO levels in the river in the entire Kannauj Kanpur stretch have increased except at Jajmau, where an 18

29 aerobically treated effluent is discharged in the river. The nitrogen levels have also increased in the entire area of Kannauj Kanpur stretch. Tiwari et. al. (2005) evaluated the impact of sewage pollution on the water quality of Ganga river in adjoining areas of Patna and Bihar. Water samples were collected from the outfall drains to the river in-order to study the parameters of BOD TDS, COD, and TSS. It was observed that in drain water faecal coliform (MPN) was considerably high. High values of TDS, TSS, BOD, and COD were reported during physico-chemical analysis of the water.all the physico-chemical parameters analyzed were found high across the bank in comparison to the water in the middle stream of sampling station. It was concluded that due to direct discharge of untreated sewage into river Ganga, the quality of river water has been severely deteriorated and the purity of the Ganga water is being lost. Beg and Ali (2008) carried out study on river Ganga in Kanpur to assess the sediment quality where effluents are discharged from tanneries. Samples were collected from upstream and downstream area of the river to analyze for trace metals and toxicity bioassay in sediments. It was found that Cr was 30-fold higher in downstream sediment than in upstream and its value was above the permissible effect level. As per the earlier reported data it was found that trace metals in the downstream sediment was found higher. Rawat et. al. (2009) carried out study to reveal the presence of heavy metals in the samples collected from two areas of Kanpur city namely; Panki and Jajmau. The high concentration of iron, manganese, zinc, copper, nickel, lead and chromium were reported in the samples. Heavy metal concentration was found to be in high levels in soil and road dust samples viz. Nickel and Lead which were in high concentration in few samples, whereas Chromium was found in higher concentration in all the samples than the prescribed values of USEPA and specifications for compost quality contained in the Indian Municipal Solid Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, Contaminations in ground and surface water and also in food chain were detected. Birol and Das (2010) adopted a stated preference environmental valuation technique, which is known as the choice experiment method in order to estimate local public s willingness to pay (WTP) for better capacity and technology of a sewage treatment plant (STP) in Chandernagore municipality. This is situated on the banks of River Ganga. A pilot decision test study was 19

30 controlled to 150 inhabitants of Chandernagore which were chosen arbitrarily. The information was investigated utilizing the restrictive logit model with cooperations. The consequences of the study uncovered that occupants of this region were slanted to pay huge sums in method for higher month to month district assessments to ensure that the full limit of the STP utilized for essential treatment. This was in order to cut back water pollution followed by environmental and health risks which are a threat to the sustainability of the country s economic, cultural and religious values which this sacrosanct river generates. Katiyar et. al. (2011) carried out an analysis of physico-chemical parameters including estimation of chromium in Jajmau area. Because of usage of salts in leather tanning industries the tannery effluents becomes extremely polluted & these untreated tannery effluent waste water was dumped at Confluence point, therefore during summer season ph at confluence point was found to be alkaline as compared to upstream point. In summer season the value of DO decreases, whereas due to dilution of effluent by rain water DO level during Monsoon is higher. BOD level increases during summer at confluence point as compared to that at upstream point. With variation of season the level of COD also varies at different sampling stations, but this variation is not so significant. A significant negative correlation was established between BOD & COD with DO. A positive correlation exists between TDS and COD & BOD. During different seasonal variations levels of TDS, COD & BOD are highly correlated. High chromium level was reported with seasonal variation in all sampling regions. This lone revealed that that extremely adverse effect of tannery effluent on water of river Ganga is found with variation of season. Arya and Richa (2013) reported that the water of Ganga river was polluted in respect to analyzed Parameters. Ganga is dying both physically and biologically. The main source of pollution is sewage effluents that have considerably spoiled the quality of river water. At Siddhnath Ghat, river was found to be highly polluted due to solid waste generated in tanning process and tannery effluent discharge in to the river as compared to other Ghats which indicated higher levels of DO. Kumari et. al. (2013) revealed that Ganga water in Varanasi was found polluted in respect of analyzed Physico-chemical parameters. At different discharge points of river Ganga in Varanasi the industrial effluent was mixed with municipal sewage. Total six sampling stations were selected & analysis of ph, temperature, conductivity, total acidity, total alkalinity, dissolved 20

31 oxygen, biochemical oxygen demand, chemical oxygen demand, nitrate-nitrogen, phosphate, lead, Zinc, iron, nickel, chromium, cadmium and copper was carried out. Conductivity and chromium reported very less value which revealed a relationship between these parameters by Pearson s correlation. Based on proximity distances, Electrical Conductivity, Chromium, Nickel, Iron, nitrate-nitrogen, COD, temperature, BOD, and total acidity comprised one group; Zinc, Lead, Cadmium, Total alkalinity, copper, and phosphate were in another group; and Dissolved oxygen and ph formed a separate group. These groups were confirmed by Pearson's correlation coefficient (r) values that indicated significant and positive correlation between them. Boxwhisker plots disclosed that the pollutant concentration increases on the downstream side and it was found to be maximum at the downstream station i.e. Raj Ghat and minimum at the upstream station i.e. Samane Ghat. Seasonal variations in water quality parameters indicated that total alkalinity, total acidity, DO, BOD, COD, nitrogen, phosphate, lead, zinc, iron, nickel, chromium, cadmium and copper were the highest in summer and the lowest during monsoon season. Temperature was the highest in summer and the lowest in winter. DO value was reported highest in winter and lowest in summer season whereas the value of ph was observed to be the highest in monsoon and the lowest in summer season. 21

