3. Roles of local governments

Transcription

1 3. Roles of local governments In Japan, the term local governments refers to the country s 47 prefectural governments and a number of municipalities (779 cities, 844 towns and 197 villages as of April 2006) that comprise prefectures. Populations and areas vary greatly depending on the municipality. As of 2007, the country s fifteen major cities with especially large populations (approximately 800,000 and more) partly perform the functions and roles of prefectures as ordinance-designated cities. Local governments have a broad range of roles: formulating and implementing various policies in each region, steadily enforcing laws and ordinances suited to the natural and social conditions of each region, and implementing appropriate recycling and treatment of waste. Moreover, they are expected to act as coordinators between NGOs, NPO, residents, the private sector, and the central and other local governments. In other words, local governments reduce the environmental load by properly treating waste and carrying out the 3Rs, offering education, awareness-raising activities and support to residents and the private sector, and providing guidance and supervision for businesses, in cooperation with the central and other local governments as needed. When tackling waste problems, the aim of reducing natural-resource consumption and the environmental load should be kept in mind. In addition, measures to counter global warming should be taken from a nationwide or worldwide perspective, as the promotion of waste reduction, waste power generation and thermal recycling is required. In local governments, in general, the Environment Bureau (or a department in charge of environmental affairs) carries out the promotion of the 3Rs and waste treatment. Now, let s cite the example of the City of Kitakyushu to understand the organizational structure of a local government (municipality) and its operations relevant to the 3Rs and waste treatment. Read more--- Organization of the City of Kitakyushu Located in Fukuoka Prefecture in the northern part of Kyushu (Japan s south island) and connected with Honshu (Japan s main island) by a bridge, Kitakyushu City is an ordinance-designated city with a population of approximately one million. Kitakyushu has achieved remarkable development as an industrial city since the launch of the nations first government-managed steelworks in the city in 1901 (The city where the steelworks were located was formerly called Yahata City before the establishment of Kitakyushu City through a merger with adjacent cities.) The city also experienced tremendous environmental pollution. However, residents, the municipal government and the private sector formed a strong partnership and through their respective efforts,

2 successfully overcame the pollution problem. Currently, the city is renowned for the promotion of environmental industry through the Eco-Town project and others, as well as for its strong efforts toward international environmental cooperation. Organizational chart of the City of Kitakyushu (Exampl Mayor Deputy Mayor Environment Bureau General Affairs and Citizens Service Bureau Finance Bureau Public Health and Welfare Bureau Construction Bureau Waterworks Bureau General Affairs Section Planning Section (Promotion of a sound material-cycle society and recycling) Urban Environmental Management Section Office for World Capital of Sustainable Development (Environmental education) Environmental Industries Promotion Office (Fostering and promoting environmental industries) Office for International Environmental Cooperation Environmental Conservation Section Office for Industrial Waste Management (Giving authorization and issuing sanctions to industrial waste disposal businesses) Environmental Inspection Section (On-site inspection and guidance, illegal dumping control) Management Section (General waste treatment planning, guidance, town cleaning and beautification) Facilities Management Section (Establishing and managing facilities and disposal sites) Waste Management Center (Waste collection, transport, treatment, recycling and reduction) Institute of Environmental Science Ward Office (7 offices) Fire and Disaster Management Department Other * Sections in bold font and bold boxes are directly relevant to the establishment of a sound material-cycle society Now, let s take a look at what efforts local governments are making toward the establishment of a sound material-cycle society.

3 3.1 General waste treatment Collecting, transporting, treating and disposing of general waste are an important role of municipalities. In Japan, approximately 1 kg of waste is generated per capita per day. Basically, waste reduction, treatment and disposal are carried out on a municipality basis. Municipalities also analyze the amount of waste generated, formulate waste treatment plans in line with their treatment goals, and implement these plans in each region. Some municipalities establish and promote wide-area treatment systems in collaboration with neighboring municipalities for the purpose of treating the waste that they cannot treat alone due to the scale. Read more--- Wide-area treatment system Depending on their population and size, some municipalities are required to take treatment measures on the basis of a wider area. This is not simply because they lack proper land for final disposal sites and other facilities for which finding sites is difficult, but because the appropriate scale of the waste treatment system should be determined from the perspective of a sound material-cycle. For example, final disposal sites should be regarded as facilities that accept the waste generated after the 3Rs are thoroughly executed. Therefore it is necessary to reduce the number of final disposal sites, while taking more secure and advanced measures for environmental conservation. The approach of treating waste on a wider area basis is also effective from the perspective of relay stations, storage facilities and the expansion of markets for recycled products. However, taking treatment measures on a wider area tends to be accompanied by confusion including the incomplete separation of waste, since treatment, collection, and separation methods, as well as collection fees vary between municipalities. Therefore, the central government should set standards for waste separation, recycling and treatment so that wide-area recycling and treatment can be implemented smoothly. Now let s take a look at the typical flow and amount of waste (general and industrial), taking Kitakyushu City as an example. Illustration---

