Lecture: Prospective Environmental Assessments

Transcription

1 Lecture: Prospective Environmental Assessments New Technologies Stefanie Hellweg

2 Learning goal Getting to know examples of prospective assessments of new technologies (and their capabilities and shortcomings) 1. Nanotechnology 2. Smartphones Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

3 1st example: Nanotechnology Specific learning goals 1. Discussing the lessons learnt of past technology development for new technologies 2. Application of prospective assessment with scenario analysis, upscaling, risk assessment, LCA Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

4 Long-term health impact The case of Asbestos ( past nanotechnology ) In contrast to dust particles, asbestos fibers are not taken up by macrophage cells in the lung and they are not chemically destroyed The lung is slowly destroyed (asbestosis) and in 10-20% of the cases a cancer develops The latency period is years Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

5 Examples of long-term health impact V Asbestos II Looking back in the light of present knowledge, it is impossible not to feel that opportunities for discovery and prevention of asbestos disease were badly missed T. Legge, ex Chief Medical Inspector of Factories, Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

6 Early Warnings in the Asbestos Case (19th century) 1879: mining for white asbestos began 1898: Lucy Dean, Women Inspector of Factories in the U.K. reports ascertained cases of injury to bronchial tubes and lungs medically attributed to the employment Discovered sharp glass-like jagged nature of particles; effects have been found to be injurious as might have been expected ; suggests to keep mortality statistics 1899: Dr. M. Murray reports lung disease attributed to inhaled asbestos; the worker reported that he was the only survivor of 10 colleagues Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

7 Early Warnings in the Asbestos Case (20th century) 1906: a French Factory Inspector reported some 50 deaths among female asbestos textile workers 1906: Asbestos is not included as a cause of industrial disease in Britain, because considerable trouble is now taken to prevent the inhalation of the dust, so that the disease is not so likely to occur as heretofore (Murray 1906) 1911: further evidence about hazards noted in workers (Collis 1911) and pioneering experiments with rats Factory Department pressed for installation of dust ventilation, but found insufficient evidence to justify further action 1918: insurance companies in the US and Canada decline insurance cover for asbestos workers due to the assumed injurious conditions in the industry (Hoffmann 1918) (later on this decline was lifted again huge costs in 1990s) Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

8 Early Warnings in the Asbestos Case (20th century) : several deaths reported having died of asbestos poisoning doctoral thesis (Gieve 1927) and medical literature 1928: first health study of asbestos workers found that 66% of those employed for 20 years suffered from asbestosis (Merewether and Price, 1930) 1931: first asbestos dust control regulations in Britain, as well as medical surveillance and compensation arrangements 1930s and 1940s: Reports on lung cancers associated with asbestos appeared in the UK, US and German medical literature 1943: asbestos lung cancer was made a compensatable industrial disease in Germany 1950s: further evidence of lung cancer in the medical literature (risk 10 times higher than that for the general population); asbestos industry tried to suppress these findings Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

9 Early Warnings in the Asbestos Case (20th century) 1960: In South Africa, mesothelioma (cancer of the lining of the chest or abdomen) was associated to asbestos exposure in the medical literature (average latency period of 40 years); further evidence in the US and UK in 1964 industry representatives describe authors as disturbing sore thumb Asbestos cancer studies only on factories (but not users) severe mistake (Peto 1998) 1979: Smoking and asbestos exposure were found to have synergistic effects (50 times the risk of normal population) 1985: British government accepted lung cancer as industrial disease IF accompanied by asbestosis (rising trends of smoking complicated diagnosis) Latency lacuna : Dust control was reinforced it was alway thought that the problem was solved (until decades later the opposite became apparent) Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

10 Regulations (20th century; mainly in UK) Asbestos regulation of 1931 were poorly enforced (and did not include use of asbestos, only production) 1969: limit for factory asbestos dust of 2 Mio fibres/m 3 to be introduced gradually (criticized as insufficient later) 1979: ban on blue asbestos suggested 1980: limits were lowered to 1 Mio fibers and 0.5 Mio fibres/m 3, for white and brown asbestos, respectively 1982: further lowering of limits; voluntary labeling scheme 1986: WHO s International Agency for Research on Cancer concluded that all three types of asbestos were carcinogens without known safe level of exposure Late 1980s: first limit for the public (100,000 fibres/m3) 1989: ban of most forms of asbestos in Switzerland 1997: ban on all forms of asbestos in France Canada filed a trade barriers complaint at WTO (rejected) 2005: EU ban on asbestos Source: D. Gee and M. Greenberg Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