32 CHAPTER 3 DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA 3.1 Monitoring Stations in the Study Area River Ganga flows from the foothills of Himalayas and covers a distance of 2,500 km. The river supports 29 class I cities, 23 class II cities and 48 towns, plus thousands of villages. During its course from hills to the sea, domestic and municipal waste water from various residential and urban centers, trade effluent from large number of industries and pollution from various other sources are released into the river. Mass bathing and offerings in river Ganga takes place at time of Kumbh Mela, Kanvar Mela, solar eclipse and major festivals in addition to daily bath and offerings (flowers, food, diyas, milk, oil, etc.) by the pilgrims. Animal carcasses, half-burned and unburned human dead bodies thrown into the river, ritualistic practices, defecation on the banks by the low-income people, discharge of untreated sewage by ashrams slows down the self - purifying capacity of the river which is derived from its high ability to retain DO, this lack of adequate DO leads to septic condition and increases the BOD of the river and results in deterioration of aquatic life. The entire ecology has been degraded by gradual disappearance of fishes and other aquatic fauna along the course of river. Thus in the present study Rishikesh Haridwar Garhmukteshwar stretch has been selected to carry out the analysis of water quality of river Ganga and to asses various changes in the water quality parameters over last decade. A brief description of the major towns/cities in the study area along with Upper Ganga Canal is provided in the subsequent sub-headings. These sites were selected because (1) these sites are among major tourist places and famous holy spots, (2) no such study was conducted earlier at the same location and analysis of water quality would enable assessment of changes and understand the fate of various action plans and policies formulated at these locations, (3) they were included in Ganga Water Quality Monitoring Programme by National River Conservation Directorate (NRCD), Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF), Government of India, New Delhi, 4) Further, a lot of historical and background water quality data is available for these location which would help in comparison of results and would enable assessment of changes. Figure 3.1 shows Upper Ganga River stretch along with various zones. 22

33 Figure 3.1 Upper Ganga River Stretch Showing Various Zones Rishikesh Rishikesh also known as the Yoga Capital of the World is a holy town situated along the bank of river Ganga in Dehradun district of Uttarakhand. It is located at N to E and has an average elevation of 372 meter. According to Census of India, 2011 Rishikesh has a population of 102,138. It is known as the pilgrimage town and regarded as one of the holiest places to Hindus. Hindu sages and saints have visited Rishikesh since ancient times to meditate in search of higher knowledge. Several temples, ancient and new, are along the banks of the Ganges in Rishikesh. It is one of the famous tourist places in Uttarakahand. Apart from religious point of view the town is also known for offering various sports activities like white water rafting, kayaking, bungee jumping, etc. The town is one of the well known locations for rafting 23

34 camps. As tourists from all over the world are attracted to Rishikesh for yoga, rafting, and traveling, Rishikesh has become an international attraction. Rafting in Rishikesh is a popular sport in summer, but due to violations of rules most rafting camps cause pollution to the river. Also being one of the famous destinations the town offers a variety of yoga centers, ashrams and hospitality services which are known to discharge waste-water directly into the river Ganga degrading its water. One sampling site namely Lakshmanjhula has been selected at Rishikesh Haridwar The holy city of Haridwar is located in the state of Uttarakhand at the foothills of Shivalik. The distance from Rishikesh is 28.3 km. Haridwar extends from latitude in the north to longitude in the east. As of 2011 India census, Haridwar district has a population of 18,90,422. The River Ganga, after flowing for 253 kilometers from its source at Gaumukh at the edge of the Gangotri Glacier, enters the Indo-Gangetic Plains of North India at Haridwar. It is regarded as one of the seven holiest places (Sapta Puri) to Hindus. Every year million of pilgrims visit Haridwar. Haridwar is better known for hosting Kumbha Mela,which is celebrated every 12 years. During the Haridwar Kumbh Mela, millions of pilgrims, devotees, and tourists assemble in Haridwar to perform ritualistic practices of bathing on the banks of the river Ganga to wash away their sins and to attain Moksha. Brahma Kund, the spot where the Amrit fell, is located at Har ki Pauri (literally, "footsteps of the Lord") and is considered the most sacred ghat of Haridwar. Apart from major Khumb melas the city is also known for hosting Ardh Kumbh Melas, Kavar Melas and many other major religious functions during the time of major festivals. The ghats of Haridwar are being polluted by religious practices and other activities (cremation of dead bodies, discharge of ashes, etc) up to the extent that water at these ghats is not fit even for bathing purpose. Apart from this the diversion of water from the main river to Upper Ganga Canal further disrupts the flow of main river. The city is developing beyond its religious importance, with the fast developing industrial estate of State Industrial Development Corporation of Uttarakhand (SIDCUL), and the close by township of Bharat Heavy Electricals Limit as well as its affiliated ancillaries. One sampling site namely Missarpur has been selected at Haridwar. 24

35 3.1.3 Garhmukteshwar Garhmukteshar is a town situated at the bank of river Ganga in the state of Uttar Pradesh. Garhmukteshwar derives its name from the great temple of Mukteshwar Mahadeva, dedicated to the goddess Ganga. According to Census of India, 2011 the town has a population of almost The ancient Ganga Temple situated at Garhmukteshwar once had around 100 steps leading down to the river, 85 of these are still intact. Devotees from all around the country come to the temple to witness the river Ganga and the white stone idol of Brahma. A large amount of urban and rural sewage and untreated waste water from industrial unit is discharged into the river at Garhmukteshwar Upper Ganga Canal The upper ganges canal is the original Ganga canal, which begins at the Bhimgoda Barrage near Har Ki Puri at Haridwar, running at the centre of Roorkee, traverses Meerut and Bulandshahr and continues to Nanu in Aligarh district, where it bifurcates into the Kanpur and Etawah branches. The Upper Ganga Canal system is a leading irrigation system in India. It extends over an area of 24,000 sq. km bounded by natural or man-made water courses. The canal withdraws a large amount of water from the river Ganga leaving very less flow in the main river which is one of the main reasons for extinction of aquatic life from the river. Two sites namely, Harkipauri on the upstream side and Roorkee on the downstream side has been selected for analysis water quality of Upper Ganga Canal. In all five sampling sites have been selected for the present study. 25