4 Flow of wastes in Kitakyushu City (FY2003) 253,000 tons General households (410,000 ) 10,000 tons Treated by the municipal government General waste (306,000 tons/year) Recyclables (16,000 tons/year) *1 Incineration 508,000 tons Sorting 16,000 tons Others (Illegal dumping, etc.) Bulky waste (5,090 tons/year) Crushing 20,000 tons Other waste 53,000 tons (6,000 tons/year) (45,000 business establishments) 197,000 tons Carried-in waste (12,500 business establishments) (197,000 tons/year) 6,000 tons Businesses (27,000 business establishments) (53,000) 1,300 business establishments Private treatment facilities 20,000 tons/year 1,500 business establishments In-house treatment 11,000 tons/year 2,500 business establishments Generating no waste Landfilling 109,000 *1 -Collected regularly (cans, glass bottles, PET bottles) -Collected at designated sites where collection boxes are installed (milk cartons, plastic food trays, fluorescent light tubes Now, let s take a look at efforts toward the establishment of a sound material-cycle society at each stage. 1) Reduction of waste generation First and foremost, it is important to reduce the generation of waste to the extent possible. Municipalities are expected to take the initiative to develop original and proper measures for the promotion of waste reduction and recycling by setting feasible and clear goals. Given this situation, various efforts are being made in the areas of group collection of recyclables, reduction in the use of disposable containers, collecting and composting garbage at shopping districts and households, and organizing flea markets. In addition, the utilization of biomass is also being promoted. Read more---

5 Group collection of recyclables Local residents voluntarily collect recyclables such as old newspapers, magazines and clothes on a group basis (i.e. group collection of recyclables) such as neighborhood associations, residents associations, PTAs and other groups organized by local residents. These groups then turn these over to recycling businesses. These activities, which originate in public hygiene activities conducted in the past, including extermination of flies and mosquitoes, are traditionally carried out nationwide. In order to promote activities, municipal governments support these groups indirectly by offering subsidies. The amount of recyclables collected through these activities reached 2.83 million tons in 2002, achieving a time-and-a half increase over a decade (The amount was 1.92 million tons in 1992.) Collected recyclables, old newspapers and other waste paper account for 90% of the total. The group collection of recyclables with thorough classification is playing a major role in the promotion of recycling, as 30% of total recyclables in general waste are collected through this method. Group collection of old newspapers Utilization of biomass Electric power generation through the incineration of biomass waste and the recovery of biogas are actively carried out in various regions as countermeasures for global warming. In particular, facilities that recover biogas with high efficiency are supported by subsidies given to municipalities by the central government, as they are considered innovative models that are taking a lead in establishing a sound material-cycle society. The reasons why biomass projects are rooted in and promoted by regions include: -Fostering a new regional strategic industry which is competitive -Revitalizing agriculture, forestry, fisheries and villages that engage in these activities

6 Composting of garbage Examples of efforts toward biomass utilization 1) Odate City, Akita Prefecture: Composting project: Producing and selling compost made from chicken manure generated by chicken farms and garbage generated by local supermarkets and school lunch centers. The project s aim is to establish sound material-cycle agriculture utilizing waste form local livestock, food processing, and agricultural industries. 2) Sendai City, Miyagi Prefecture: System of recycling garbage in regional material cycles: Electric composting machines are installed next to waste-collection points. Each household separates kitchen garbage from other domestic waste and places it in the machine. Produced compost is returned to farmers. 3) Musashino City, Tokyo Metropolis: Composting of kitchen garbage generated by residents at apartment complexes: Promoting a material cycle by composting kitchen garbage through partnership between residents at apartment complexes and farmers in the city 4) Matsumoto City, Nagano Prefecture: Recycling of waste cooking oil: Cooking oil used by households is recycled into diesel fuel for packer trucks 2) Collection and transport Although the methods of collecting general waste vary by municipality, the system of collecting it at waste-collection points (commonly called waste stations ) using *designated waste bags is most commonly adopted. In this system, domestic waste is put in designated waste bags and set out at specified times and places. From the

