THEMATIC RESEARCH SUMMARY Fossil Fuels with CCS

Transcription

1 THEMATIC RESEARCH SUMMARY Fossil Fuels with CCS

2 Manuscript completed in September 2014 European Union 2014 Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged. Photo credits: istockphoto

3 This publication was produced by the Energy Research Knowledge Centre (ERKC), funded by the European Commission, to support its Strategic Energy Technologies Information System (SETIS). It represents the consortium s views on the subject matter. These views have not been adopted or approved by the European Commission and should not be taken as a statement of the views of the European Commission. The manuscript was produced by Giuseppe Girardi from the Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA) and Eusebio Loria from Sotacarbo S.p.A. We would like to thank Sergio Persoglia from OGS for the review of the manuscript and his support. While the information contained in this brochure is correct to the best of our knowledge, neither the consortium nor the European Commission can be held responsible for any inaccuracy, or accept responsibility for any use made thereof. Additional information on energy research programmes and related projects, as well as on other technical and policy publications, is available on the Energy Research Knowledge Centre portal at: setis.ec.europa.eu/energy-research 1

4 Fossil Fuels with CCS Executive Summary Key messages CCS is an essential part of the portfolio of technologies needed to achieve substantial global emissions reductions (IEA 2013, CCS Technology Roadmap). CCS plays an important role in the global transition towards a sustainable lowcarbon economy, in both power generation and industry sectors. Today, governments and industry need to integrate CCS in their emissions reduction strategies and policy scenarios. CCS research findings help create the conditions for scaled-up deployment of all three components of the CCS chain: CO2 capture, transport and storage. This report has been produced as part of the activities of the Energy Research Knowledge Centre (ERKC). The ERKC project aims to collect, organise and disseminate validated, referenced information on energy research programmes and projects and their results from across the EU and beyond. The Thematic Research Summaries (TRS) are designed to analyse the results of energy research projects identified by the ERKC. The rationale behind the TRS is to identify the most novel and innovative contributions to research questions that have been addressed by (but not limited to) European research projects on a specific theme. The present Thematic Research Summary deals with Fossil fuels with CCS as part of the ERKC priority area Low-carbon heat and power supply. While fossil fuels, mainly coal and natural gas for power generation, will retain an essential role in the short and medium term, CO2 capture and storage (CCS) must be considered as a promising technological option to reduce carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions to the atmosphere from the power generation sector, as well as from heavy industries like cement, iron and steel, paper and pulp, and from refineries. CCS includes technologies to capture CO2 from fuel combustion or industrial processes, to transport CO2 via ships or pipelines and to store CO2 underground in depleted oil and gas fields, deep saline formations or coal seams; it also involves the implementation of these processes in an integrated way. Against this background, in 2007 the European Commission launched the European Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan) to help achieve European objectives related to energy technologies. CCS must be considered as one of the key technologies to help achieve European energy and climate targets, in order to move towards a lowcarbon Europe. The technological objectives of the CCS SET-Plan are 2

5 aimed at proving the technical and economic feasibility of CCS using existing technologies, possibly at different levels of development, and at developing more efficient and cost-competitive CCS technologies. CCS has to be applied on a very large scale to bring about a reduction in climate change, and this implies overcoming the barriers, which still exist today, to reducing the overall costs of the CCS chain and increasing the number of suitable storage sites, where CO2 can be stored in large quantities in a safe and controlled manner. Significant investments are needed in order to ensure the full deployment of CCS. At the European Union (EU) level, there are a number of instruments that are, or could be, used to power the deployment of CCS technology, such as the New Entrants Reserve (NER300), the European Energy Programme for Recovery (EEPR), the Seventh Framework Programme (FP7), the European Commission s Connecting Europe Facility, Horizon 2020 and Guidelines on State aid for environmental protection and energy. Overall EU public research and development (R&D) expenditure on CCS in 2011 amounted to almost EUR 160 million, representing more than 46% of the total public budget for R&D activities in the fossil fuels sectors. In 2010, the EU corporate R&D investment in the CCS sector amounted to around EUR 189 million. EU-funded projects and national-funded projects are currently underway in the areas of CO2 capture, CO2 transport, CO2 storage and utilisation. The current post-combustion CO2 capture methods comprise chemical absorption with solvents or solid sorbents, physical adsorption, gas separation membranes and cryogenic distillation. Chemical absorption with amines is the most mature technique. The common CO2 capture challenges concern methods to overcome the problems related to the energy penalty and the presence of impurities nitrogen oxide (NOx), sulphur dioxide (SO2), particulates in terms of the various requirements of the approach selected for CO2 capture and how to scale up the current CO2 capture techniques. Research into postcombustion CO2 capture focuses on the optimum design of solvents (amine, amino-acids), blends of solvents, solid sorbents or ionic liquids for CO2 capture through innovative modelling, and/or pilot plant validation experiments. The most common application of pre-combustion CO2 capture is the integrated gasification combined-cycle (IGCC) plant. The CO2 is usually separated using physical absorption, due to the high partial pressure of the CO2. This still needs to be proved at industrial scale, after small-scale development studies using simulation and experimental test validation. Other possibilities for CO2 separation investigated at research level include hydrogen sulphide (H2S) removal, adsorption on solid materials, such as zeolites or activated carbon, and palladium membranes (Pd membranes). The resulting H2 stream can be further purified or used to produce electricity in a gas turbine. 3

6 Fossil Fuels with CCS Oxy-combustion is a newer approach. The technology aims to produce a pure stream of CO2 after combustion using an O2/CO2 stream instead of air. The main disadvantage is the large quantity of oxygen required, which is expensive both in terms of capital costs and energy consumption. Different boiler options based on current technology are considered in order to: 1) identify weak points in the operation of oxyfuel facilities; and 2) propose a new design for air separation units based on model development and test validation on a small scale. The construction of a European CO2 transport infrastructure across state boundaries and in the maritime environment would be necessary for large-scale CCS deployment. Safety and risk assessment tools for evaluating the adequacy of controls in CO2 pipelines in line with best practice guidelines need to be developed. Geological CO2 storage projects have already been initiated in Europe and throughout the world. Different types of geological formations are being used and investigated, especially oil and gas reservoirs, deep saline aquifer formations and un-mineable coal beds. Implementation of CO2 and the location of storage sites are of fundamental importance and selection needs to consider a trade-off between the sources of the CO2 (old power plants suitable for retrofitting or new installations), the location of the storage sites, safety and risk, and public acceptance. A secure environment is required for long-term CCS projects and this implies having a consolidated network. Current initiatives aim at creating a carbon atlas of sources, pipelines and storage site locations. Test sites differ in location, geology, reservoir properties and their depths are investigated. Injection experiments are currently being performed, based on geological and geochemical modelling data. The long-term fate of injected CO2, decommissioning procedures and postproduction monitoring strategies have also been analysed. Studies to assess the environmental impacts of exposure to known CO2 fluxes are being undertaken. Networking between research centres in Europe (CO2GeoNet) and the transfer of know-how from early movers to newcomers in geological storage (CGS Europe) have been carried out in order to accelerate the deployment of CCS in Europe. CO2 can be used as a source of carbon in the synthesis of chemicals and fuels, in biological processes and in inorganic processes, such as mineralisation. Current CO2 utilisation research is aimed at reducing excess electricity from renewable sources and integrating CO2 reduction and water splitting in order to use CO2 as an H2 carrier. In the longer term, the alternatives to be developed will include synthetic photosynthesis, which involves the use of natural photosynthetic microorganisms for CO2 fixation, such as microalgae, the use of hybrid systems (enzymes and synthetic systems for a faster process), and the use of complete synthetic systems that mimic nature (for instance, photochemical and photo-electrochemical systems). 4

7 Table of contents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY... 2 LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES INTRODUCTION SCOPE OF THE THEME General definition Description of sub-themes POLICY CONTEXT EU policy framework EU funding for CCS National research funding at EU level RESEARCH FINDINGS Introduction Overview of the EU projects selected according to the sub-themes Objectives and challenges of the selected research projects Sub-theme 1: CO2 capture post-combustion R&D objectives Sub-theme 2: CO2 capture pre-combustion R&D objectives Sub-theme 3: CO2 capture oxy-combustion R&D objective Sub-theme 4: CO2 transport R&D objectives Sub-theme 5: CO2 storage R&D objectives Sub-theme 6: CO2 utilisation R&D objectives Summary of the research findings CO2 capture post-combustion results CO2 capture pre-combustion results CO2 capture oxy-combustion results CO2 transport results CO2 storage results CO2 utilisation results INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS CCS in Australia CCS in China CCS in Japan CCS in South Korea CCS in North Africa and the Middle East CCS in Canada and the United States of America TECHNOLOGY MAPPING Research challenges and needs Costs of technology CO2 capture

8 Fossil Fuels with CCS CO2 transport CO2 storage CO2 utilisation CAPACITIES MAPPING CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS REFERENCES ANNEXES Annex 1: Acronyms and abbreviations used in the TRS Annex 2: Complete list of projects relevant to the theme

9 List of tables and figures Table 1: ERKC priority areas and themes... 9 Table 2: R&D areas of fossil fuels with CCSs Table 3: 1st, 2nd and 3rd generation technologies Table 4: Sub-themes considered within fossil fuels with CCS Table 5: Indicative costs ( ) for the CCS EII Table 6: Relevant policy documents on CCS Table 7: List of CCS EU projects Table 8: Cost parameters for CCS projects in power generation Figure 1: CCS chain Figure 2: Post-combustion CO2 capture scheme Figure 3: Pre-combustion CO2 capture scheme Figure 4: Oxy-combustion CO2 capture scheme Figure 5: CO2 storage options Figure 6: CO2 utilisation options Figure 7: Large-scale CCS projects by region February Figure 8: Level of maturity of capture technology in the power and industrial sectors Figure 9: European countries total R&D expenditure on CCS in 2011 (million EUR 2012 prices and exchange rates) Figure 10: European countries R&D expenditure on CCS as a share of total R&D expenditure on fossil fuels in 2011 (percentage 2012 prices and exchange rates)

10 Fossil Fuels with CCS 1 Introduction This publication has been produced as part of the activities of the Energy Research Knowledge Centre (ERKC), funded by the European Commission, to support its Strategic Energy Technologies Information System (SETIS). The ERKC collects, organises and analyses validated, referenced information on energy research programmes and projects, including results and analyses from across the EU and beyond. Access to energy research knowledge is vastly improved through the ERKC, allowing it to be exploited in a timely manner and used all over the EU, thus also increasing the pace of further innovation. The ERKC therefore has a key role in gathering and analysing data to monitor progress towards the objectives of the European Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET- Plan). It also brings important added value to the monitoring data by analysing trends in energy research at national and European levels, and deriving thematic analyses and policy recommendations from the aggregated project results. The approach to assessing and disseminating energy research results used by the ERKC team includes the following three levels of analysis: Project analysis, providing information on research background, objectives, results, and technical and policy implications on a project-by-project basis; Thematic analysis, which pools research findings according to a classification scheme structured by priority and research focus. This analysis results in the production of a set of Thematic Research Summaries (TRS); Policy analysis, which pools research findings on a specific topic, with emphasis on the policy implications of results and pathways to future research. This analysis results in the compilation of Policy Brochures (PB). The Thematic Research Summaries are designed to provide an overview of innovative research results relevant to the themes, which have been identified as of particular interest to policy-makers and researchers. The classification structure adopted by the ERKC team comprises 45 themes divided into nine priority areas. Definitions of each theme can be found on the ERKC portal at: setis.ec.europa.eu/energy-research 8