36 CHAPTER 4 MATERIALS AND METHODS This study was carried out in three phases. The first phase involved compilation of the information on river water quality from data available through various agencies. The water quality monitoring programme was initiated by the Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi in1979. Subsequently, with the launch of Ganga Action Plan (GAP) in 1985, the National River Conservation Directorate, Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of India, New Delhi enlarges the scope of this programme. Several regulatory agencies are involved in the monitoring of river water quality since 1986 under Ganga Action Plan like Uttar Pradesh Pollution Control Board, Uttarakhand Pollution Control Board, etc. The second phase involved analysis of various physico-chemical and biological parameters of the selected stretch to analyze the present water quality characteristic and to assess the variation in water quality parameters. The third phase of the study involved statistical analysis and interpretation of the data. 4.1 Phase I: Compilation of the Available Information The Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi under National Water Quality Monitoring Programme, monitors the quality of river Ganga. The Board has set up various water quality monitoring stations on the river Ganga, in association with State Pollution Control Boards of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal in order to assess water quality of river Ganga and to suggest measures for improving the water quality. Data for this study was obtained from CPCB environment Data Bank for a period of 10 years from Phase II: Analysis of Physico-Chemical and Biological Parameters Field and laboratory studies of various physico-chemical and biological parameters were carried out in order to supplement the available information, interpretation of the trends in water quality and to assess the present water quality of the selected stretch. 26

37 4.2.1 Location of Sampling Three sites were selected in the upper stretch of the river Ganga from Rishikesh to Garhmukteshwar namely, Lakshmanjhula, Rishikesh; Missarpur, Haridwar and Garhmukteshwar. In addition to this water quality of Upper Ganga Canal was also analyzed at two locations namely, Harkipauri, Haridwar and Upper Ganga Canal Roorkee. These sites were selected because- (1) No such study was conducted earlier at the same location and analysis of water quality would enable assessment of changes and understand the fate of various action plans and policies formulated at these locations, (2) They were included in Ganga Water Quality Monitoring Programme by National River Conservation Directorate (NRCD), Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF), Government of India, New Delhi (3) Further, a lot of historical and background water quality data is available for these location which would help in comparison of results and would enable assessment of changes Sample Collection River water samples were collected monthly at each site over a period of eleven months from August 2015 to June All samples were collected from mid-stream at 0.5m below the water surface level using clean plastic containers as per Standard Methods (APHA 2005). The samples collected from each site were transported and brought to the Environmental Engineering Laboratory, Department of Civil Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Kurukshetra, India where they were refrigerated until analysis. Samples were collected in triplicate from each site and average value for each parameter was reported and, in turn, used in the analysis Parameters Analyzed Various impurities present in water are expressed through pollution parameters. These are broadly classified into three categories namely: 27

38 1) Physico-chemical parameters: The parameters analyzed in this study include Temperature, ph, Turbidity, Total Dissolved Solids, Dissolved oxygen and Biological Oxygen Demand. 2) Biological parameters: The biological parameter analyzed in present study includes Most Probable Number (MPN). The physical parameters temperature and ph were recorded on the site and other parameters namely, Turbidity, TDS, DO, BOD and total coliform were determined in the laboratory as per standard methods (APHA 2005). All the chemicals used were of analytical grade. The method of medium preparation was followed as outlined in standard methods. Table 4.1 shows a listing of such techniques along with instrument used and name of the method. The reason for selection of these particular parameters was because of the characteristic of this stretch i.e. it joins the plains after traversing the hilly regions which are less populated and the main reason of concern is organic and bacteriological pollution. Rivers and other water bodies in the hilly part of country are not affected significantly by industrial pollution as in urban areas. The monitoring results obtained during 2011 under National Water Quality Monitoring Programme reflect that organic matter and bacterial population of faecal origin continue to dominate the pollution problem in River Ganga (CPCB, 2013). The major concerns in hilly areas are pathogenic pollution which is reflected through indicators i.e. Total Coliforms (TC) & Faecal Coliform (FC) and organic matter are reflected through Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). Table 4.1 Analytical Methods and Equipment Used Sr. No Parameters Method Equipment Used 1 Water temperature Mercury in glass thermometer 2 ph Electrometric ph meter 3 Turbidity Electrometric Turbidity meter 4 Total dissolved solids Gravimetric Oven 5 Dissolved Oxygen Winkler method 6 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5 days incubation at 20 C and titration of initial and final DO 7 MPN Coliform MPN 28 Incubator Laminar Flow, autoclave, Bacteriological incubator

39 4.2.4 Methods of Analysis and Their Significance: 1) Physico-Chemical Parameters A. Temperature All the chemical and biological processes occurring in nature are influenced by temperature. The rates of chemical and biological reactions generally increase with increase in temperature until it reaches the Optimum temperature. Optimum temperature represents the temperature at which the rate of reaction is best. Temperature higher than the optimum temperature is harmful. Its immediate influences are on dissolved oxygen and biological activity of organisms. Thus temperature is an important factor and cannot be overlooked in the measurement of chemical and biological measurements. B. ph Method Electrometric method was adopted for the determination. The details of the method are listed in the standard methods book of APHA. Significance ph is a term used to express the acidity or alkalinity of a solution. It is a way of indicating the hydrogen ion concentration. Various chemical processes used for treatment of raw water and waste-water require ph to be controlled within a narrow range. Many microorganisms also work within narrow ph range. Thus for these reasons and for the relationship that exist between ph, alkalinity and acidity, it is very important to understand the various theoretical and practical aspects of ph. ph scale is usually represented as ranging from 0 to 14. ph 7 represents absolute neutrality. If value of ph less than 7 indicates that the water is acidic and more than 7 indicate it is of alkaline nature. 29