7 viewpoint of the effective utilization of resources and reduction in the environmental load, it was understood that there was a need to incorporate recycling mechanisms into conventional waste treatment systems which involve intermediate treatment (incineration) and landfilling. For this reason, many municipalities have adopted a system of separated collection where combustible and noncombustible wastes, cans, glass bottles and other recyclables are collected separately on designated days of the week using different kinds of waste bags specified for each item. The separated waste is collected by municipal authorities or businesses commissioned by them using packer trucks via designated and rational routes. Charging fees for the collection of separated waste is expected to serve as an effective means to reduce waste, leading to an equal sharing of the burden according to the amount of waste generated, and to raising the awareness of residents towards waste. Therefore, many municipalities are beginning to adopt this system. However, countermeasures against illegal dumping and inappropriate waste disposal, along with comprehensive policies to maintain the system s effects on waste reduction, should be carried out concurrently. In addition, disclosing information on the costs of waste treatment and the 3Rs is important to win over residents and obtain their understanding. In addition, thorough consideration should be paid to how to spend the revenue gained through the fees charged for waste collection, as well as to measures against illegal dumping since fee-charging waste collection could, in some cases, encourage it. *Designated waste bags: The bags, which are designated by the municipalities that collect waste, are used as a means of charging collection fees. Municipal authorities do not collect waste put out in bags other than designated ones. Read more--- Example of charging fees for waste collection The City of Kitakyushu launched a system to charging fees for collection of domestic waste in 1998, which was a relatively early introduction of such a system and the first attempt as an ordinance-designated city in Japan. The aims of introducing the system are as follows: 1) Promotion of recycling and reducing waste 2) Keeping waste collection points clean 3) Securing safety and efficiency of waste collection When introducing this system, the municipal government held a number of explanatory meetings (total of 800 times: about 120 times before the decision was made by the city assembly and 680 times after the decision). In addition, about 10,000 local residents

8 (promoters of proper waste disposal selected from communities) and 2,000 municipal employees gave guidance about the proper disposal of waste to residents at collection points early in the morning. As a result, a 10% reduction in waste amount was achieved as compared to before the introduction. However, some challenges for the City of Kitakyushu still remain as follows: 1) Municipal finance: The municipal government still shoulders a major portion of expenses for waste treatment. 2) The amount of collected waste has remained at the same level for the past several years. 3) The municipal government has set new goals: 20% reduction in the amount of waste treated and a recycling rate of more than 25% (currently 15%). In order to address these challenges, the City of Kitakyushu has further laid down two policies: revising charges for waste collection, and improving the system for separated collection and recycling. In revising waste collection fees, the municipal government referred to the examples of other municipalities nationwide that have already introduced the system, including charges, measures and policies of waste separation and recycling, and their effects. Then, the city set the charges more than three times higher than before the revision, expecting they will be effective in cutting down on waste generation by 20% on average. The new charges became effective from July 1, After the revision Before the revision Size Fee Size Fee Large (45 ) 50 yen Large (45 ) 15 yen Medium (30 ) 33 yen Small (30 ) 12 yen Small (20 ) 22 yen Extra small (20 ) 8 yen Source: Compiled from the municipality s website by Ministry of the Environment