11 Table 1: ERKC priority areas and themes Priority area 1: Low-carbon heat and power suplly Bioenergy / Geothermal / Ocean energy / Photovoltaics / Concetrated solar power / Wind / Hydropower / Advanced fossil fuel power generation / Fossil fuel with CCS / Nuclear fission / Nuclear fusion / Cogeneration / Heating and cooling from renewable sources Priority area 2: Alternative fuels and energy sources for transport Biofuels / Hydrogen and fuel cells / Other alternative transport fuels Priority area 3: Smart cities and communities Smart electricity grids / Behavioural aspects - SCC / Small scale electricity storage / Energy savings in buildings / ITS in energy / Smart district heating and cooling grids - demand / Energy savings in appliances / Building energy system integration Priority area 4: Smart grids Transnission / Distribution / Storage / Smart district heating and cooling grids - supply Priority area 5: Energy efficiency in industry Process efficiency / Ancillary equipment Priority area 6: New knowledge and technologies Basic research / Materials Priority area 7: Energy innovation and market uptake Techno-economic assessment / Life-cycle assessment Cost-benefit analysis / (Market-) decision support tools / Security-of-supply studies / Private investment assessment Priority area 8: Socio-economic analysis Public acceptability / User participation / Behavioural aspects Priority area 9: Policy studies Market uptake support / Modeling and scenarios / Enviromental impacts / International cooperation The purpose of the Thematic Research Summaries is to identify and trace the development of technologies in the context of energy policy and exploitation. The aim is to identify drivers of policy that will create a demand for products that are likely to impact on policy in the coming years, especially technological acceleration, innovation, sustainable development, employment policy, and international cooperation and social cohesion. The TRS are intended for policy-makers as well as any interested reader from other stakeholders, and from the academic and research communities. The following TRS is designed to provide an overview of innovative research results relevant to Fossils fuels with CCS 1, allocated to the first priority area, according to the structure, which was adopted by the ERKC (see Table 1 above). Its aim is to provide the reader with a structured, but not necessarily fully comprehensive review of research activities relating to fossil fuels with CCS being carried out in Europe, both at EU level and as 1 9

12 Fossil Fuels with CCS part of nationally funded programmes. The TRS focuses on those research projects that have sufficiently documented results to show technological achievements or projects of strategic relevance at an early stage of development. The main information sources used for this TRS are research results from the CORDIS projects database 2. Other useful information is taken from: CSLF (Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum) website 3 ; IEA GHG: International Energy Agency Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme database 4 ; MIT s Carbon Capture & Sequestration Technologies website and database 5 ; Global CCS Institute website and database 6 ; NETL CO2 Capture, Utilisation and Storage database 7 ; ZEP CCS platform website 8 ; The report 2013 Technology Map of the European Strategic Energy Technology Plan. The EU database for legal documents 9 has been used for the policy background, including current directives, roadmaps and communications concerning the development of CCS. The organisation of TRS is explained here. Chapter 2 includes a brief analysis of the scope of the theme. Chapter 3 provides an overview of the relevant policy contexts and priorities, both at EU and national levels. Chapter 4 illustrates the objectives, challenges and main results of specific research projects - it is structured into sub-themes covering the broad area of fossil fuels with CCS. The following six sub-themes have been considered. Table 2 R&D areas of fossil fuels with CCS Sub-theme Description 1 CO2 capture: post-combustion approach 2 CO2 capture: pre-combustion approach 3 CO2 capture: oxy-combustion approach 4 CO2 transport 5 CO2 storage 6 CO2 utilisation (see the national projects section)

13 The sub-theme increasing the efficiency of CO2 reduction is covered under another TRS entitled Advanced fossil fuel power generation. Chapter 5 provides an overview of current trends in fossil fuels with CCS R&D activities outside Europe. Chapter 6 gives an updated picture of the latest developments and the future of the technology as described in the SET-Plan technology map, and presents an overview on the cost of CCS technologies. Chapter 7 gives an overview of public funding for fossil fuels with CCS, based on statistics from the International Energy Agency (IEA). Finally, Section 8 provides an overview of the key issues and recommendations that can be drawn from this TRS. 11

14 Fossil Fuels with CCS 2 Scope of the theme The world needs to reduce energy-related CO2 emissions in the coming decades. This will require the deployment of clean energy technologies, including renewable energy, nuclear energy, cleaner transport technologies, energy efficiency, and CO2 capture and storage (IEA CCS Technology Roadmap, 2013). Fossil fuels, mainly coal and natural gas, will retain a critical role in power generation in the short and medium term due to already existing installations, the lower costs of the technologies used and the developed know-how. CCS must be considered as a technological option for reducing CO2 emissions to the atmosphere from the power generation sector, as well as from other industries like cement, iron and steel, paper and pulp, and refineries. The CCS technologies currently being developed apply to both new fossil-fuel power plants and retrofits to existing plants. CCS is a fundamental part of any very-low-cost mitigation scenario, under which long-term global average temperature increases have to be limited to 2 C, as in the 2 C Scenario (2DS) described in IEA Energy Technology Perspective (ETP). In the 2DS, CCS is widely deployed in both power generation and industry sectors. According to the 2012 IEA Energy Technology Perspectives (IEA ETP, 2012), the amount of CO2 captured and stored by 2030 and 2050 would have to be 2.4 and 7.8 GtCO2/year respectively to stay within the 2DS, with almost half of the CO2 captured from industrial applications (45%). Recently, new technological developments have impacted significantly on the previous IEA forecasts. The development of CCS technology has been slower than expected in terms of large-scale demonstration (globally only 4 GW for fossil power plants equipped with CCS, compared with 16 GW in ETP 2012). Similarly, in industry sectors, an annual volume of CO2 captured of 33 Mt in 2020, forecast in ETP 2014, compares with the 180 Mt of CO2 forecast in ETP Nevertheless, CCS would still account for around 14% of the cumulative emission reductions by 2050, which are needed to reach the 2DS (IEA ETP, 2014). First-generation CO2 capture technology 10 for power generation applications has been demonstrated on a scale of a few tens of 10 Definitions according to the United Kingdom s Advanced Power Generation Technology Forum (APGTF, 2011): 1st generation technologies are technologies that are ready to be demonstrated in first-of-a-kind large-scale projects without the need for further development; 2nd generation technologies are systems generally based on 1st generation concepts and equipment with modifications to reduce the energy penalty and CCS costs (e.g. better capture solvents, higher efficiency boilers, better integration); 3rd generation technologies are novel technologies and process options that are distinct from 1st generation technology options and are currently far from commercialisation yet may offer substantial gains when developed. 12

15 MW (approximately tonnes CO2/year), has a high-energy penalty and is expensive to implement. In the 2nd generation, the demonstration and commercialisation of CO2 capture have possible targets of 30% reduction of energy penalty, normalised capital cost and normalised operations and maintenance (O&M) costs, compared to 1st generation technologies. Possible targets for 3rd generation CO2 capture technology are a 50% reduction from 1st generation levels of each of the following: energy penalty, capital cost and O&M costs (fixed and variable), compared to 2013 s 1st generation technology costs (CSLF Technology Roadmap 2013). Table 3: 1st, 2nd and 3rd generation technologies IGCC with CCS Oxy-combustion 1 st generation CO2 treatment solvents and solid sorbents cryogenic air separation unit (ASU) cryogenic ASU cryogenic purification of CO2 stream prior to compression recycling of flue gas 2 nd and 3 rd generation technology options membrane separation of oxygen (O2) and syngas turbine for hydrogen (H2)- rich syngas with low NOx membranes for air separation optimised boiler performance oxycombustion turbines chemical looping combustion (CLC) reactor design and O2 carriers Challenges degree of integration of large IGCC vs flexibility operational availability with coal in base load lack of commercial guarantees unit size and capacity combined with energy demand for ASU peak temperatures vs flue gas recirculation NOx formation optimisation of overall compression work ASU and CO2 purification unit lack of commercial guarantees 13

16 Fossil Fuels with CCS Post-combustion chemical or physical absorption, depending on CO2 concentration new solvents, e.g. amino acids amines requiring less energy for regeneration process and equipment design solid sorbent technologies membrane technologies hydrates cryogenic technologies scale and integration of complete systems for gas cleaning slippage of solvents to the surrounding air (possible health, safety and environmental issues) flue gas contaminants energy penalty water balance/ make up Source: Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum Technology Roadmap General definition The CCS chain (Figure 1) includes technologies and techniques that enable the capture of CO2 from fuel combustion or industrial processes, the transport of CO2 via ships or pipelines, and its storage underground in depleted oil and gas fields and deep saline formations or coal seams (IEA,2013). Figure 1 CCS chain Source: IEA Technology Roadmap CCS, CCS involves the implementation of the following processes in an integrated manner: separation of CO2 from mixtures of gases (e.g. the flue gases from a power station or a stream of CO2-rich gas) and compression of this CO2 to a liquid-like state; transport of CO2 to a suitable storage site; and injection of CO2 into a geologic formation, where it is retained by a natural (or engineered) trapping mechanism, and monitored as necessary. The individual component technologies required for capture, transport and storage are well understood and, in some cases, technologically mature. However, the biggest challenge for CCS deployment is the 14

17 combination of component technologies into large-scale demonstration projects. The lack of understanding and acceptance of the technology by the public and some stakeholders contributes to delays and difficulties in CCS deployment. Separated CO2 (from biomass or fossil fuels) or CO2-rich gas can even be re-used for, for example, enhanced oil recovery (EOR)/ enhanced gas recovery (EGR)/enhanced coal bed methane (ECBM), mineralisation, feedstock, algae production, and liquid fuels production. 2.2 Description of sub-themes The first stage in the CCS process is the capture of the CO2 that is released during the burning or conversion of fossil fuels, or as a result of industrial processes, such as making cement, steel or in the chemical industry. In electricity generation, capture technologies separate carbon dioxide from gases in three different ways: post-combustion capture 11, precombustion capture 12, and oxy-combustion 13. Similar methods are also used for industrial processes. Fossil fuel power plants can be built with both integrated CO2 capture and carbon capture ready technologies, giving the plant CO2 capture capabilities for the future. Once it has been captured, CO2 must then be transported by pipeline or ship for storage at a suitable site. Storage involves the injection of CO2 into appropriate geologic formations; it also involves the subsequent monitoring of the injected CO2. Separated CO2 can be re-used. There are several applications, in which CO2 can be used directly (in EOR, EGR, ECBM, as a working fluid in geothermal applications) or biologically (algae production), or chemically converted (CO2 as a feedstock). Against this background, the following sub-themes will be considered within this TRS: Table 4 Sub-themes considered within fossil fuels with CCS Sub-theme Description 1 CO2 capture post-combustion 2 CO2 capture pre-combustion 3 CO2 capture oxy-combustion 4 CO2 transport 5 CO2 storage 6 CO2 utilisation