11 Costs of inaction It is estimated that some 250,000 cases of mesothelioma will occur in the EU until 2035; up to 400,000 cases including lung cancer In the US alone, asbestos compensation reached 2 billion USD Asbestos has brought also benefits (fire control, energy saving insulations etc.), but substitutes were available already by 1970 (and earlier) Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

12 Lessons learnt Experience of victims, lay people and competent observers should be taken seriously Early warnings should be followed up by long-term medical exposure surveys Laws were not well implemented and sanctions were trivial Strategically and tighter regulation would have raised price of asbestos stimulating innovation Economic factors played a key role all external costs should be borne by polluter; institutional arrangements needed to help meet society s long-term interest Speedy and transparent compensation payments needed as soon as harmful effects become known incentive to prevent further harm absence of evidence of harm does not mean absence of harm (long-latent period hazards) Anticipate surprises and take care with substitutes Precautionary approach needed Source: D. Gee and M. Greenberg, Late lessons from early warnings: the precautionary principle , Asbestos: from magic to malevolent mineral Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

13 Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

14 Starting situation new nanotechnology New properties of materials New and very interesting applications List of potential applications is growing What about the environmental impact? Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

15 Motivation for performing LCA on Nanoproducts LCA provides the possibility for proactive action to prevent or minimize adverse effects over the entire life cycle of nanoproducts Comparison of nanoproducts to conventional products Identification of hot spots in the life cycle Complete LCA would reveal tradeoffs between energy and particle related effects EU and US EPA: Nanotechnology and Life Cycle Assessment, workshop documentation, Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

16 Existing LCA Studies in the literature Most studies indicate increased energy and/or resource efficiency in comparison to conventional products BUT Often only some life-cycle stages considered; particle-specific effects neglected Hischier, R; Walser, T. Life cycle assessment of engineered nanomaterials: State of the art and strategies to overcome existing gaps. Science of the Total Environment 2012, 45, pp Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

17 Case study: Prospective assessment of nanosilver in textiles Functional unit System boundaries Data collection Life cycle of a nanosilver T-shirt Inventory -> Impact Assessment -> Interpretation How to handle emerging technologies Being dressed with a biocidal polyester T-Shirt for outdoor activities during one year in Switzerland (wearing it once a week) Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

18 Case study nanosilver T-shirts Walser et al. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2011, 45 (10), pp Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

19 Investigated processes (I) Plasma polymerization with silver co-sputtering laboratory plant, pilot plant, estimated commercialized plant Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

20 Investigated processes (II) Flame spray pyrolysis commercialized Precursors: silver octanoate calcium precursor tributylphosphate organic solvents nanosilver particles incorporation via hot melt process Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

21 Results cradle to gate assessment FSP Midpoint, 1 kg Ag-TCP Midpoint, 1 kg Ag-TCP Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

22 Results cradle to grave assessment all production technologies 234 kg CO 2 -eq / T-shirt disposal use distribution / sale production and functionalization of biocide production of T-shirt 0 conventional triclosan FSP comm PlaSpu comm PlaSpu pilotplaspu laboratory Walser et al. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2011, 45 (10), pp Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

23 Results cradle to grave assessment all production technologies Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

24 Formative Scenario Analysis (scenarios for 2020) Walser et al. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2011, 45 (10), pp Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

25 Scenario Characteristics and Impact Variables: Nanotechnology Development Impact variables Scenario slow development Scenario estimat ed development Scenario fast develop ment Scenario no nano Explanations, assumptions nanoag production and incorporation in textile nanosilver T-shirts per person (5 polyester T- shirts in total) fraction of washing frequency of nanosilver T-shirts in comparison to conventional T-shirts PlaSpu 20%, (commercial) FSP 80% FSP only FSP only Walser et al. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2011, 45 (10), pp FSP is a mature technology whilst PlaSpu is still in an early maturity stage Swiss consumer s demand was always assumed to be 5 T-shirts in total, composed of no nano and/or nano T-shirts depending on the scenario. In the scenario no nano, the nano T-shirts are replaced by Triclosan coated T-shirts. Electricity use for washing is assumed to be 0.66 kwh The more nanosilver T-shirts are bought, the higher the awareness of the reduced odor; thus washing frequency is lowered further Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