40 C. Turbidity Method Electrometric method was adopted for the determination. The details of the method are listed in the standard methods book of APHA. Significance Turbidity is caused by a wide variety of suspended matter which ranges from colloidal to coarse dispersion depending upon the degree of turbulence or the velocity of flow. It is the extent to which light is either absorbed or scattered by the suspended solids present it the water. Turbidity interferes with the penetration of sunlight into water body and thus inhibits the process of photosynthesis which in turn results in the decline of aquatic life in the water bodies. Thus it is an important physical parameter in water quality analysis which again cannot be overlooked. D. Total Dissolved Solids Method As mentioned in standard methods gravimetric method was adopted for calculation of TDS. Significance Dissolved substances may be organic or inorganic in nature. Inorganic incorporate minerals, metals and gasses. Organic substances include material from the decay products of vegetation, from organic chemicals and from organic gases. Water may come in contact with these substances in the atmosphere, on surfaces, and within the soil. E. Dissolved Oxygen Method By Winkler method as per standard method (APHA 2005). 30

41 Significance Oxygen is the prime requirement of all the organisms in one form or in the other for carrying out metabolic activities and for the production of energy for growth and reproduction. It is also essential for the survival of aquatic life in the water body. The amount of dissolved oxygen depletes rapidly when the organic matter is consumed by the micro-organism present in the stream. Thus it is an indicator of organic pollution in the water. The more polluted the water the lesser will be the amount of dissolved oxygen present in it. F. Biological Oxygen Demand Method 5 days incubation at 20 C and titration of initial and final DO as per standard method (APHA 2005). Significance Biological oxygen demand represents the amount of oxygen required by the micro-organisms for stabilizing the biodegradable waste under aerobic conditions. The organic matter which enters into the stream or aquatic system is broken down under natural conditions to various end products by the micro-organisms and in this process oxygen is utilized. When highly biodegradable waste enters into the water bodies it deprives the surrounding water from dissolved oxygen and thus results in an ecological imbalance affecting the aquatic life. Thus it is important to know the amount of biodegradable organic matter present in the water which is represented by its biological oxygen demand. The oxygen consumed per liter of sample during 5 days of incubation at 20 C is considered as Standard B.O.D. 2) Biological Parameters The biological evaluation of the water is important to identify its suitability for various uses and determining the toxicity. These parameters are used to describe the presence of microbiological organisms and water-borne pathogens. Micro-organisms and waterborne pathogens enter rivers and lakes either naturally or via the release of untreated or partially treated sewage. Many organisms can cause illness when consumed by humans. 31

42 The barraging and subsequent drawing out of large amounts of water through irrigation canals results in flushing out of biological establishments. During the peak flow seasons, when there is enough water in the dams/reservoirs and excess water is allowed to flow down along the river course, the flushed out communities reach the downstream stretches which sometimes makes the interpretation difficult. A. Most Probable Number Method Coliform MPN was calculated using Laminar flow as per method mentioned in standard methods. Significance The routine bacteriological tests are aimed at enumerating the members of coliform group, which are considered indicators of pollution. They are present where so ever the pathogens are present and their absence excludes the probability of the presence of pathogens. Because identification of pathogenic organisms in water and waste-water is both, time consuming and difficult, the coliform group of organisms is now used as an indicator of the presence of pathogenic organisms. Most probable number (MPN) represents the bacterial density which is most likely to be present in a water sample. MPN is one of the old methods used to test the presence of coliform. The MPN technique is based on statistical analysis of the number of positive and negative results obtained when testing multiple portions of equal volume and in portions constituting a geometric series for the presence of coliform. The usual procedure for determining the presence of coliform is presumptive and the confirmed tests. E-coli are normal inhabitant of the digestive tract. The distribution of these organisms is worldwide. The presence of coliform bacteria points to the contamination of water with sewage and there is a danger of water brone diseases if such water is used for drinking purposes. The excreted pathogens could cause diseases like typhoid, paratyphoid, cholera, dysentery, gastroenteritis, diarrhoea, etc. Experience has established the significance of coliform group density as a criterion of the degree of the pollution and thus of sanitary quality. 32

43 The various water quality standards as per (IS ) and water quality criteria by CPCB are tabulated in Table 4.2 and Table. 4.3 respectively. Table 4.2 Water Quality Standards (IS ) Sr. No. Parameters Acceptable Limits Standards 1 ph 6.5 to 8.5 IS: Turbidity 5 NTU IS: Total dissolved solids 500 mg/l IS: Dissolved Oxygen 4.0 to 6.0 mg/l USPHS 5 Biological Oxygen Demand Nil to 5mg/l USPHS 6 Most Probable Number Must not be detectable in 100ml IS:

44 Designated-Best-Use Table 4.3 Water Quality Criteria by CPCB Class of Criteria water Drinking water Source without conventional treatment but after disinfection Outdoor bathing (Organized) Drinking water source after conventional treatment and disinfection Propagation of Wild life and Fisheries Irrigation, Industrial Cooling, Controlled Waste disposal A B C D E Below E Total Coliforms Organism MPN/100ml shall be 50 or less ph between 6.5 and 8.5 Dissolved Oxygen 6mg/l or more Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5 days 20 C 2mg/l or less Total Coliforms Organism MPN/100ml shall be 500 or less ph between 6.5 and 8.5 Dissolved Oxygen 5mg/l or more Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5 days 20 C 3mg/l or less Total Coliforms Organism MPN/100ml shall be 5000 or less ph between 6 to 9 Dissolved Oxygen 4mg/l or more Biochemical Oxygen Demand 5 days 20 C 3mg/l or less ph between 6.5 to 8.5 Dissolved Oxygen 4mg/l or more Free Ammonia (as N) 1.2 mg/l or less ph between 6.0 to 8.5 Electrical Conductivity at 25 C micro mhos/cm Max.2250 Sodium absorption Ratio Max. 26 Boron Max. 2mg/l Not meeting A, B, C,D & E criteria 34