18 Fossil Fuels with CCS CO2 capture CO2 can be captured from the exhaust of a combustion process (at Patm, temperature in the range C, 3-20% percentage volume CO2) or an industrial process, by absorbing it in a suitable solvent or general sorbent. This is called post-combustion capture. The absorbed CO2 is released from the sorbent and is compressed to high pressure for transportation and storage. Other methods for separating CO2 include high-pressure membrane filtration, adsorption/desorption processes and cryogenic separation. Figure 2 Post-combustion CO2 capture scheme A pre-combustion system involves first converting solid, liquid or gaseous fuel into a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide (CO) (called syngas), using processes such as gasification or reforming. The syngas can be generated from fossil fuels or biomass, generally at high pressure. CO2 can be removed, leaving a combustible fuel. The syngas can be shifted (up to 70 bar) to hydrogen converting the carbon monoxide to CO2 (CO shift reaction; CO2 up to 40% volume). Figure 3 Pre-combustion CO2 capture scheme 16

19 In the oxy-combustion process, the oxygen required is separated from air prior to combustion, with the fuel being combusted into oxygen diluted with recycled flue-gas rather than by air. This oxygenrich, nitrogen-free atmosphere results in final flue-gases consisting mainly of CO2 (75-80% volume) and H2O (water), thus producing a more concentrated CO2 stream for easier purification. While a specific CO2 separation step is not necessary in oxy-combustion, there is an initial separation step for the extraction of oxygen from air, which largely determines the energy penalty of the process. Figure 4 Oxy-combustion CO2 capture scheme CO2 transport Once it has been captured, carbon dioxide must then be transported by pipeline or ship for storage at a suitable site. The technologies involved in pipeline transportation are the same as those used extensively for transporting natural gas, oil and many other fluids around the world. In some cases it may be possible to re-use existing pipelines. Carbon dioxide is currently transported for commercial purposes by road tanker, ship and pipeline. CO2 storage Storage involves the injection of CO2 into appropriate geological formations; it also involves the subsequent monitoring of injected CO2. Suitable geological formations include saline aquifers, depleted oil and gas fields, oil fields with the potential for CO2-flood EOR, and coal seams that cannot be mined, with potential for ECBM recovery. 17

20 Fossil Fuels with CCS Figure 5 CO2 storage options Once CO2 has been transported, it is stored in porous geological formations that are typically located some kilometres beneath the earth s surface, with pressure and temperatures such that carbon dioxide will be in a liquid or critical phase. Suitable storage sites include gas and oil fields, deep saline formations (porous rocks filled with salty water), or depleting oil fields, where the injected carbon dioxide may increase the amount of oil recovered. Depleted oil and gas reservoirs are likely to be used for early projects, since extensive information from geological and hydrodynamic assessments is already available. Deep saline aquifers represent the largest potential carbon dioxide storage capacity in the long term, but are currently less well explored. CO2 utilisation CO2 utilisation options can be divided into two groups: CO2 utilisation without conversion of the carbon dioxide and CO2 utilisation with the conversion of carbon dioxide. CO2 re-use technologies include: CO2 for use in EOR; CO2 for use in ECBM recovery; mineralisation (including carbonate mineralisation and bauxite residue processing); CO2 as a feedstock in urea production; geothermal systems (using CO2 as a working fluid); CO2 as a feedstock in polymer processing; algae production; liquid fuels (including methanol/formic acid). 18

21 Figure 6 CO2 utilisation options Source: Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, There are several applications, in which CO2 can be used directly (CO2 has been used for EOR in the United States of America (USA) since the 1970s). The CO2 is injected into the oil reservoir to increase the amount of oil that is extracted from the field. This technique can also be applied to other hydrocarbons such as gas (EGR) and coal-bed methane (CBM) extraction. As part of the CO2 will stay in the reservoir, it is considered a form of long-term storage. CO2 can be biologically or chemically converted and then used in a product. Depending on the type and use of this product, the CO2 will be stored for a shorter or longer term. In biological conversions, CO2 is used to grow plants and trees. In combination with reforestation, CO2 utilisation will lead to a long-term CO2 storage. When the CO2 is used for algae production to produce chemicals or fuels, the utilisation of CO2 is considered short-term storage. Short- and long-term storage opportunities are also possible in the case of chemical conversions: production of methanol, polymers, etc. is considered short-term use, while mineralisation for building materials is seen as long-term storage. 19

22 Fossil Fuels with CCS 3 Policy context 3.1 EU policy framework An important step in building the EU policy framework for CCS has been taken with the European Commission s Communication Sustainable power from fossil fuels 14, which was published in 2007 and, in particular, aimed at near-zero emissions from coal plants after In 2008, the European Commission followed this with another Communication, Supporting early demonstration of sustainable power generation from fossil fuels 15. This document recognises the crucial role of CCS in reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and states that the wide-scale application of CCS in power plants can be commercially feasible by The Directive on the geological storage of carbon dioxide 16 (also known as the CCS Directive) was adopted in 2009 as part of the energy-climate package, and required that all Member States had to transpose it into national law before June This Directive is fundamental since it establishes the legal framework for the geological storage of CO2 in the EU in an environmentally safe way. It defines the requirements for the storage site, guaranteeing that there is no significant risk of leakage or damage to human health or the environment. According to the Energy Roadmap of the European Commission, CCS technologies must play a fundamental role in the transformation of the European energy system into a secure, competitive and decarbonised one by CCS will have to be applied to the power sector from around 2030 in order to reach this decarbonisation target. The Roadmap for moving to a competitive low-carbon economy in also states that R&D, demonstration and early deployment activities are essential to ensure the cost effectiveness and large-scale penetration of technologies such as CCS. The European Commission launched the European Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan) to help achieve European objectives and to meet the challenges related to energy technologies. CCS must be considered as one of the key technologies to help achieve Europe s ambitious energy and climate targets, and then move towards a lowcarbon Europe, set out under the SET-Plan. 14 COM(2006) 843 final. 15 COM(2008) 13 final. 16 Directive 2009/31/EC. 17 COM(2011) 885 final. 18 COM(2011) 112 final. 20

23 In the SET-Plan framework, seven roadmaps have been proposed 19 to serve as a basis for strategic planning and decision-making, and in particular, for defining the European Industrial Initiatives (E-IIs). The aim of these roadmaps is to raise the maturity of the selected technologies, enabling them to achieve growing market shares by The Carbon Dioxide Capture & Storage European Industrial Initiative (CCS EII), launched in November 2010, has a two-fold strategic objective: the first is for CCS to become cost-competitive after 2020 and the second is to allow for the application of CCS technologies in all carbon-intensive industrial sectors. Moreover, the technological objectives of the CCS EII are to prove the technical and economic feasibility of CCS using existing technologies, and to develop more efficient and cost-competitive CCS technologies. The indicative overall costs for this EII should range from EUR 10,500 million to EUR 16,500 million, as indicated in the table below. Table 5 Indicative costs ( ) for the CCS EII Technology objectives Costs (million EUR) 1. Proving existing technology 8,500-13,000 (additional costs for CCS only) 2. Developing more efficient and costcompetitive 2,000-3,500 CCS technologies Total 10,500-16,500 The European Energy Research Alliance (EERA 20 ) aims to accelerate the development of new energy technologies by implementing Joint Research Programmes in support of the SET-Plan. Its main purpose is the integration and scientific coordination of research institutions working on developing low-carbon energy technologies. EERA launched a Joint Programme on CCS in November 2010, which is committed to reaching the internationally recognised fundamental targets for the large-scale deployment of CCS technology, which are: cost-competitive and energy-efficient methods and processes; confidence in storage technologies. In 2005, the European Technology Platform for Zero Emission Fossil Fuel Power Plants was founded; it is a coalition of relevant stakeholders supporting CCS as the relevant technology for combating climate change, making it commercially viable by 2020 and accelerating R&D into next-generation technology. The role of the European Technology Platform for Zero Emissions Fossil Fuel Power Plants (ZEP) is also to act as advisor for the European Commission on issues related to research, demonstration and deployment of CCS technology. 19 SEC(2009)

24 Fossil Fuels with CCS Table 6 Relevant policy documents on CCS Policy documents 1. Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament, COM(2006) 843 final. Sustainable power generation from fossil fuels: aiming for near-zero emissions from coal after Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, COM(2008) 13 final. Supporting early demonstration of sustainable power generation from fossil fuels. 3. Directive 2009/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the geological storage of carbon dioxide and amending Council Directive 85/337/EEC, European Parliament and Council Directives 2000/60/EC, 2001/80/EC, 2004/35/EC, 2006/12/ EC, 2008/1/EC and Regulation (EC) No 1013/ Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions. A European Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan) (2007) 723 final, 'Towards a low carbon future'. 5. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council and the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, COM(2007) 723 final. A European Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan), 'Towards a low carbon future'. 6. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council and the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, COM(2009) 519 final. Investing in the development of low carbon technologies (SET-Plan). 7. Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council and the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, COM(2011) 112 final. A Roadmap for moving to a competitive low carbon economy in Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council and the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, COM(2011) 885 final. Energy Roadmap Policy support documents 9. CCS EII Implementation Plan European Technology Platform for zero emission fossil fuel power plants, November CCS EII Implementation Plan Key actions to enable the cost-competitive deployment of CCS by ,

25 3.2 EU funding for CCS In order to guarantee deployment of CCS and allow the technology to play a central role, significant investment is needed. Intensive collaboration between private and public investors is required, not only at national level but also at European level. At EU level, there are a number of instruments that are, or can be, used to control the deployment of CCS technology; full descriptions of them are given in the referenced website 22. Ongoing and planned large-scale and pilot projects referring to national research funding at EU level are described in more detail in the ERKC s Policy Brochure on CO2 capture and storage (ERKC, 2014). NER300 The NER300 funding programme was established to provide funding for innovative CCS and renewable energy demonstration projects. NER300 is so called because it is funded from the sale of 300 million emission allowances from the new entrants reserve (NER), which was set up for the third phase of the EU Emissions Trading System 23. In 2013, the second call for proposals under the NER300 was launched, and 33 projects were submitted. In April 2014, the European Investment Bank, responsible for the sales of the ETS allowances, announced that up to EUR 2 billion of funding was raised from these sales and was therefore available for low-carbon energy projects. Of the 19 winners under the second call for NER300, only one is for CCS. The European projects selected will be operational by 2018 and will increase the annual production of renewable energy in the EU by almost 8 terawatt hours (TWh). EEPR The EU Energy Programme for Recovery (EEPR) is a EUR 1 billion fund, which has been allocated to CCS demonstration projects in Germany, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands, Poland and the United Kingdom. The programme was launched in May Unfortunately, the low price of carbon under the Emissions Trading System (ETS) has rendered the business case for CCS unattractive. Moreover, the current economic context has made it more difficult for projects to access the additional financing needed. Against this background, three projects had been terminated by December 2013 (DE, IT and PL); for a fourth (ES), the EEPR co-funded phase was followed by a negative final investment decision. The remaining two projects (NL and UK) continue to experience significant difficulties in obtaining the necessary funding for both construction and operation