26 Scenario Characteristics and Impact Variables: Environmental Awareness Impact variables Scenario low Scenario medium Scenario high water use per washing cycle electricity use per washing cycle electricity use per tumbling cycle number of washings (lifetime of T-shirt) amount of T-shirts per washing load tumbling frequency per T- shirt washing 63 l 0.76 kwh 2.22 kwh Same as washing frequency 49 l 0.66 kwh 1.68 kwh Half the washing frequency 35 l 0.57 kwh 1.68 kwh Tenth the washing frequency Increased future demand for cleaner technologies drives the competition between producers of washing and tumbling machines. Consumers with higher environmental awareness will prefer new washing machines with lower electricity and water demand. Raw material requirements for washing machines and tumblers remain constant. Depending on the environmental awareness the tumbler is used differently: frequency of use changes and the clothes are either completely or nearly dried. Lower environmental awareness results in lower washing loads and decreased lifespan of T-shirts (e.g. replacement assumed to be fashion driven) and higher washing temperatures. Walser et al. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2011, 45 (10), pp Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

27 Results Scenario Analysis 5e+5 Environmental awareness high medium low tons CO 2 -eq / yr 4e+5 3e+5 2e+5 1e+5 disposal use production 0 slowestimated fast no nano slowestimated fast no nano slowestimated fast no nano Nanocoated textile development Walser et al. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2011, 45 (10), pp Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

28 Biocide leaching: temporal aspects Similar concentrations applied Functionality? 400 commercial products mg biocide / T-shirt triclosan (n=20) silver (n=45) Walser et al. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2011, 45 (10), pp Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

29 Biocide leaching: temporal aspects Toxicity assessment depends on temporal boundaries kg 1,4-DCB freshwater Released Triclosan Released Silver seawater toxicity Walser et al. Environ. Sci. Technol., 2011, 45 (10), pp Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

30 What can LCA currently (not) do? Powerful concerning the assessment of conventional impacts (e.g. impact on climate change or on resource efficiency) however, emission characterization (mass, number, shape, composition, size, surface area) and specific effects of particles not covered yet (differences in size, composition, geometry, tendency to agglomerate, ) Some life-cycle stages not well assessed so far (e.g. workers exposure or disposal phase) Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

31 Potential health impacts Great potential for new applications, but risks are often unknown Points of entry into the body Mainly lung system (aveoli) local effects or may enter the blood stream (and from there all organs) Particle absorpiton through skin? Ingestion Effects Do not only depend on molecular structure and elemental composition (like for conventional chemicals), but also on size, surface and morphology unlimited number of combinations Current tests are case-by-case assessments Reference: Health Canada ( Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

32 Proposed procedure for indoor emissions Walser et al. 2015, J Nanopart Res Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

33 Case study: Exposure during Nanoparticle Production (FSP technology) Objectives Experimental monitoring of the industrial and research workplace environments working with gas-phase production processes and quantification of nano and submicron particle concentrations Identification, quantification and mitigation of the potential for workers exposure relative to task. Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

34 Methodology Spatial and temporal analysis of particle concentration Influence of air exchange, temperature and humidity Measurement of particle number and mass concentrations, size-distribution of particles Analysis of exposure potential during secondary work, i.e. maintenance, cleaning, sieving, packaging Analysis of efficiency of workers protection methods, mainly breathing masks Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

35 Instrumentation Condensation Particle Counters (CPC) Number concentration [cm -3 ] for particles from 7 to 1000 nm Scanning Mobility Particle Sizer (SMPS) Particle size distribution of particles in the range from 4 to 1000 nm Optical dust monitor (DustTrak) Mass concentration [mg/m 3 ] of PM1.0 VelociCalc Plus Air velocity: 0 to 50 m/s, Temperature: -10 to 60 C, Humidity: 0 to 95% Air velocity: Transducers Air velocity: 0 to 2.0 m/s Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