45 4.3 Phase III: Statistical Analysis Statistical analysis helps in the interpretation of complex data matrices to better understand the water quality and ecological status of the studied river system. Such tools facilitate the identification of possible factors that influence water quality and can help in the reliable management of water resources as well as rapid solution to pollution problem. Statistical analysis of water quality can also illustrate the changing influence of various human activities in different sub-basins and as one proceeds from headwaters to downstream reaches Correlation Methods of correlation summarize the relationship between two variables in a single number called the correlation coefficient. The correlation coefficient is usually given the symbol r and it ranges from -1 to +1. A correlation coefficient quite close to 0, but either positive or negative implies little or no relationship between the two variables. A correlation coefficient closer to plus 1 means a positive relationship between the two variables. A correlation coefficient close to -1 indicates a negative relationship between two variables, with an increase in one of the variable there is a decrease in the other variable. Correlation coefficients are generally of two types: spearman s rho and Pearson s r. For the purpose of this study Pearson s correlation coefficient r is used. When correlation coefficients for several parameters are grouped together, it gives the rise to correlation matrix. Pearson s correlation coefficient The Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient, also known as the correlation coefficient, or as r, is the most widely used correlation coefficient. Values of r for two variables are commonly reported as a means of summarizing the extent of the relationship between them. Pearson's r sum-up the relationship between two variables that have a linear or straight line relationship with each other. The value of r will be positive and above 0 if the two variables have a linear relationship in the positive direction and the value of r < 0 if linear relationship is in the negative direction, such that increases in one variable, is associated with decreases in the other. The values of r ranges from -1 to +1, with values close to 0 indicating little relationship between the two variables. The Pearson correlation coefficient r is given by 35

46 rr = Σ (XX XX ) (YY YY ) Σ (XX XX ) 2 Σ (YY YY ) 2.(4.1) Where X and Y are two variables, each having n values X 1, X 2, X n and Y 1, Y 2,.. Y n respectively and is the mean of X and be the mean of Y. Interpretation of r When the value of r is close to 0, either on the positive or the negative side, there is little or no relationship between X or Y. When the correlation coefficient is above 0, then this gives an evidence of a positive relationship between X and Y. That is, if r > 0, larger values of X are associated with larger values of Y. If r is close to 1, this signifies a large positive relationship between the two variables. If r < 0, it indicate a negative relationship between the two variables. Linear Regression To correlate X and Y, the constant A and B are to be determined by fitting the experimental data on the variables X and Y to equation (4.1). According to the well-known method of least squares, the value of constants a and b are given by the relations given below AA = Σ (XXXX) XX ΣYY Σ (XX) 2 XX Σ Y BB = YY AAXX To determine the straight linear regression following equation of straight line is used Y= AX + B Water Quality Index (WQI) Sometimes it is difficult to assess water quality from a large number of water quality parameters. Traditional methods to evaluate water quality are based on the comparison of experimentally determined parameter values with an existing local normative, which does not provide a global summary on the spatial and temporal trends in the overall water quality (Debels et al., 2005; Kannel et al., 2007). To integrate complex water quality data and to provide a simple and 36

47 understandable tool for managers and decision-makers about the overall water quality status, various water quality indices (WQI) have been developed, which gives a global vision on the spatial and temporal variations of the water quality. Water quality index was proposed by Horton (1965), and then developed by Brown et al. (1970), Dojlido et al., (1994), McClelland (1974), and Pesce and Wunderlin (2000). Water Quality Index is a tool indicating the quality of water in terms of index number which is used to communicate information on the quality of water to the citizens and policy makers. The objective of WQI is to reduce complex water quality data into understandable and usable public information. It is based on some very important water quality parameters and can provide a simple indicator of water quality. WQI calculation WQI incorporates data from various water quality parameters into a mathematical equation that rates the health of water body with a number. In this study, for the calculation of water quality index, six parameters were chosen. The WQI has been calculated by using the standards of drinking water quality recommended by the World Health Organization (WHO), Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), Indian Council for Medical Research (ICMR) and Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), New Delhi. The weighted arithmetic index method (Brown et. al.,) has been used to calculate the WQI. The quality rating or sub index was calculate using the following equation q n = 100 X (Va - Vi) / (S n - Vi) Where, q n = water quality rating, Va = actual value of n th parameter at given sampling station, Vi = ideal value of n th parameter in pure water (i.e., 0 for all parameters except ph and DO which are 7.0 and 14.6 mg /l respectively) and S n = standard permissible value of the n th parameter. Unit weight of nth parameter (W n ) was calculated as given below Where, K = constant of proportionality W n = K / S n 37

48 The overall Water Quality Index (WQI) was calculated by aggregating the quality rating with the unit weight linearly. Water Quality Index (WQI) = Σq n W n / ΣW n Generally from literature it can be seen that a 100 point water quality index scale can be divided into several ranges corresponding to water quality status shown in the Table 4.4 Table 4.4 Water Quality Index and Status of Water Quality WQI Level Water quality status 0-25 Excellent water quality Good water quality Poor water quality Very poor water quality >100 Unsuitable for drinking ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) ANOVA is the workhorse method of using statistics to compare means and determine the effects of influence factors on measurement results. ANOVA can decide if there is a significant effect caused by a factor for which we have any number of sets of data. ANOVA relies on an understanding of two things. First, how the variances of different components can be combined to give the overall observed variance of data. Second is that a difference in means can lead to a spread of results of the combined data that can be detected in terms of an increased variance. ANOVA is mainly of two types: 1) One-way ANOVA 2) Two-way ANOVA For our research we have used one-way ANOVA. When there is just one explanatory variable, we refer to the analysis of variance as one-way ANOVA. To determine if different levels of the variable affect measured observations differently, the following hypotheses are tested. Ho: μ i = μ all i = 1, 2 k 38