26 Fossil Fuels with CCS FP7 The Seventh Framework Programme (FP7), with a total budget of over EUR 50 billion for the period , has been the EU instrument that was specifically targeted at supporting research and development. It provided funding to co-finance research, technological development and demonstration projects. Support has been available for collaborative and individual research projects, as well as for the development of research skills and capacity. CCS research has obtained funding from FP7 programmes. Connecting Europe Facility The European Commission s Connecting Europe Facility is designed to provide funding for trans-european infrastructure projects in the areas of transport, energy and digital services. A budget of EUR 5.85 billion was recently adopted for energy investment up to Horizon 2020 Horizon2020 continues the work started under the SET-Plan to accelerate the development of a portfolio of low-carbon technologies. Developing competitive low-carbon energy for Europe is one of 12 focus areas for the European Commission s Horizon 2020 Work Programme With a budget of EUR 362 million for 2014 and EUR 375 million for 2015, the aim is to assist the transition to minimal CO2 emissions, by funding innovative technologies, R&D and market uptake. In December 2013, the European Commission launched a call for proposals 25 under Horizon 2020, which specifically featured CCS as part of the competitive low-carbon energy focus area. The Commission called for proposals to address the challenges of geological storage and the application of CCS to industrial sectors. State aid The new European Commission s Guidelines on state aid for environmental protection and energy, which will enter into force in November 2014, recognise the importance of CCS topics/1140-lce html 24

27 3.3 National research funding at EU level This sub-section is based on the ERKC s Policy Brochure on CO2 capture and storage (ERKC, 2014). Research programmes addressing CO2 capture and geological storage have been established in Germany, France, Italy, the Netherlands and Norway. In France, two agencies are funding research related to geological CO2 storage: Agence Nationale de la Recherche 26 (ANR) and Agence De l Environnement et de la Maitrise de l Energie 27 (ADEME). Since 2005, ANR and ADEME have funded more than 70 projects on CCS. In Germany, over the same period, more than 40 research projects on CCS have been funded by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research, together with the German Research Foundation in their joint programme GEOTECHNOLOGIEN 28, and by the Federal Ministry of Economy and Technology as part of the CO2 reduction technologies for fossil-fired power plants (COORETEC) programme 29. CCS research in the Netherlands is associated with the national programme CATO This five-year programme is funded by the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation, by industrial partners and through funds provided by the research institutes. The programme consists of five sub-projects covering the whole CCS chain: 1. Capture; 2. Transport and chain integration; 3. Storage and monitoring; 4. Regulation and safety; 5. Public perception. In Norway, the R&D programme CLIMIT 31 is concerned with research into capture, transport and storage of CO2 from fossil fuel power plants and industrial sources. It began in 2005 and has funded about 200 projects. Eleven centres for environmentally-friendly energy research have been established in Norway. Two of the 11 centres dealing with CCS are: BIGCCS 32 and FME-SUCCESS 33. The vision of the BIGCCS Centre is to enable sustainable power generation from fossil fuels based on costeffective CCS, with the following goals: 90% CO2 capture rate, 50% cost reductions, less than 6% fuel-to-electricity penalty, compared to state-of-the-art fossil fuel power generation. The SUCCESS centre addresses several important areas for CO2 storage in the subsurface: storage performance, sealing properties, injection, monitoring and consequences for the marine environment

28 Fossil Fuels with CCS In Italy, the Ministry of Economic Development and the Government of Sardinia Region launched an important initiative with a multiannual programme of activities for developing and demonstrating CCS technologies in the Sulcis area, where research and industrial infrastructures already exist and real opportunities for the geological storage of CO2 have been proved. This initiative is focused on two main programmes: the first one concerns both R&D and large-scale pilot tests, whereas the second is the construction development of an industrial power plant for demonstrating CCS. The first programme is aimed at the completion of the Sulcis Coal Technological Centre for R&D activities on capture and storage, and the development of a large-scale pilot plant for testing advanced oxy-combustion capture technology, rated at 48 MWth. The goal of the second programme is the construction of a new 300 MWe coal-fired power plant with CO2 capture and storage; it will be located in the Sulcis area, at a site close to the coal seam, and will receive public funding for financing the additional costs associated with the adoption of CO2 capture, transport and storage technologies. 26

29 4 Research findings 4.1 Introduction This chapter covers the research results and their benefits and their implications for the associated policy. The main sources of information are the EU-funded FP7 energy projects 34. As already mentioned, the list of projects is not exhaustive. The selection criteria for the projects are the following: publication date after 2007; projects finalised and with publicly available results; important projects currently underway, for which results are not yet available; projects of strategic significance at EU or national levels. 4.2 Overview of the EU projects selected according to the sub-themes In the following tables, the main projects on CCS technologies are grouped according to the pre-defined sub-themes. EU-funded projects and nationally-funded projects are selected for further result analysis. Additional information on each of these projects is presented in Annex 2. Table 7 List of CCS EU projects Sub-theme 1: CO2 capture - post-combustion Project Project title acronym CCP_ CO2 capture plant Brindisi Brindisi Budget (million EUR) total EEPR CESAR CO2 enhanced separation and recovery 6.7 total 4 EC contrib. CAPSOL Design technologies for multi-scale innovation and integration in postcombustion CO2 capture: From molecules to unit operations and integrated plants 3.25 total 2.33 EC contrib

30 Fossil Fuels with CCS CAOLING Development of post-combustion CO2 capture with CaO in a large testing facility 6.6 total 3.73 EC contrib. icap Innovative CO2 capture 6.05 total 4.32 EC contrib. IOLICAP Novel IOnic LIquid and supported ionic liquid solvents for reversible CAPture of CO2 Sub-theme 2: CO2 capture pre-combustion Project Project acronym acronym CACHET II Carbon dioxide capture and hydrogen production with membranes CAESAR Carbon-free electricity by SEWGS: advanced materials, reactor and process design DEMOYS Dense membranes for efficient oxygen and hydrogen separation DECARBIT Enabling advanced pre-combustion capture techniques and plants H2-IGCC Low emission gas turbine technology for hydrogen-rich syngas 5.77 total 3.97 EC contrib. Budget (million EUR) 5.23 total 3.9 EC contrib total 2.26 EC contrib total 3.44 EC contrib total EC contrib total EC contrib. ZECOMIX Zero emission coal mixed technology 7.0 total 5.0 govt. funds. Sub-theme 3: CO2 capture - oxy-combustion Project acronym FLEXI BURN CFB HETMOC O2GEN ADECOS CCS SULCIS Project acronym Development of high efficiency CFB technology to provide flexible air/oxy operation for power plant with CCS Highly efficient tubular membranes for oxy-combustion Optimisation of oxygen-based CFBC technology with CO2 capture Advanced development of the coal-fired oxy-fuel process with CO2 separation CCS technologies in the Sulcis area, Sardinia (Italy) Sub-theme 4: CO2transport Project Project acronym acronym COMET Integrated infrastructure for CO2 transport and storage in the West Mediterranean COCATE Large-scale CCS transportation infrastructure in Europe CO2 PIPEHAZ Quantitative failure consequence hazard assessment for next generation CO2 pipelines Budget (million EUR) total 6.41 EC contrib total 5.53 EC contrib total 6.6 EC contrib. 4.0 total 2.0 EC contrib national funds Budget (million EUR) 3.12 total 2.34 EC contrib total 2.99 EC contrib total 2.07 EC contrib. 28

31 MUSTANG A multiple space and time scale approach for the quantification of deep saline formations for CO2 storage total 8.0 EC contrib. SITECHAR Characterisation of European CO2 storage 5.07 total 3.72 EC contrib. CO2CARE CO2 site closure assessment research 5.31 total 3.97 EC contrib. CARBFIX TRUST RISCS ECO2 ULTIMATE CO2 ECBM SULCIS Creating the technology for safe, longterm carbon storage in the subsurface High resolution monitoring, real time visualisation and reliable modelling of highly controlled, intermediate and up-scalable size pilot injection tests of underground storage of CO2 Research into impacts and safety in CO2 storage Sub-seabed CO2 storage: impact on ecosystem Understanding the long-term fate of geologically stored CO2 Methane recovery and CO2 storage in the Sulcis Coal Basin (Sardinia, Italy) Sub-theme 6: CO2 Utilisation Project Project acronym acronym VIDA Research in advanced technologies for algae integral valuation - ECO2CO2 Eco-friendly bio-refinery fine chemicals from CO2 photo-catalytic reduction 2.25 total 1.57 EC contrib total 8.68 EC contrib total 3.96 EC contrib total 5.33 total 4.02 EC contrib. n.a. Budget (million EUR) total 4.78 total 3.42 EC contrib. 4.3 Objectives and challenges of the selected research projects In the following section, the project results are described under each sub-theme. Each section is divided into two sub-sections, describing R&D objectives and challenges respectively, and finally presenting a summary of the research results from the projects Sub-theme 1: CO2 capture post-combustion R&D objectives CCP_Brindisi is the first of this kind of post-combustion capture project and involves the construction of a pilot installation to treat 10,000 Nm 3 /h of flue gas and separate 2.5 t/h of CO2 (8,000 t/year) at the Brindisi Sud coal power plant. The CO2 produced will be stored by ENI at the Cortemaggiore site (Italy). The project is a demonstration pilot project to allow the installation of a bigger capture plant fed with 29