9 A common waste-collection point Packer truck Examples of efforts toward waste reduction Introducing a system of charging for waste collection and door-to-door collection: Collection using waste bins for common use was changed to individual collection. The amount of collected waste has decreased by half and recycling amount has increased threefold (Hino City, Tokyo Metropolis). Two-tiered charging system for domestic waste: In this system, residents are required to put a set number of stickers on designated waste bags. A certain number of free stickers are distributed to each household annually, and residents must purchase more stickers if they need to dispose of waste exceeding a specific amount (Sasebo City, Nagasaki Prefecture). System of promoters of waste reduction and recycling: One promoter is assigned to every waste-collection point. The promoters obtain certification after taking a training course given by the municipal government. With this system, approaches suited to the actual conditions of each district can be taken (Takefu City, Fukui Prefecture). 3) Recycling Recyclable waste that is collected separately is transported to recycling plants, where it is sorted and treated. Many municipalities are also promoting the composting of garbage. In addition, a number of municipal governments are making efforts to foster the development of recycling industries by formulating Eco-Town plans, while they are promoting the consumption of recycled products by taking the initiative in implementing green purchasing. Since local governments (prefectures and municipalities) are responsible for around three-quarters of total public spending (13% of gross domestic expenditure) and have a great socio-economic influence on each region, they can play an important role in promoting green purchasing in the country.

10 Read more--- Examples of efforts toward recycling 1) Project for recovering resources from combustible waste: Developing technologies to collect biogas from garbage and use it as vehicle fuel: collaborative research with corporations and others 2) Establishment of recycle stores and centers: Establishing recycle stores/centers side by side with incineration facilities as places for repairing, recycling, selling disused articles, and for environmental education; managed and operated by volunteers 3) Promotion of wood chip production from pruned branches and trees: Introducing vehicles equipped with crushing machines to treat pruned branches generated by public facilities and produce wood chips. The wood chips are used as mulch at parks, roadbed material, and soil conditioner. 4) Waste treatment and disposal In Japan, the intermediate treatment of waste through incineration has long been practiced for the purpose of volume reduction and sanitary disposal. In the wake of dioxin issues that have been attracting attention in recent years, however, incinerators have been increasingly replaced with gasification melting furnaces which treat waste at higher temperatures. As another attempt, some waste is converted into Refuse-Derived Fuel (RDF) on a municipality basis, and used collectively for electric power generation in wide-area treatment systems. Also thermal recycling, the recovery of waste heat generated in the course of incineration, has long been practiced in many regions. 5) Treatment cost Since the beginning of the 1990s, the national average cost for general waste treatment (including collection and other operations for recycling) has ballooned to twice what it was a decade ago (11,200 yen per capita in ,500 yen per capita in 2001) due to countermeasures for dioxin problems and the promotion of separated collection. However, it is now on a downward trend as capital investment has settled. Most of the treatment costs are spent for collection, transport and intermediate treatment. Illustration---

11 \ \ Source: Ministry of the Environment \ Source: The City of Kitakyushu 3.2 Measures to address industrial waste The law defines what types of waste fall into the category of industrial waste, and stipulates that businesses which generate this waste are responsible for treatment. In many cases, however, the businesses that generate industrial waste cannot carry out treatment appropriately on their own because it is large in quantity and various in quality. For this reason, many businesses commission the operation of its waste treatment and disposal to industrial waste management contractors. On the other hand, prefectural governments (and specific municipal governments) are

12 in charge of supervising, instructing and controlling the businesses to ensure that industrial waste is properly treated. They also have the authority to give approval to industrial waste management contractors and conduct on-site inspections (including checking the books and analyzing waste) of the industrial waste generators, collection, transport and disposal contractors, intermediate treatment contractors, and final disposal sites under their jurisdiction. The following chart shows the flow of industrial waste in the case where an industrial waste generator commissions its collection, transport and treatment to a contractor. Contract in writing (in advance) Industrial waste Industrial waste Collection and Industrial waste transport generator contractor Confirming the completion of the commissioned operation (Manifest system) Bearing appropriate fees Disposal contractor So far, the cases of illegal dumping and inappropriate treatment of industrial waste have occurred one after another. Every time a large-scale illegal dumping case becomes an issue, revisions have been made to the Waste Management and Public Cleansing Law (such as improving the manifest system, placing extensive responsibility not only on the perpetrators of illegal dumping but on the generators, and strengthening penalties). Needless to say, responsibilities for the cases of large-scale illegal dumping that have ever occurred should be placed upon the contractors that actually executed them. However, the cases are also attributable to the central government which has left loopholes to the law in the first place, and to local governments which have authorized unscrupulous contractors and failed to provide appropriate supervision and guidance. In this sense, the central and local governments should also be held accountable. Read more--- Examples of efforts against illegal dumping 1) Applying an observer system to control illegal dumping: Assigning volunteer residents as observers who support the early detection and prevention of illegal dumping in partnership with the local authorities 2) Carrying out campaigns to clean up illegally-dumped waste:

13 Collecting illegally-dumped waste mainly in mountainous areas in collaboration with local residents associations and companies 3) Commissioning the operation of providing information on illegal dumping: Collecting information on illegal dumping through commissioning operations to the post office 4) Installation of surveillance cameras to detect illegal dumping: Installing cameras in seven areas where illegal dumping cases frequently occur. The number of cases has declined after the installation. 5) Organizing strategy meetings to develop measures for industrial waste disposal facilities: Allocating observers to inspect industrial waste carried into facilities; organizing strategy meetings comprised of contractors, residents, and prefectural and municipal governments to contribute to the proper management of the facilities The promotion of the 3Rs and the proper treatment of waste are invariably two sides of the same coin. In particular, some industrial waste contains hazardous substances. But sometimes it takes time to become aware of this fact as seen in the case of PCB, where its adverse effects became clear after it had been in use for many years. In the first place, waste treatment means the elimination and containment of environmental loads of waste so as not to cause social losses. When using chemical substances, however, it is necessary not only to use and treat them appropriately, but to also consider the long-term and extensive influences of its movement and concentration caused by its circulation. The concentration of hazardous substances sometimes hampers the cyclical use of resources itself, whereas the cyclical use causes difficulties in subsequent proper treatment in some cases. Well-known cases of illegal dumping of hazardous substances include the Love Canal and Seveso incidents. In addition, dioxins generated in the incineration of waste, and Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) such as waste PCB and waste pesticide move to and concentrate around the globe, constituting global environmental problems. In order to tackle the problems of hazardous substances, it is vital to ban and limit their production and use, regulate their movement, and keep them under proper control. In a sound material-cycle society, it is also important to evaluate the risks associated with the use of chemical substances itself, as well as to apply precautionary principles. Read more--- Love Canal Incident An environmental pollution incident occurred in an old canal called Love Canal in New

14 York State, U.S.A. in Hooker Chemical and Plastics Corporation discharged untreated toxic waste generated at its pesticide plant into the canal for over a decade. The canal was subsequently reclaimed, and houses and an elementary school were constructed on the site. In the following years, however, many residents in the area were plagued with miscarriage and birth defects. Through inspections, dioxin and other hazardous substances were detected. This incident served as a trigger for the enactment of the Superfund Law (or Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act) in the United States. Seveso A pesticide plant exploded in Seveso, a city located in north Italy, in 1976, releasing ash dust containing dioxin into its neighborhood. The explosion occurred because soaring temperatures in the process of producing 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxyacetic acid, which was used as herbicide, blew off a safety valve in the plant. The soil contaminated (with dioxin and others) by the explosion was encapsulated and stored in drums, but went missing in 1982 before their whereabouts were confirmed in northern France eight months later. Precautionary principle The precautionary principle is a principle of averting and preventing not only current, but also future, risks as much as possible. Based on this, the concept of Green Chemistry encourages reducing and eliminating the production and use of hazardous substances by employing the following measures: It is better to prevent waste than to treat or clean up waste after it has been created. When synthetic methods must be designed, maximize the incorporation of all materials used in the process into the final product. When synthetic methods must be designed, use and generate substances that possess little or no toxicity to human health and the environment as long as possible. Chemical products should be designed to effect their desired function while minimizing their toxicity. The use of auxiliary substances should be made unnecessary wherever possible and innocuous when used. Energy requirements of chemical processes should be recognized for their environmental and economic impacts and should be minimized. If possible, synthetic methods should be conducted at ambient temperatures and pressures. Raw material or feedstock should be renewable rather than depleting whenever