49 H1: μ i = μ some i = 1, 2 k Where μ i is the population mean for level i. Assumptions: 1) Subjects are chosen via a simple random sample. (levene s test) 2) Within each group/population, the response variable is normally distributed. (k-s method) 3) While the population means may be different from one group to the next, the population standard deviation is the same for all groups. ANOVA STEPS 1. Calculate sum of squares (total, within groups and between groups). SSSS (tttttttttt) = ΣXX 2 + TT2 NN SSSS (wwwwwwhiiii) = ΣΣXX 2 + ΣΣXX2 xx SSSS(bbbbbbbbbbbbbb) NN = SSSS (tttttttttt) SSSS (wwwwwwhiiii) Where T is the sum of N observation and N is the total number of observation 2. Degrees of Freedom Total = n 1 within group = n k Between groups = k - 1 Where k is the number of samples and n is the number of observations. 3. Mean squares 4. F Ratio Mean square = sum of squares / degrees of freedom F ratio = Mean square (between groups) / Mean squares (within groups) 5. P value should be greater than α (0.05). 39

50 CHAPTER 5 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS The thrust in the present research has been on evolving the basis for analyzing the water quality of river Ganga. This study is expected to serve as a significant input in formulating strategies for future interventions under National River Action Plan. Much of study is based on statistical analysis of river water quality data, on parameters generally considered to be the indicator of surface water quality and pollution. In this study Rishikesh-Haridwar-Garhmukteshwar strech has been considered in order to analyze the present water quality of river Ganga and some additional data as described in Section 4.1 were also collected to analyze the trends in water quality of river Ganga over the period of one decade ( ). In addition to this, water quality of Upper Ganga Canal is also analyzed in order to check the suitability of its water for various uses. All the processed data has been presented in tabular and graphical form at appropriate stages of analysis during the course of results and discussions in this chapter. 5.1 Interpretation of Monthly Water Quality Data of River Ganga The result of monthly analysis of water quality parameters of river Ganga as mentioned in section 4.2 at Rishikesh-Haridwar-Garhmukteshwar stretch are graphically represented in Figure 5.1 to 5.4. Following observations can be made from the information presented in the graphs: The temperature recorded was in the range of ⁰C, ⁰C and ⁰C at Rishikesh, Haridwar and Garhmukteshwar sites respectively. The increase in the value of temperature from Rishikesh to Garhmukteshwar is due to change in the elevation as river passes from hilly areas to plain regions. The change in the trends is shown in Figure 5.1. Temperature decreases and reached minimum values during the winter months of January and then again increases due to natural climatic conditions and seasonal variations. However the increased temperature has been observed when the river flows downstream, i.e. from Rishikesh to Garhmukteshwar. The possible reason for this could be decrease in altitude. Further, addition of waste water from the Garh drain and various small-scale industries results in increase in temperature of water of river Ganga. The addition of warm water which 40

51 Temperature ( 0 C) Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June ph Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Rishikesh Temperature ( 0 C) Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June ph Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Haridwar Temperature ( 0 C) Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June ph Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Garhmukteshwar Figure 5.1 Temperature (⁰C) and ph Values at Sample Locations 41

52 Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec TDS (mg/l) Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Rishikesh TDS (mg/l) Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Haridwar TDS (mg/l) Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Turbidity (NTU) Garhmukteshwar Figure 5.2 Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l) and Turbidity (NTU) Values at Sample Locations Note Value of Turbidity was found less than.01 NTU at Rishikesh and Haridwar. 42

53 DO (mg/l) BOD (mg/l) Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June 0 Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Rishikesh DO (mg/l) BOD (mg/l) Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June 0 Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Haridwar DO (mg/l) BOD (mg/l) Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Garhmukteshwar Figure 5.3 Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) and BOD (mg/l) Values at Sample Location 43

54 Total coliform (MPN/100ml) Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Rishikesh Total coliform(mpn/100 ml) Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Haridwar Total coliform (MPN/100 ml) Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Garhmukteshwar Figure 5.4 Total Coliform (MPN/100 ml) Values at Sample Location 44

55 can be strom water running off warmed urban surfaces, such as streets and parking lots, which are often constructed of black, heat-absorbing asphalt results in increase in the temperature of river water. The values of ph of water of river Ganga were found in the range of , and at Rishikesh, Haridwar and Garhmukteshwar respectively. The values are within the prescribed standards of Primary Water Quality Criteria for Drinking Water Source without conventional but after disinfection or Use Class-A according to CPCB standards. Further, the ph range has been practically same at Rishikesh and Haridwar over the entire study period. But the ph range has been observed to be lower at Garhmukteshwar in comparision to Rishikesh and Haridwar over corresponding period. This is possibly due to the addition of waste water from Garh drain and various small-scale industries. Further various treatment plant discharge waste water into the water of river Ganga without meeting the standard value thus results in decrease in the ph value as river flows downstream. Turbidity of water was found to be less than 0.01 NTU at Rishikesh, and Haridwar however at Garhmukteshwar it was found to be in the range of NTU, which is aesthetically unsatisfactory for bathing. The reason of high turbidity at Garhmukteshwar could be due to addition of untreated industrial and domestic waste water from various drains and treatment plants to river Ganga. Further a relatively high value of turbidity was observed during the month of August at Garhmukteshwar which could be due to unsuitability of river water during monsoon seasons mainly due to increase in the discharge of river or due to floods. It is interesting to note that high values of temperature at Garhmukteshwar could also be due to increase in turbidity. Turbidity in water increases the amount of heat absorbed from sunlight which increases the temperature of river water. The values of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) were within the range of mg/l, mg/l and mg/l at Rishikesh, Haridwar and Garhmukteshwar respectively. The values of Total Dissolved Solids were found to be increasing from Rishikesh to Garhmukteshwar this could be due to increase in the discharge of domestic and industrial waste water from various point and non-point sources as the river passes from upstream point to downstream 45