32 Fossil Fuels with CCS 0.8 MNm3/h of flue gas from a 660 MWe unit of the Porto Tolle power plant (this part of the project is now on hold). CESAR is aimed at the development of novel (hybrid) solvent systems and new high-flux membrane contactors to be used in a low-cost, post-combustion CO2 capture technology for both new power plants and the retrofits of existing ones. The project also aims to improve modelling and integration studies on the plant and to test new solvents in the Esbjerg pilot plant. CAPSOL is investigating the performance of multiple solvents and solvent blends in post-combustion CO2 absorption processes, and is looking at designs for innovative process configurations that are specifically tailored to the solvents used. Advanced modelling and optimisation tools are used in conjunction with experimental procedures. The project aims to identify high-performing solvents and solvent blends in CO2 absorption, to design innovative separation equipment and to develop optimum process configurations to enable cost reductions of at least 20-30% per ton of captured CO2. CAOLING is testing the concept of post-combustion CO2 capture by calcium looping. CO2 is captured from the combustion flue gas of an existing power plant in a circulating fluidised bed carbonator operating between 600 and 700 C. The project is looking gto carry out experimental pilot tests and scale-ups at scales in the 1 MW range. The 1 MW carbonate looping pilot will be built in the Hunosa 50 MWe CFB coal power plant at La Pereda, using a side stream of flue gases from a commercial plant. Parallel research activities are being carried out at laboratory-scale in order to improve knowledge on sorbent properties. icap is aimed at developing fundamental knowledge about the formation of promoted hydrates for CO2 capture and evaluating the potential for high-pressure desorption. Experimental tests are carried out in a laboratory test rig. icap will develop phase-change solvents that form solid CO2 hydrates or two liquid phases, enabling a drastic increase in CO2 concentration in the liquid phase going to the desorber. This radically decreases the solvent circulation rates, introduces a new regime in the energy requirement for desorption and allows for CO2 desorption at elevated pressures. IOLICAP concerns the chemical synthesis of ionic liquids (Ils), modelling it on nanoporous materials and membrane technology and process engineering that, in the short term, could replace the alkanolamines in current pulverised coal combustion (PCC) installations; in the long term this would lead to the establishment of a novel CO2 capture process, based on hybrid absorption bed/ membrane technology. IOLICAP also aims to enhance capture process efficiency by combining membrane technology with bed adsorption. Membrane technology is a less energy-intensive candidate for CO2/ N2 separation and constitutes a versatile and economically feasible technology, especially for applications in energy-intensive industry sectors such as cement, steel and refineries. 30

33 4.3.2 Sub-theme 2: CO2 capture pre-combustion R&D objectives CACHET II aims to develop innovative metallic membranes and modules for high-capacity hydrogen production and separation from a number of fuel sources, including natural gas and coal. The research challenges are to maximise energy efficiency to achieve >50% net electric efficiency for a natural gas combined cycle (NGCC) with capture and for an integrated gasification combined cycle (IGCC) with CCS by the integration of H2 selective membranes and high-temperature sulphur removal. The final goal is to reduce the membrane area required, compared to the CACHET I project. CAESAR aims to develop and optimise SEWGS (sorption enhanced water gas shift) reactor design and sorbent materials, integrated in a natural-gas-fuelled power plant. A pilot unit is in progress for new applications that will be designed to operate in the slipstream of a commercial plant. DEMOYS aims to develop thin mixed conducting membranes for O2 and H2 separation by using a new deposition technique known as low-pressure plasma spraying thin film (LPPS-TF). Functional tests are studying the behaviour of the membranes in order to verify their performances and evaluate their stability in the long term. The project looks at the design and manufacture of prototype membranes and assesses the cost of electricity and CO2 capture in membraneintegrated power plants. DECARBIT studies advanced pre-combustion CO2 separation, advanced oxygen separation technologies and pre-combustion pilots to enable zero-emission, pre-combustion power plants by 2020 with a reduction in capture cost down to EUR 15/ton, combined with highest feasible capture rates. H2-IGCC covers various research themes, such as safe and lowemission combustion technology for undiluted hydrogen-rich syngas, improved materials systems with advanced coatings, delivery of a modified compressor, turbine and turbine-cooling designs, evaluation of optimum IGCC plant configurations with CCS, and setting up guidelines for modelling full-scale integration. The project aims to operate a stable and controllable gas turbine (GT) on hydrogen-rich syngas with emissions and processes similar to the current state-ofthe-art natural GT engines. The aim of the ZECOMIX capture-only project operated by ENEA (Italy) is to study and test a zero-emission, high-efficiency process to produce hydrogen and electricity from coal. It is part of New technologies and processes for the transition towards hydrogen system, a three-year programme sponsored by the Italian government. Operations started in October

34 Fossil Fuels with CCS Sub-theme 3: CO2 capture oxy-combustion R&D objectives FLEXI BURN CFB aims to develop a high-efficiency flexi-burn design for a CFB boiler operating with sliding pressure, super critical once through (SC OTU) steam cycle and air-/oxygen-firing modes, demonstrating flexible air- and oxygen-firing with CO2 capture (with the potential for an almost 100% reduction in CO2) at a large pilotscale CFB, and verifying the operation of a commercial-scale unit. Highly efficient demonstrations of air/oxy flexible CFB operations at a 30 MWth scale (air- and oxygen-firing) with different kinds of local fuels and various test methods for CO2 capture are being carried out. HETMOC is aimed at developing a techno-economic assessment of the oxygen transfer membrane (OTM)-based separation technology in coal-fired power plants; designing an industrial-scale OTM module membrane; and testing the fabrication of scaled-up membranes. O2GEN aims to identify inefficiencies in the first-generation oxycombustion technology and in data production for the second generation by developing and demonstrating each sub-process (ASU, boiler, carbon dioxide purification unit/cpu) in the oxy-combustion CCS concept (with 30-40% oxygen concentration in the boiler). The optimisation of the overall oxy-fuel process integrated with CCS demonstrates the concept of the second-generation oxy-combustion, which significantly reduces (by 50%) the overall efficiency penalty of CO2 capture in power plants, from approximately 12 to 6 efficiency points. ADECOS aims to develop the oxy-combustion process for hard and brown coal, which is ready to be used for a pilot plant. The development included the design of the combustion chamber, burners, flue gas cleaning and process optimisation, with modelling and simulation achieving an 8-10% efficiency loss. The oxy-combustion process will be designed to exceed a power plant efficiency of 36%, including compression of the separated CO2. In Italy, the Ministry of Economic Development and the Government of Sardinia Region have launched an important initiative called CCS SULCIS, with a multi-annual programme of activities for developing and demonstrating CCS technologies in the Sulcis area, where research and industrial infrastructures already exist and real opportunities for the geological storage of CO2 have been proved. This initiative is focused on two main programmes. The first involves both R&D and large-scale pilot tests, whilst the second concerns the construction of an industrial power plant for demonstrating CCS. The first programme sets up the Sulcis Coal Technological Centre for R&D activities on capture and storage, and creates a large-scale pilot plant for testing advanced oxycombustion capture technology rated at 48 MWth. The technology to be used is ISOTHERM flameless pressurised oxy-combustion, developed by ENEL and ITEA, which uses high temperatures, oxygen-enriched air and pressurisation to produce a flameless oxy-combustion reaction and obtain a CO2-rich, sequestration-ready flue gas. The technology platform is assumed to be ready for industrial application. 32

35 4.3.4 Sub-theme 4: CO2 transport R&D objectives COMET aims to identify the location and storage capacity of potential sinks in Spain, Portugal and Morocco. It integrates the all the information and elements of a CO2 transmission network in a Geographic Information System (GIS) and provides an analysis of the national energy systems of the three countries. The primary goal is to identify and assess the most cost-effective CO2 transport and storage infrastructure, so as to be able to serve the West Mediterranean area. COCATE selects the Le Havre region and the Port of Rotterdam as test sites for research. The transportation infrastructure being considered includes two types of networks: a local low-pressure network to collect the flue gases emitted by various Le Havre-based industrial companies and to transport it to various capture centres; and a high-pressure network to transport the captured CO2 from the Port of Rotterdam area to depleted oil and gas fields. The objective of this project is to study the particular problems associated with combining small emitters, and not only power plants. CO2PIPEHAZ is developing a computationally multi-phase, heterogeneous outflow model for the accurate prediction of the timevariant release rate and physical state of escaping CO2 following pipeline failure. The project provides small and large-scale experimental validations of the models developed and demonstrates the usefulness of the tools developed through their application to possible CO2 pipeline designs. The primary goal is to develop and test mathematical models for the safety assessment of CO2 pipelines Sub-theme 5: CO2 storage R&D objectives MUSTANG aims to develop and disseminate a comprehensive set of methodologies and tools for the assessment and characterisation of deep saline aquifers for CO2 storage. SITECHAR is aimed at facilitating the implementation of CO2 storage in Europe by improving standard site characterisation workflows up to the final stage of licensing through the examination of the whole site characterisation process, integrating risk assessment and the development of monitoring plans. The workflow could be tested at a range of onshore and offshore saline aquifers and depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs located across Europe, which are representative of various geological contexts. CO2CARE aims to support the large-scale demonstration of CCS technology by addressing the research requirements of CO2 storage site abandonment. The project is focused on three key areas: well abandonment and long-term integrity; reservoir management and prediction from closure to the long term; risk management methodologies for long-term safety. Objectives will be achieved using integrated laboratory research, field experiments and state-of-the-art numerical modelling. 33

36 Fossil Fuels with CCS CARBFIX is studying the storage of CO2 in basaltic rocks through a combined programme, consisting of field-scale injection of CO2 charged water into basaltic rocks, laboratory-based experiments, the study of natural equivalents and state-of-the-art geochemical modelling. The ultimate goals are to increase understanding of the long-term fate of CO2 injected into the subsurface, and to develop new technology to facilitate the safe and permanent geologic storage of CO2. TRUST examines different strategies for CO2 injection in order to generate characteristics representative of large-scale storage with injection volumes that will produce extrapolative reservoir responses, including detection and mitigation of CO2 leakage at an abandoned well; production of comprehensive datasets for model verification and validation; and CO2 injection experiments at scales large enough so that the outputs can be extrapolated at industrial scales. It relies on four sites: the fully instrumented sites of Heletz (Israel, main site) and Hontomin (Spain), Miranga (Brazil), and an emerging site in the Baltic Sea region. RISCS is carrying out field laboratory experiments, measurements at natural leakage sites, and numerical simulations for both marine and terrestrial ecosystems. This work will set new constraints for the impacts of CO2 leakage on humans and onshore and offshore ecosystems, and allow the study of a wide range of potential impacts, thus providing tools for developing appropriate legislation to ensure the safe management of CO2 storage sites. ECO2 is establishing a framework of best environmental practices to guide the management of offshore CO2 injection and storage. This includes the quantitative assessment of potential and actual impacts on marine ecosystems at a CO2 injection facility and the entire storage site. Field studies at currently operated and prospective sites (Sleipner, Snøhvit) and natural CO2 sinks (North Sea, Mediterranean Sea) are complemented by laboratory experiments and numerical simulations at different scales. A part of the project is to transfer this knowledge into a risk management concept and an economic evaluation of the costs of leakage, monitoring and mitigation measures. ULTIMATECO2 aims to improve knowledge of specific processes that could influence the long-term (LT) fate of geologically-stored CO2 and to validate tools for predicting LT storage site performance. Detailed laboratory, field and modelling studies of the main physical and chemical processes are performed, involving two demonstration sites in deep saline sandstone formations: the onshore NER300 Ouest Lorraine candidate in France (ArcelorMittal GeoLorraine) and the offshore EEPR Hatfield site in the United Kingdom (National Grid). The project ECBM SULCIS, Methane recovery and CO2 storage in the Sulcis Coal Basin (financed by CARBOSULCIS, Sardinia), has the objective of evaluating the feasibility of methane recovery (CBM) and CO2 storage (ECBM) in the Sulcis coal basin, in South-West Sardinia, an area unsuitable for mining activities. 34