36 Measurement Plan: Industrial Facility 13.9 m 3.4 m Materials Storage Unit B3 P3 Storage Unit Cupboard B1 P1 Cupboard P6 Storage Unit Switching Unit T Cupboard Shelves P4 T Cupboard 4.1 m T 4.8 m B : Background measuring positions P : Production measuring positions T : Transducer positions P5 T P7 Filter Unit B2 P2 Demou et al., Annals of Occupational Hygiene, Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

37 08:52 09:21 09:50 10:19 10:48 11:16 11:45 12:14 12:43 13:12 13:40 14:09 14:38 15:07 15:36 16:04 Number concentration [cm -3 ] Production: Number Concentration Number concentration (Far-field) Number concentration (Near-field) Average background level Time Demou/Peter/Hellweg, Annals of Occupational Hygiene, Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

38 00:00 00:48 01:37 02:26 03:15 04:04 04:53 05:42 06:31 07:20 08:09 08:58 09:47 10:36 Number Concentration [cm -3 ] Mass Concentration [mg/m 3 ] Concentration Profile: Number versus Mass Time [hh:mm] Demou/Peter/Hellweg, Annals of Occupational Hygiene, Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

39 Concentration measurements and model In this case, one-box model worked (ventilation dominated over other removal rates, e.g. sedimentation or agglomeration). Demou et al Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

40 Number concentration [p/cm 3 ] Size Distribution Average starting phase Average steady state Average early decline Average advanced decline Diameter midpoint [nm] Demou et al Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

41 Intake and uptake After inhalation, nanoparticles either remain, are dissolved and absorbed, transported with fluids ore taken up by cells. Particle retention is a function of site of deposition and interaction of the particle with the lung (depends on size, shape, composition, dissolution, and surface reactivity) Models are typically used to quantify uptake (e.g. Multiple-Path Particle Dosimetry model) Effects can be local or systemic (for the latter, typically translocation into the bloodstream is below 5% of the inhaled dose) calculation of destination-based dose Walser et al. 2015, J Nanopart Res Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

42 Summary of exposure case study Particle number concentrations always followed pattern of production, while mass concentrations were unstable. Production unit was the prominent emission source. Ventilation was the primary removal pathway. Ambient conditions did not significantly influence concentrations. In this case, spatially homogeneous concentrations Filters for personal protective equipment display high efficiency of protection. Effect values not available for this case. Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

43 Effect factors for human toxicity Mainly case-by-case assessments Unlimited number of combinations of influencing properties (composition, size, shape, ) In vitro studies not yet reliable Only few chronic inhalation studies available so far Walser et al. 2015, J Nanopart Res Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

44 One suggested framework for effect factors Grouping of nanoparticles into groups according to chemical identity (CID) 1. Assign nanoparticles to CID if elementally and structurally comparable 2. Otherwise, assign a new CID and calculate all pathway-based EFs based on best available information for the most toxic nanomaterial present. 3. If the nanoparticle contains a stable surface coating that is comparable to an existing Nano-CID entry: If the coating is the most toxic material present, assign the existing CID; if the coating is not the most toxic material present, assign a new CID. Directly taken from Walser et al. 2015, J Nanopart Res 44

45 Suggested framework for effect factors 1. Fibres 2.Soluble 3. Poorly soluble particle low tox Fibre paradigm: Length, diameter, biopersistence influence toxicity Walser et al. 2015, J Nanopart Res 45

46 Incineration of Nanowaste Walser et al. Nature Nanotechnology, 7, (2012) Trace Element and Micro Analysis Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

47 Relevance of Engineered Nanoparticle from an Environmental Perspective Increasing production increasing emissions to the environment? Raw materials Production Use Disposal? Waste incineration Waste water treatment Air, water, soil, plants, animals, humans? Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

48 Nanowaste Why Should We Care About? Single NP vs bulk material: Changing physicochemical properties Translocation through biological barriers and higher bioavailability Increasing share of nanowaste What are safe nanowaste disposal options? Threat to closed-loop economy (?) Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

49 Which nanooxide is a worst case (and still relevant) ENP to study? Are nanooxides removed from the flue gas? Can ENP be detected and quantified in incineration residues? Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