56 point. Further due to increase in the population and urbanization in the plane areas the contamination of river water increases rapidly. Relatively higher values of turbidity were observed during the month of August at Haridwar and Garhmukteshwar which could be due to increase in the discharge of river or due to floods during monsoon season. The values of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) were found within the prescribed standards of Primary Water Quality Criteria for Drinking Water Source without conventional but after disinfection or Use Class-A according to CPCB standards. The values of DO at Rishikesh, Haridwar and Garhmukteshwar were in the range of mg/l, 8-10 mg/l and mg/l respectively. The value of minimum DO at Garhmukteshwar was found to be higher than the Prescribed Standards by CPCB. High value of DO at all sites is due to the fact that river Ganga has higher oxygen production rate in comparison to other rivers. DO shows mixed trend at all the three sampling locations. However the value was found to be decreasing from Rishikesh to Garhmukteshwar which could be due to the addition of waste water from Garh drain and various small-scale industries. The reduced DO levels in water of river Ganga could also be because of increase in water temperature. The increased molecular activity of the warm water pushes the oxygen molecules out of the spaces between the moving water molecules. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) showed mixed trend at all the Sites. The values varies from mg/l, mg/l at Rishikesh and Haridwar which were found within the prescribed standards of Primary Water Quality Criteria for Drinking Water Source without conventional but after disinfection or Use Class-A according to CPCB standards. However the values were above the permissible standard of Use Class-B at Garhmukteshwar for most of the months. The value was reported to be in the range of mg/l. The month of January witnessed the highest value of BOD at all the site. Further the value of BOD was found to be higher from January to June as compared to rest of the months at Haridwar. The possible reason for this could be Ardh Kumbh Mela which organized at Haridwar from 14 th January to 22 nd April in which thousands of devotees and pilgrims assembled at Haridwar to perform ritualistic practice of bathing on the banks of rivers Ganga. 46

57 It is interesting to note that increase in the value of BOD from Rishikesh to Garhmukteshwar is related to decrease in DO levels which in turn are related to increase in the TDS values. The increase in TDS results in decreases in the photosynthetic activity which results in the reduction of DO levels. As DO and BOD have inverse relationship, reduction in DO leads to increased BOD in due course of time. Further, effluent with high BOD levels discharged into a stream or river accelerates bacterial growth in the river and consumes the oxygen levels in the river. The oxygen may diminish to levels that are lethal for most fish and many aquatic insects. The value of Total coliforms in the entire stretch was much higher than the prescribed Standards. The values are within the range of MPN/100 ml, MPN/100 ml and MPN/100 ml at Rishikesh, Haridwar and Garhmukteshwar respectively. The value was found extremely higher at Haridwar followed by Rishikesh which is due to the religious importance of these places. Thousands of Pilgrims visit the city of Haridwar and Rishikesh every year to perform various ritualistic practices like bathing and they offer a variety of offerings (flowers, oil, milk, cotton, etc.) into the water of river Ganga which results in the increases of the organic loading. Further, these places are also among the major tourist attraction these places offer a variety of hospitality services. Various ashrams and hotels discharge their waste water directly into the river which again results in the increases of organic loading in the river water of river Ganga. Therefore the concentration of coliform was much above the threshold mainly due to organic loading near the ghats. Higher values of total coliforms were recorded during the month December and January at all the three locations which could also be the reason for higher value of BOD. As bacteria take up oxygen during decomposition process, this in turn decreases the DO in water. The higher the bacterial abundance, the greater will be the BOD and the lesser DO. Based on aforementioned observations it may be stated that water quality of river Ganga in the selected stretch is not fit for bathing purpose. The value of BOD is found to be higher at Garhmukteshwar which again indicate serious pollution of river due to addition of toxic mix of untreated sewage, discarded garbage, agricultural run-off and industrial waste flow by different point and non-point sources. Further the total coliform count is the major cause of concern in the above stretch. According to the study, the main cause for high levels of coliform is the disposal 47

58 of human faeces, urine and sewage directly into the river from its origin in Gaumukh till it reaches Haridwar. In addition to this half criminated dead bodies are being disposed into the water of river Ganga at Haridwar and Rishikesh further different ritualistic practices performed by the pilgrims at these places increases the organic loading. 5.2 Interpretation of Monthly Water Quality Data of Upper Ganga Canal The result of monthly analysis of water quality parameters of Upper Ganga Canal as mentioned in section 4.2 at two sampling location namely; Harkipauri, Haridwar and Roorkee are given in Figure 5.5 and 5.6. The water samples were available for the month of October at both the sampling sites due to diversion of water for cleaning the ghats. Following observations and comments can be made from the information presented in the graphs. The temperature of water recorded was in the range of ⁰C at Harkipauri and ⁰C at Roorkee at respectively. The values of ph of water of river Ganga were found in the range of at Harkipauri and at Roorkee respectively. The values were within the prescribed standards of Primary Water Quality Criteria for Drinking Water Source without conventional but after disinfection or Use Class-A according to CPCB standards. The values of ph show a constant trend at both the sampling locations. Turbidity of water was found to be less than 0.01 NTU at both the locations. The values of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) were within the range of mg/l and mg/l at Harkipauri and Roorkee respectively. The values of TDS were found to be increasing from Harkipauri to Roorkee this could be due to increase in the discharge of domestic and industrial waste water from various point and non-point sources as the river passes from upstream point to downstream point. Highest values of TDS were found in the monsoon month of August at both the sampling locations this could be to unsuitability of river water during monsoon seasons mainly due to increase in the discharge of river or due to floods. The values of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) were found within the prescribed standards of Primary Water Quality Criteria for Drinking Water Source without conventional but after 48