37 4.3.6 Sub-theme 6: CO2 utilisation R&D objectives VIDA focuses on the selection, growth and recovery of algae through the use of highly innovative technologies. This project is a very important step in the way ahead for research in this field, since microalgae are today considered to be very important for their energy use as they contain a variety of compounds with market value: thickening agents, proteins, vitamins, enzymes, antibiotics; pharmaceutical and chemical products, for example polymers, chemical dyes and colouring agents; and energy storage chemicals, such as syngas, formic acid, methane, ethylene, methanol and dimethyl ether (DME). ECO2CO2 is aimed at exploiting a photo-electro-chemical CO2 conversion route for the synthesis of methanol as an intermediate stage in the production of fine chemicals in a ligno-cellulosic bio-refinery. The most crucial development in the project will be the design of a reactor that is capable of converting CO2 into methanol by exploiting water and sunlight with a conversion efficiency exceeding 6%, and that has an expected lifetime of hours. 4.4 Summary of the research findings CO2 capture post-combustion results During CCP_Brindisi, ENEL constructed and operated a pilot CO2 capture plant in Brindisi, southern Italy. The pilot plant is designed for a nominal gas flow rate of nm3/h. Four different sections can be identified: flue gas spilling, flue gas pre-treatment, absorption and solvent regeneration. CAPSOL and CESAR focus on the optimum design of solvents and solvent blends for CO2 capture through innovative modelling and/ or pilot plant validation experiments. CESAR, in particular, leads in the selection of the best available amine- or amino acid-based solvents characterised and tested in the Esbjerg Pilot plant. CESAR s regeneration performed best with 2.6 GJ/ton CO2 (including lean vapour compression and inter-cooling). The CESAR capture process with advanced integration was estimated to cost EUR per tonne of abated CO2. Three pilot plant tests were carried out (MEA and CESAR1 solvent for hours of operation, CESAR2 solvent for 500 hours of operation). Pilot-scale validation (1% of full scale, 1 ton CO2/ hr) of novel solvent systems in terms of operability and absorption performance was obtained. CAOLING enabled the capture of CO2 from flue gases with CaO at atmospheric pressure in a batch fluidised bed of CaO, using reasonable gas residence times and bed inventory. Results are available for the cocapture CO2-SOx experiments at laboratory scale undertaken to study performance and define the main parameters that impact on capture efficiency. Based on previous results, the improvement of limestone 35

38 Fossil Fuels with CCS reactivity by doping and limestone attrition effects has been studied. A preliminary model for the reactor s performance has been developed. icap developed environmentally-multiphase, post-combustion solvent systems, which result in a reduction in thermal heat requirement of 45-50% and in CO2 recompression costs of 30-60% (i.e. a total heat requirement of 2.3 GJ and a total cost of EUR 15/tonne CO2 avoided). IOLICAP recently examined ionic liquid membranes as candidates for CO2/N2 separation CO2 capture pre-combustion results CACHET is studying CO2-free power production, which could be applied to both NGCC and IGCC. In particular, CACHET II is examining scaled up pure Pd membranes and seals and their stability; novel Pd-alloy membrane materials for IGCC-CCS application; novel sorbent material for high temperature H2S removal from a coal-derived membrane simulation tool; and demonstration of module designs and scaled-down units for membranes. CAESAR developed a sorbent that was tested under realistic process conditions. A long-term test showed that the sorbent material was stable over a large number of adsorption desorption cycles. Simulations of SEWGS integrated in NGCC showed a very high efficiency (exceeding 50%) and component reduction, if compared to conventional precombustion technology for CO2 capture. The preliminary integration of SEGWS in IGCC was investigated. DEMOYS selected LaSrCoFe (lanthanum strontium cobalt ferrite or LSCF) and a proton-conducting ceramic (patented) as reference materials for O2 and H2 separation membranes. Membrane performances will be assessed in pilot loops in order to meet specific targets in terms of permeability and stability at high temperature. A modelling study concerning the integration of the membranes developed in power generation and/or hydrogen production plants will also be undertaken to provide inputs for process scale-ups and cost evaluations. DECARBIT considered four cycles based on the novel processes derived from the base case: cases with air separation using a high temperature oxygen transfer membrane (OTM), pressure swing adsorption (PSA), membrane gas desorption (MGD) and low- temperature (LT) processes. The project has defined boundary conditions and operational requirements (oxygen, hydrogen and CO2 purity requirements; temperatures for membrane operation; fuel supply pressures and temperatures, and preliminary heat and mass balances). The research included development of advanced oxygen separation technologies (dense ceramic membranes of perovskite material) and numerical simulations of hydrogen combustion assessment of pre-combustion pilots. 36

39 H2-IGCC tested various burner configurations at ambient and medium pressure levels. The project carried out tests and evaluated alternative combustion technologies (flameless and wet combustion). Several different options for the modification of the GT have been identified, researched and discussed, and the best option selected for detailed design. Techno-economic modelling and system optimisation activities have been started. ZECOMIX carried out experimental tests in laboratory-scale systems and a small-scale pilot plant for the high-temperature decarbonisation of coal/biomass. Simulation activities progressed with the use of advanced 3D codes to improve process control optimisation CO2 capture oxy-combustion results FLEXI BURN CFB carried out demonstration tests with different coals at a first-of-its-kind 30 MWth air-oxygen-flexible CFB pilot facility, and validation tests at the world s first and largest supercritical oncethrough CFB (460 MWe, at Lagisza in Poland). New simulation tools were developed to support the improvement of the flexi-burn CFB technology. HETMOC will demonstrate highly efficient tubular membranes for oxycombustion. Fabricated membranes will be demonstrated over a period exceeding hours in a pressurised proof-of-concept module. The module will hold 25 tubes each 1 m in length. The knowledge obtained in both the development and fabrication of the membranes, together with the experiences from the proof-of-concept module, will be used for a conceptual design of an industrial-scale module with a capacity of 100 tons of CO2 per day. O2GEN identified the weaknesses in the operation of oxy-fuel facilities, and proposed a new design for air separation units. The preliminary testing of oxy-combustion under high oxygen concentrations and identification of optimum operating conditions and issues have been achieved. Experimental data have been obtained for the model development and demonstration on the CIUDEN platform. Dynamic simulations of the optimised overall integrated high-efficiency, secondgeneration oxy-fuel have been carried out. ADECOS validated simulations through experimental investigations that focused on the purity of CO2 achievable. The results have been used for the design of the 30 MW oxy-fuel pilot plant Schwarze Pumpe by Vattenfall. ADECOS and the Vattenfall oxy-fuel pilot plant are working together to demonstrate oxy-combustion at a scale of 250 MW CO2 transport results COMET studied the techno-economic feasibility of integrating carbon dioxide transport and storage infrastructures in the West Mediterranean area (Spain, Portugal and Morocco). 37

40 Fossil Fuels with CCS COCATE performed multiphase simulations to estimate both the stability of the collecting network and the risk of corrosion. A review of the existing multiphase models was made, focusing on the flow pattern predicted by the stability study. The state of the art in terms of the safety of CO2 transport was established as the first element in the risk-based modelling technique. CO2PIPEHAZ developed a cost/benefit analysis for a post-combustion CO2 plant in the Laiohe Oil field in China, in order to determine the optimum level of impurities in the captured CO2 stream. Safety and risk assessment tools for evaluating the adequacy of controls in CO2 pipelines against best practice guidelines were also developed CO2 storage results MUSTANG investigated a number of test sites with a wide diversity in location, geology, reservoir properties and depths. Detailed conceptual models have been constructed from the following field sites: South Scania, Horstberg, Valcele, Heletz and Hontomín. One site is intended for the testing of novel geo-electric monitoring technologies (Maguelone). Two complementary CO2 natural analogue sites are being considered as reference material (North Sea Viking Graben). The Heletz structure has been selected as a test site for a prospective CO2 reservoir and for the MUSTANG injection experiment, which is based on the analysis of the available geological, geophysical and borehole data from various areas of Israel. SITECHAR developed the first draft of a workflow that will be tested on a range of onshore and offshore, open and structural traps and depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs located across Europe. CO2CARE undertook a comprehensive review of current regulations and standard practices and produced a report that covers risk management and decision-making procedures. Software to compare behaviour and measured data was also designed. A range of investigations into rocksealing procedures have been undertaken, as well as into the chemical and physical mechanisms of CO2 trapping. CARBFIX tested the field-scale injection of CO2 charged water into basaltic rocks at the Hellisheidi natural laboratory and carried out studies into, and geochemical modelling of, natural CO2 rich water reactivity as the natural analogue to the behaviour of injected CO2. TRUST tested pilot injections using size and geological conditions representative of the industrial-scale geological storage of CO2. Design and implementation of monitoring technologies have been carried out, enabling the production of reliable and high-resolution datasets for model validation and verification. The datasets produced are being used to validate and verify computational models to simulate the fate of the stored CO2 during all phases. 38

41 RISCS quantitatively assessed environmental impacts from exposure to known CO2 fluxes. The assessment is based on field laboratory experiments, measurements at natural leakage sites and numerical simulations for both marine and terrestrial ecosystems. ECO2 assessed the risks associated with CO2 storage below the seabed and established a framework for the best environmental practices to guide the management of offshore CO2 injection and storage. A quantitative assessment of potential and actual impacts on marine ecosystems at a CO2 injection facility and the entire storage site has been performed. Field studies at operated and prospective sites (Sleipner, Snøhvit) and natural CO2 seeps (North Sea, Mediterranean Sea) have been complemented with laboratory experiments and numerical simulations carried out at different scales. ULTIMATE CO2, a four-year collaborative programme, includes detailed laboratory, field and modelling studies of the main physical and chemical processes involved and their long-term impact on: a) trapping mechanisms in the reservoir (structural, dissolution, residual, mineral); b) fluid-rock interactions and their effects on the mechanical integrity of fractured caprock and faulted systems; and c) leakage due to mechanical and chemical damage in the vicinity of the well. ECBM SULCIS studied the possibility of a CCS project with CO2- ECBM within the Sulcis coalfield. The project is aimed at: improving knowledge of the chemical and physical features of the Sulcis coal basin by studying the peculiarities of its out-flow methane and CO2 adsorption; improving the geological survey to find new deep coal seams and evaluate their orientations; and checking the use of ECBM methods in the Sulcis coal basin CO2 utilisation results After three years of investigations, the VIDA project has succeeded in creating a revolutionary CO2 capture system with micro-algae bio-production that is capable of achieving purities of up to 95%, simulating gas combustion. The project has demonstrated a new technique based on the capture of CO2 from polluting smoke through a device specifically designed for this project and also the further use for this purified CO2 to feed algae cultures. ECO 2 CO2 should be able to prove the cost-effectiveness of producing fine green chemicals on the basis of laboratory tests with at least 100 g/h production rates and should be capable of achieving abated CO2 emissions as high as 50 Mtpa worldwide by the 2020s. 39