15 technically and economically practicable. Unnecessary derivatization should be minimized or avoided if possible, because such steps require additional reagents and can generate waste. Catalytic reagents (as selective as possible) are superior to stoichiometric reagents. Chemical products should be designed so that at the end of their function they break down into innocuous degradation products and do not persist in the environment. Analytical methodologies need to be further developed to allow for real-time, in-process monitoring and control prior to the formation of hazardous substances. Substances and the form of a substance used in a chemical process should be chosen to minimize the potential for chemical accidents, including releases, explosions, and fires. 3.3 Support for venous industries As a measure for the promotion of environmental industries to facilitate the establishment of a sound material-cycle society, Eco-Town projects based on the Zero Emission concept are being carried out in various locations of the country. The projects, launched in 1997, are implemented by local governments after formulating Eco-Town Plans (plans for developing towns that are symbiosis with the environment) and obtaining approval from Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, and Ministry of the Environment. The proactive support of the local government is a prerequisite for gaining approval as an Eco-Town project; they should take the following measures for the continuous implementation of the projects. Providing supplementary subsidies and tax incentives for recycling projects Establishing a climate favorable for the projects by easing various regulations Establishing and upgrading systems for collecting waste as raw material Preferential procurement of recycled products Local governments are making efforts to meet these requirements by providing original subsidy systems, low-rent sites, support (subsidies) for technological development, systems for technological and financial consultation with experts, and other support programs. Read more--- Eco-Town projects are based on the Zero Emission concept which aims at the development of production activities without waste generation, by utilizing all the waste and byproducts generated by one industry as resources for another following the

16 example of the food chain in the natural world. Through collaboration with local residents and industries, local governments support the development of innovative and eco-friendly towns with a view toward establishing an economic society with a sound material cycle by facilitating the reduction and recycling of resources. In doing so, they pay due consideration to the development and originality of regions through the promotion of environmental industries by utilizing the region s concentrated industrial technologies. In concrete terms, local governments formulate Eco-Town Plans (plans for developing towns that are in symbiosis with the environment), making the best use of regional characteristics. Then, the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry and the Ministry of the Environment jointly authorize the plans as Eco-Town Plans if their fundamental concept and concrete projects are substantially recognized as original and innovative, thus being able to serve as models for other local governments. At the same time, the ministries provide financial support (or subsidies) for pioneering projects by public and private sectors to develop recycling facilities that contribute to the establishment of a sound material-cycle society. The support is provided for the purpose of developing both hardware (e.g. recycling facilities) and software (e.g. environmental industry trade fairs). Scheme of Eco-Town Projects <Eco-Town projects> <Central government > Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry Ministry of the Environment Jointly authorize Support from local governments <Hardware > Eco-Town Plans formulated by local governments Implementation of projects by local governments <Software > -Developing innovative recycling facilities -Developing R&D bases Implementing and investing in projects -Dissemination of activities, awareness raising and the provision of information Participating in projects Local enterprises Residents

17 To cite an example, Kitakyushu City, whose Eco-Town project gained authorization for the first time in the na tion in 1997, is carrying out the project as a regional policy by integrating industrial promotion policies and environmental conservation policies. In so doing, the project leverages technologies and human resources concentrated in the city which is renowned as a manufacturing center, wide industrial infrastructure, and a network betwe en industry, academia, government and residents. Kitakyushu s strategy to promote environmental industry I Education & basic research Establish principles for environmental policies Basic research/ HRD Hub for industrial & academic alliances II Technology& verification test Support verification test Incubate local business es III Commercialization Recycling business Support medium-and-small and venture businesses Support the establishment of environmental industrial complexes Academic area Verification test area Comprehensive next to Eco-Town Center environmental industrial complex 3.4 Environmental education and awareness-raising Municipalities are making efforts to facilitate the dissemination of activities, awareness-raising and the provision of information in collaboration with NPOs, NGOs and other private organizations and businesses so that local residents and businesses will take interest in waste problems, promote activities on reducing, reusing and recycling waste, and accelerate changes in their lifestyles. As a means to these efforts, it would be effective to take an all-round approach such as offering environmental education to children as early as kindergarten and elementary school in partnership with local communities, and carrying out educational and awareness-raising activities on a community basis. The City of Kitakyushu, for example, has established an Environment Museum where people can learn about the region s history of overcoming industrial pollution, global environmental problems, and environmental technologies while enjoying themselves. The museum is a popular destination for field trips by elementary and middle schools and is utilized as a place for school education. It

18 is also used as a venue for environmental events organized by the local government, businesses and NPOs, and as a place for meetings of NPOs and residents groups. Kitakyushu Environment Mu seum Elementary school students touring the museum