59 disinfection or Use Class-A according to CPCB standards. The values of DO were in the range of mg/l at Harkipauri and mg/l at Roorkee respectively. All-though the values of DO were higher than the permissible limit at both Harkipauri and Roorkee. However the month of January witnessed the lowest value as compared to the rest of the month. The possible reason for this could be Ardh Kumbh Mela which organized at Haridwar from 14 January to 22 nd April in which thousands of devotees and pilgrims assembled at Haridwar to perform ritualistic practice of bathing on the banks of rivers Ganga. The values of Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) varies from mg/l and mg/l at Harkipauri and Roorkee which were found within the prescribed standards of Primary Water Quality Criteria for Drinking Water Source without conventional but after disinfection or Use Class-A according to CPCB standards. The values were found to be highest in the month of January at Harkipauri as compared to the rest of the months. The possible reason for this could be Ardh Kumbh Mela which organized at Haridwar from 14 January to 22 nd April in which thousands of devotees and pilgrims assembled at Haridwar to perform ritualistic practice of bathing on the banks of rivers Ganga. BOD showed mixed trend at Roorkee the value was found to be highest in the month of November and thereafter slightly decreasing upto the month of February and the value again started increasing from the month of March. The values of BOD at Harkipauri were high as compared to Roorkee which could be due to addition of organic waste (open deification, ritualistic practices of bathing performed by pilgrims, etc.). Due to religious importance of this place large number of devotees visits the ghats of Harkipauri every year. The values of Total coliforms in the entire stretch were much higher than the prescribed Standards. The value varies from MPN/100 ml and MPN/100 ml at Harkipauri and Roorkee respectively. The value were found extremely higher in the water of Upper Ganga Canal as compared to river water of Ganga which is due to the the religious importance of these places. Harkipauri is the considered the most religious place in Haridwar. Brahma Kund, the spot where the Amrit fell, is located at Har ki Pauri (literally, "footsteps of the Lord"). Thousands of Pilgrims visit the city of Haridwar every year to perform various ritualistic practices like bathing and they offer a variety of offerings 49

60 (flowers, oil, milk, cotton, etc.) into the water of river Ganga which results in the increases of the organic loading. Further due to diversion of water of river Ganga to Upper Ganga Canal degrade the quality of water. Overall the water quality of Upper Ganga Canal was found to be deteriorating especially at Harkipauri. Harkipauri is one of the main Ghats of Haridwar and is also the starting point of Upper Ganga Canal. Every year millions of devotees and pilgrims visit Haridwar to perform various rituals at the bank of river Ganga especially at Harkipauri due to religious importance of this place. As per the samples, the total count of serious disease causing organisms in the month of January reveal that the figure stood at staggering 34,000 at upstream of Upper Ganga Canal. The count of organism per 100 ml shall be 500 or less in water used for outdoor bathing. From the analysis it can be concluded that water at Harkipauri is not fit for drinking and bathing purpose as the number of Coliforms at Harkipauri were found much higher than permissible value. Mass bathing could result in the spread of water-borne diseases at Harkipauri. The main cause for high levels of coliform is the disposal of human faeces, urine and sewage directly into the river from its origin in Gaumukh till it reaches Haridwar. Further, from the above analysis it is observed that due to the diversion of river water to Upper Ganga Canal the water quality of river Ganga is deteriorating. 50

61 Temperature ( 0 C) Temperature ( 0 C) at Upper Ganga Canal, Harkipauri Temperature ( 0 C) Temperature ( 0 C) at Upper Ganga Canal, Roorkee Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June 9 ph at Upper Ganga Canal, Harkipauri 9 ph at Upper Ganga Canal, Roorkee 8 8 ph 7 ph Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr TDS (mg/l) May June Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June TDS (mg/l) at Upper Ganga Canal, Harkipauri TDS (mg/l) TDS (mg/l) at Upper Ganga Canal, Roorkee Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Figure 5.5 Temperature ( C), ph and Total Dissolved Solids (mg/l) Values at Upper Ganga Canal 51

62 DO at Upper Ganga Canal, Harkipauri DO at Upper Ganga Canal, Roorkee DO (mg/l) Aug DO (mg/l) Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June BOD at Upper Ganga Canal, Harkipauri BOD at Upper Ganga Canal, Roorkee 4 4 BOD (mg/l) BOD (mg/l) Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Aug Sep Total Coliform (MPN/100 ml) Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Total coliform at Upper Ganga Canal, Harkipauri Total Coliform (MPN/100ml) Total coliform at Upper Ganga Canal, Roorkee Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Figure 5.6 Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l), Biological Oxygen Demand (mg/l) and Total Coliform (MPN/100ml) values at Upper Ganga Canal 52

63 5.3 Trends Analysis and Year-Wise Variation in Water Quality in the Last Decade In order to assess the changes in river water quality due to discharge of large quantity of waste water generated from various anthropogenic activities over the last decade, water quality parameters (temperature, ph, conductivity, dissolved oxygen, biological oxygen demand, fecal coliform and total coliform) of ten consecutive years from as described section 4.1 above have been analyzed. The results are presented in graphical form from Figure 5.7 to From the data collected following observations can be made ph values were found in the range of The values at Rishikesh and Garhmukteshwar were found within the prescribed standards of Primary Water Quality Criteria for Drinking Water Source without conventional but after disinfection or Use Class-A according to CPCB standards. However minimum value of ph 6.6 was found at Haridwar in the year 2010 which is above the prescribed standards. The value of ph shows slightly increasing trend at Rishikesh and Haridwar. A slightly decreasing trend has been observed at Garhmukteshwar in the last decade. The values of Conductivity were found within permissible limits at all the three locations. The value ranges from mhos/cm. High values of conductivity were reported at Rishikesh in the year The values at Garhmukteshwar were found to be decreasing over a period of 10 years. The values of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) were found to be in the range of mg/l, mg/l and mg/l at Rishikesh, Haridwar and Garhmukteshwar respectively. The values of Dissolved Oxygen were high at all the sites which is within the prescribed standards of Primary Water Quality Criteria for Drinking Water Source without conventional but after disinfection or Use Class-A according to CPCB standards (CPCB, 2009). The values shows nearly constant trend at Rishikesh and Garhmukteshwar from with very less or no variation. However the values were found to be decreasing at Haridwar for the given time period. 53

64 8 Figure 5.7 Year-Wise Variation in ph ph Rishikesh Haridwar Garhmukteshwar Conductivity(mhos/cm) Figure 5.8 Year-Wise Variation in Conductivity (mhos/cm) Conductivity Rishikesh Haridwar Garhmukteshwar Figure 5.9 Year-Wise Variation in Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) DO (mg/l) DO(mg/l) Rishikesh Haridwar Garhmukteshwar