42 Fossil Fuels with CCS 5 International developments This chapter describes activities relevant to the TRS topic under development in countries outside Europe. Emphasis is placed on CCS applications from laboratory scale to pilot scale, or even larger sized projects, from different countries. As stated by the Global CCS Institute (Global Status of CCS, 2014) in February 2014, 12 CCS projects are in operation globally, nine under construction and another 39 at various stages of development planning. The 21 projects in operation or under construction represent a 50% increase since 2011, a sign of the growing development of the application of CCS technology on a large scale. Figure 7 Large-scale CCS projects by region February 2014 Source: Global status of CO2 capture and storage, GCCSI,

43 North America is a leader in the implementation of CCS technology and China is increasing in importance. The first large-scale CCS projects in the power sector of global importance to the development of CCS the Boundary Dam integrated CO2 capture and sequestration project and the Kemper County IGCC project are close to operational status in North America. Similarly, in the Middle East, the world s first largescale CCS project in the iron and steel sector has moved into the construction phase. Six projects are at advanced stages of development planning with a combined capture capacity of over 10 million tonnes of CO2 per year. These are the Lake Charles CCS project, the NRG Energy Parish CCS project and the Texas clean energy project in the United States of America (USA), the Yanchang integrated CO2 capture and storage demonstration project and the Sinopec Qilu Petrochemical CCS project in China, and the ROAD project in the Netherlands. The number of large-scale CCS projects in continental Europe has fallen from 14 in 2011 to just five in February Two of these CCS projects are operating in the gas processing industry sector (the Snøhvit and Sleipner CO2 injection projects in Norway), leaving only three projects at the planning stage the most advanced being the ROAD project in the Netherlands. In Europe (including the United Kingdom), the planned CCS projects, mostly in the power sector, are not expected to begin operation until the period. There are several demonstration and pilot-scale projects for CO2 capture technologies, particularly for post-combustion capture and oxy-combustion technologies. The scale of these latter projects is generally in the order of MWth, or a capture capacity of up to a few hundred thousand tonnes of CO2/year. Dedicated test facilities for CO2 capture have been set up in Canada, China, Norway, Spain, Italy, the United Kingdom and the USA. In general, post-combustion CO2 separation technologies can be used in many industrial applications (for example EU ULCOS, Ultra low CO2 steelmaking project, COURSE50 in the Japanese steel industry). The world s largest CO2 capture plant is a Rectisol process run by Sasol, South Africa, as part of its synfuel/chemical process, which captures approximately 25 million tonnes of CO2 per year (CSLF Technology Roadmap, 2013). 5.1 CCS in Australia Australia has made a great contribution to CCS through a number of initiatives, including the Global CCS Institute with its CCS Flagships Programme to speed up the development and demonstration of CCS technologies; small-to-large-scale demonstration projects; a national Low Emissions Coal Fund, and Low Emissions Technology Demonstration Fund. Several CCS projects (commercial, demonstration and R&D) are ongoing in Australia. These include the Callide oxy-fuel project, the CarbonNet project, the South west hub project, the CO2CRC Otway project and the Gorgon project. 41

44 Fossil Fuels with CCS 5.2 CCS in China China has the largest number of CCS pilot projects in the world and some of these are currently in operation. Thanks to the experience gained, there has been a significant growth in the number of proposed large-scale fully integrated projects (LSIPs). The preferred capture technology for China s LSIPs is pre-combustion capture from power plants and coal-fired chemical plants. Recently, however, there has been increased interest in oxy-combustion projects. In terms of storage, particular attention is focused on using the captured CO2 for commercial applications. The use of CO2 for EOR has been practiced in China since 2006, and the majority of the proposed LSIPs are considering EOR as their preferred storage option. There are also two PCC pilot projects currently in operation, aimed at selling food-grade CO2 for beverage production. 5.3 CCS in Japan The research and experiments on CO2 separation and post-combustion capture carried out by manufacturers and electric power companies in Japan have mainly focused on chemical absorption, in natural gasfired power stations, coal-fired power stations and other facilities. An IGCC pilot facility for pre-combustion capture has examined chemical and physical absorption. The construction of a demonstration facility is also planned. Abroad, Japanese corporations have been participating in projects on post-combustion capture, oxy-combustion capture and pre-combustion capture in Australia, North America and Europe. With regard to CO2 storage, an underground storage demonstration project was undertaken in Nagaoka City between 2002 and Another longterm demonstration project (10 years) was launched in Tomakomai City, Hokkaido, in Japan CCS Co. Ltd is also implementing a project that aims to store CO2 in a sub-seabed geological formation. CO2 will be separated and captured from hydrogen production equipment at oil refineries. This project will demonstrate a complete CCS system for the first time in Japan. 5.4 CCS in South Korea There are two large-scale, integrated CCS projects in South Korea. The country also aims to develop commercially competitive CO2 capture technology by The estimated operation date for its first project (post-combustion on a coal-fired power plant) is 2017 and the estimated operation date for its second is 2019 (pre- or oxy-combustion on a coal-fired power plant or 300 MW IGCC plant). South Korea has not identified any onshore site suitable for storing CO2 and will need to consider offshore storage. In April 2012, the Korean Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime announced that it was studying areas in the south-western seabed of the Ulleung Basin, which could potentially be a suitable site for storing CO2. 42

45 5.5 CCS in North Africa and the Middle East The region, extending from Morocco in North-west Africa to Iran in South-west Asia, and including all the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries, is one of the most promising regions in the world for the deployment of large-scale CCS facilities. A key element in this region is the presence of oil and gas fields, which offer potential for CO2 storage sites. MENA is home to one of the world s first operating CCS projects, in Salah in Algeria, which has sequestered 1 Mtpa of CO2 annually since Most of the region s research activity is in the United Arab Emirates, where the Abu Dhabi Future Energy Company (Masdar) is heading a number of projects. The first phase includes four capture plants with the potential to capture up to 6.7 Mtpa of CO2, which will be delivered to oil reservoirs for injection. 5.6 CCS in Canada and the United States of America The USA has 19 large-scale CCS projects in operation or at various stages of development. Major R&D activities include the creation and maintenance of seven Regional Carbon Sequestration Partnerships that have proven to be an indispensable source of CCS knowledge for North America and the world. In the absence of a national programme that establishes a carbon price or other incentives to encourage CCS investments, the prospects for additional large-scale projects in the power and industrial sectors are uncertain. In Canada there are seven large-scale CCS projects; the Weyburn/Midale EOR project in Saskatchewan, the largest of its kind, is operational. 43

46 Fossil Fuels with CCS 6 Technology mapping 6.1 Research challenges and needs Capture technologies are mostly well understood but still expensive. Transport is the most technically mature step in CCS. CO2 storage has been demonstrated but further experience is still needed on a large scale. Figure 8 shows the level of maturity and development of technologies for CO2 capture in the power and industry sectors. In general, first-phase industrial applications are more mature than those in the power sector, and are ready for deployment. Figure 8: Level of maturity of capture technology in the power and industrial sectors Source: International Energy Agency,

47 CCS has to be applied on a very large scale to have any impact on reducing climate change, and this implies overcoming the barriers that still exist: reducing the overall costs of the CCS chain; increasing the number of suitable storage sites, where CO2 can be stored in large quantities in a safe and controlled manner. The goal of the European Energy Integrated Roadmap, proposed by the European Commission in May 2013, is to develop innovative solutions that will respond to the needs of the European energy system by 2020, 2030 and beyond. The Roadmap will address the entire energy system in an integrated way, and identify key research and innovation actions, including CCS, to be undertaken within the next six years. Key actions for delivering the global reductions required by 2050 from CCS are to: a) accelerate the application of CCS in industries beyond power (e.g. steel, cement refining); b) exploit the full potential of bio-energy-ccs, by combining CCS with renewable energy and fuel production using biomass feedstock; c) optimise first-generation capture technologies and advance those for the next generation; d) accelerate the development of transport infrastructures for CO2; e) develop a comprehensive European storage atlas; f) better characterise potential storage sites; g) better monitor storage sites, with enhanced leakage detection and measurement; h) combine and improve operative practices for safe and efficient storage. The R&D priorities required to achieve these actions are summarised below. CO2 capture post-combustion CO2 capture research was dedicated to the development of more efficient solvent systems and processes. Several solvents have been identified and tested in industrial pilot-scale plants with significant amounts of fundamental knowledge gathered on solvents, solvent degradation, solvent emission, solid sorbents and polymeric membranes. There has also been substantial progress in the development and pilotscale demonstrations of post-combustion CaO/CaCO3 calcium looping technologies, confirming the potential of this technology option. Current solvent systems operate with an energy demand that is approximately twice the theoretical minimum. Basic research is still needed on the following: 45

48 Fossil Fuels with CCS liquid solvents with low energy requirements < 1.5 GJ/tonne of CO2 for power and industrial sectors; high-/low-temperature solid sorbents other than natural CaO/ CaCO3; membrane modules with high permeability and selectivity; membrane-supported liquid solvents. CO2 capture pre-combustion Most R&D activities on pre-combustion capture were dedicated to novel CO2/hydrogen separation systems. Several are now ready for largescale pilots, not only in power generation but also other industries (e.g. steel, refineries). Basic research is still needed on the following: sour shift catalysts with higher activity, improved stability and low steam demand; high-capacity adsorbents for co-separation of CO2 and H2S; hydrate-based CO2 separation; membrane-based CO2 and H2 separation; scaled-up membrane water-gas-shift reactors; improved oxygen transport membrane reactors through membrane integration. CO2 capture oxy-combustion Coal oxy-combustion research has now progressed from laboratoryscale to full-scale single burner tests; the next step is the large-scale demonstration of oxy-fired coal boilers. Significant progress has also been made in the technology for chemical looping combustion (CLC). However, basic research is still needed on the following: improved operation with multiple/dirty fuels/biomass in oxy-fuel; basic investigation of oxy-fuel gas turbine combustor design in order to enable complete and stable combustion of the fuel; gas turbine designs for both air-firing and oxy-fuel mode; CLC pressurised reactors, for both coal and gas turbine operation; new O2-separation technologies (i.e. membranes and/or adsorbent processes) integrated with oxy-fuel boilers. CO2 storage As far as CO2 storage is concerned, the development of large-scale storage pilots has the highest priority in order to build public confidence and finalise the regulatory issues. There is a need for a European-wide CO2 storage atlas, which will be vital for advancing the development of a CO2 transport infrastructure. 46