50 Laboratory Studies and Modelling Do Not Necessarily Reflect Reality Important drivers for the fate in incineration plants heterogeneity of the waste matrix effects complex chemical environment ENP flow vs. multiple tons waste flow Models (if based on assumptions) and boiling points (controlled experiments) are not enough to provide scientifically sound answers on the behavior of nanooxides in a full scale, highly complex system. Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

51 Going Big 220,000 metric tons waste per year 4 furnaces Boiler, electrostatic filter, wet scrubber Heat distribution, electricity generation Picture: KEBAG Emmenspitz Walser et al. Nature Nanotechnology, 7, (2012) Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

52 Experimental Setting Control experiment Case 1: 10 kg ENP on the waste Case 2: 1 kg ENP into the incinerator Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

53 Addition of nano-ceo2 Pictures: Bergamin, Walser Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

54 Slag sampling Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

55 Slag water sampling Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

56 Quench water sampling Picture: Walser Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

57 Flue gas sampling Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

58 Analytics Quantitative ICP-MS LOQ fly ash and slag: 60 ng/g LOQ quench water: 0.7 ng/g LOD flue gas: 2 ng per filter LOD clean gas: 0.6 ng per filter Qualitative Electron Microscopy (STEM, SEM) Model Element flow analysis Thermodynamic calculations Pictures: Flamigni, Brogioli Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

59 Walser et al. Nature Nanotechnology, 7, (2012) Cerium mass flow in the flue gas after the electrostatic precipitator 1000 mg/h Case Case :00 11:00 13:00 15:00 E-Filter efficiency >99%; Ce flow in fly ash: ~ 100 g/h Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

60 Walser et al. Nature Nanotechnology, 7, (2012) Ce (mg/h) Results: cerium in all combustion residues Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

61 Walser et al. Nature Nanotechnology, 7, (2012) Results: cerium in all combustion residues Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

62 Ce (g) Walser et al. Nature Nanotechnology, 7, (2012) Results 10 4 Case 1: 81% 19% 0.02% 100% Case 2: 53% 45% 1.7% % 100% slag fly ash quench water cycle clean gas total Ce detected Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

63 Results: Nano-CeO2 Primary Particles Walser et al. Nature Nanotechnology, 7, (2012) Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

64 Results: Nano-CeO2 is found in loose agglomerates, physico-chemically unchanged in the slag Walser et al. Nature Nanotechnology, 7, (2012) Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

65 Conclusions Nanowaste Efficient: Electrostatic precipitator and wet scrubber Inert: Nano-CeO 2 particles leave the incinerator unchanged Attention: Human exposure, slag processing, transport and ENP behavior in landfills ENP carryover in the MSWI plant Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

66 Overall conclusions Existing LCA studies often neglect particle-specific effects incomplete analysis (still helpful for some purposes) Risk assessment has made progress and case-by-case assessments are possible; however, a reliable toxicity information is missing for many nanoparticles and methods for a systematic assessments of all nanoparticles are not yet operational. Until more information is known on the environmental fate and toxic effects, we may need a tiered assessment with less data requirements. Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

67 2nd example: Smartphones and mobile communications Specific learning goals Illustrating difficulty at an early stage to define appropriate functional unit and make assumptions on technology development Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

68 Sales scenarios of smartphones Source: Presentation and EU report Tuomas Mattila et al Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

69 Functional unit? the provision of mobile communication services equivalent to the services provided by the annual use of a typical smartphone [unit of smartphone] in the EU-27 area Source: Presentation and EU report Tuomas Mattila et al Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

70 First focus on DEVICE Slide source: Presentation Tuomas Mattila Prospective Environmental Assessment: New Technologies

71 But device is not the only issue Slide source: Presentation Tuomas Mattila data transmission 5 % voice transmission 11 % electricity, device 8 % networks 36 % EOL, device packaging 2 % 1 % mechanical components 7 % transport of device to market 8 % device 54 % battery <1 % device 42 % electricity, device 2 % electronic components EOL, device 36 % 2 % 30 kg CO 2 -eq. 33 kg CO 2 -eq. networks 54 % data centres 43 % data centres 20 % battery <1 % electronic components 26 % packaging 1 % transport of device to market 9 % mechanical components 8 % voice transmission 3 % data transmission 8 %