49 For site characterisation, progress is required in: better understanding of multi-phase flow, thermodynamics, geochemistry and, in particular, geo-mechanics (including faults and fractures); validation of geochemical models (calibration, verification and sensitivity analysis of large-scale simulations). For monitoring, progress can be achieved in: CO2 plume tracking, leakage detection and quantification at the surface (especially offshore); remote sensing for leakage detection and geo-mechanical stability; biological monitoring for environmental impact assessment; long-term, low-cost monitoring (passive and active) and costeffective monitoring strategies. For safe and efficient storage exploitation, progress can be achieved in: low-cost wells for exploration and observation, and durable longlife monitoring sensors; improved drilling to reduce formation damage and costs; pressure management, especially for deep saline aquifers, to maximise the storage resources; technologies for the remediation and mitigation of significant irregularities and leakage; ecosystem recovery; well closure and abandonment procedures storage development strategies for early (post-demonstration) deployment. CO2 utilisation Potential utilisation options of CO2 could lead to secure long-term storage. Progress can be achieved in: advanced synthetic photosynthesis for CO2 fixation using hybrid systems (such as enzymes for a faster process); photochemical and photoelectrochemical systems that mimic nature. 47

50 Fossil Fuels with CCS 6.2 Costs of technology With regard to the allocation of investment costs (CapEx Capital Expenditure) for coal and natural gas plants, the main contribution comes from capture (75 78% contribution to the total CapEx), followed by transport (5 10%) and storage (15 18%)(ZEP, 2011). The costs of coal-fired power generation could be between 40% and 60%, increased by the addition of CO2 capture, around USD 100 per megawatt hour (MWh) for commercial first-of-a-kind plants using the current technology (IEA, 2013). Table 8 Cost parameters for CCS projects in power generation (in EUR2012) PC-CCS advanced single unit IGCC-CCS single unit NG combined cycle CCS advanced CC Nominal capacity (MW) Overnight cost ( 2012/ kw) Fixed O&M costs ( 2012/ kw-year) Variable O&M costs ( 2012/ MWh) Source: International Energy Agency Technology Map, CO2 capture Capture costs were determined for the first capture technologies, which will probably be ready for deployment in the early 2020s, i.e. post-combustion, IGCC with pre-combustion and oxy-combustion. All three were applied to hard coal and lignite-fired power plants, while post-combustion was also applied to natural gas. Hard coal-fired power plants without capture have a levelised cost of electricity (LCOE) in the range of ~EUR 48/MWh (excluding emission allowances costs), EUR 65-70/MWh with capture. Natural gas-fired power plants without capture have a LCOE of ~EUR 70/MWh, rising to ~EUR 90/MWh with capture. CO2 avoidance costs against a reference plant with the same fuel give <EUR 30/tonne of CO2 avoided for lignite; just over EUR 30/tonne for hard coal; and ~EUR 80/tonne for natural gas (excluding transport and storage costs) (ZEP, 2011) CO2 transport There are two main methods of CO2 transportation: pipelines and ships. These can be combined in different ways, from a single source to a single sink, developing into systems with several sources, networks and several storage sites. Pipeline costs are proportional to distance, while shipping costs are fairly stable over distance but have additional costs, including a stand-alone liquefaction unit potentially remote from the power plant. Pipelines also benefit significantly from scale, whereas the scale effects on ship transport costs are less significant. 48

51 Typical costs for a short onshore pipeline (180 km) and a small volume of CO2 (2.5 Mtpa) are just over EUR 5/tonne of CO2. These costs are reduced to ~EUR 1.5/ tonne of CO2 for a large system (20 Mtpa). Offshore pipelines are more expensive at ~EUR 9.5 and EUR 3.5/tonne of CO2 respectively, for the same conditions. An onshore pipeline costs EUR 3.7/tonne of CO2 and an offshore pipeline ~EUR 6/tonne of CO2, if length is increased to 500 km For ships, the cost is less dependent on distance: for a large transport volume of CO2 (20 Mtpa), costs are ~EUR 11/tonne for 180 km; EUR 12/tonne for 500 km; and ~EUR 16/tonne for very long distances (1 500 km), including liquefaction. For a smaller volume of CO2 (2.5 Mtpa), costs for 500 km are just below EUR 15/tonne, including liquefaction (ZEP, 2011) CO2 storage Storage is divided into the main typical cases: depleted oil and gas fields (DOGF) vs deep saline aquifers (SAs); offshore vs onshore; and whether existing wells are re-usable. Technology costs range between EUR 1 and EUR 20/tonne of CO2. Storage costs for the early commercial phase will be at the low/medium levels for onshore SAs at EUR 2-12/tonne; onshore DOGF at EUR 1-7/ tonne; offshore SAs (with the largest capacities) at EUR 6-20/tonne; and offshore DOGF at EUR 2-14/tonne. This means therefore that: onshore is cheaper than offshore; DOGF are cheaper than SAs (particularly for re-usable legacy wells); offshore SAs show the highest costs and the widest cost ranges; field capacity, injection rate and depth have a greater impact on sensitivity costs. The majority of suitable sites are below the estimated capacity of Mt, which corresponds with the need for more than five reservoirs to store 5 Mtpa of CO2 for 40 years; the majority of estimated capacity is found in very large DOGF and SAs (>200 Mt capacity). CO2 storage capacity is available in Europe. Offshore, followed by onshore, SAs have the largest potential, but also the highest costs (ZEP, 2011) CO2 utilisation The use of captured CO2 as a product could be an alternative to the permanent storage of CO2 in geological formations. CO2 can be transferred to many different products via chemical, biochemical, photochemical or electrochemical reactions. These processes are energy demanding, therefore the development of energyefficient processes, the use of excess power and renewables (e.g. solar power to grow algae), and the advancement of catalysts are of special interest to help reduce the cost of CO2 utilisation technology. 49

52 Fossil Fuels with CCS 7 Capacities mapping The data available for European countries from the International Energy Agency R&D Statistics Database indicates that the overall public R&D expenditure on CCS in 2011 amounted to almost EUR 160 million, representing more than 46% of the total public budget for R&D activities in fossil fuel sectors for the countries analysed (see Figure 9). In absolute terms, France has by far the highest public expenditure for R&D activities in the CCS sector with almost EUR 54 million in 2011 and about one third of the total CCS public budget for the countries considered. The United Kingdom follows with more than EUR 39 million, Norway with EUR 28.5 million and Italy with EUR 23.4 million. These four countries together represent more than 90% of the total public budget for R&D activities in the CCS sector. Figure 9 European countries total R&D expenditure on CCS in 2011 (million EUR 2012 prices and exchange rates) Source: International Energy Agency RD&D Statistics Database. The country with the most significant share of public R&D expenditure in the CCS sector compared to the total R&D national budget for fossil fuels is Sweden, with 79% of its entire R&D expenditure in Italy and the United Kingdom follow with 77% and 75% (respectively) of their fossil fuels budgets, followed by Portugal (58%), France (48%) and Austria (47%) (see Figure 10). 50

53 Figure 10 European countries R&D expenditure on CCS as a share of total R&D expenditure on fossil fuels in 2011 (percentage 2012 prices and exchange rates) Source: International Energy Agency RD&D Statistics Database. According to the most recent European Commission estimates, the EU corporate R&D investment in the CCS sector in 2010 amounted to around EUR 189 million, which corresponds to about half of the total R&D budget (EUR million). On average, European firms increased their R&D expenditure by EUR 58 million per year from 2003 to 2010, with German firms covering a quarter of the global R&D investments (EUR 1,653 million) and 57% of the European budget. 51

54 Fossil Fuels with CCS 8 Conclusions and recommendations Based on the previous chapters, the following conclusions and recommendations can be made. At the EU level, the overall public R&D expenditure on CCS in 2011 amounted to almost EUR 160 million, which represents more than 46% of the total public budget for R&D activities in fossil fuel sectors. In 2010, the EU corporate R&D investment in the CCS sector amounted to around EUR 189 million. CCS has to be applied on a very large scale to have an impact on reducing climate change, and this implies overcoming the barriers that still exist, such as: o reducing the overall costs of the CCS chain; o increasing the number of suitable storage sites, where CO2 can be stored in large quantities in a safe and controlled manner. First-generation CO2 capture technology for power generation applications has been demonstrated on the scale of a few tens of megawatts (approximately tonnes of CO2/ year); two large demonstration plants in the power generation sector (in Canada and the USA) are currently in the project execution phase. There is a need to gain experience from large demonstration projects in power generation, and identify and implement CO2 capture for industrial applications, particularly in steel and cement plants. Second and third-generation CO2 capture technologies are designed to reduce costs and the energy penalty, maintaining operational flexibility in order to make CCS commercially viable. CO2 capture research was dedicated to the development of more efficient solvent systems and processes. Several solvents and sorbent materials have been identified and tested in industrial pilot-scale plants, obtaining basic information on solvents, solvent degradation, solvent emission, solid sorbents and polymeric membranes. Most R&D activities on pre-combustion capture were dedicated to novel CO2/hydrogen separation systems. Coal oxy-combustion research has now progressed from laboratory scale to full scale; the next step is the large-scale demonstration of oxy-fired coal boilers. 52

55 CO2 transport is an established technology and pipelines are frequently utilised to transport CO2 for enhanced oil recovery However, further development and knowledge is needed to optimise the design and operation of pipelines and other transport methods, and to design and establish a CO2 collection or distribution network and transportation infrastructure. CO2 storage is safe provided that proper planning, operating, closure and post-closure procedures are developed and followed. However, sites display a wide variety of geological properties and in situ conditions, and data collection for site characterisation, qualification and permission currently requires a long time. Identified research, development and demonstration (RD&D) actions are needed to increase the demonstration of large storage options in a wide range of national and geological settings, onshore as well as offshore; further tests are needed to validate monitoring technologies in large-scale storage projects and to qualify these technologies for commercial use. It is also necessary to: 1) develop and validate mitigation and remediation methods for potential leaks, and scale these up to commercial levels; 2) further develop the understanding of fundamental processes to advance the simulation tools regarding the effects and fate of the stored CO2; and 3) develop consistent methods for evaluating the CO2 storage capacity on various scales and produce geographical maps of the national and global distribution of this capacity. With regard to CO2 storage, the highest priority is the development of large-scale storage pilot projects in order to build public confidence. There is a need for a European-wide CO2 storage atlas, which will be vital to advancing the development of a CO2 transport infrastructure. There is a broad collection of non-eor CO2 utilisation options that can provide a mechanism to utilise CO2 in an economic manner. However, these options are at various levels of technological and market maturity and require: 1) technology development and small-scale tests; 2) technical, economic and environmental analyses to better quantify impacts and benefits; and 3) tests to verify the performance of any products produced through these other utilisation options. Regarding the allocation of investment costs (CapEx Capital Expenditure) for coal and natural gas plants, the main contribution actually comes from the capture step (75 78% contribution to the total CapEx), followed by transport (5 10%) and storage (15 18%). In February 2014, there were 12 CCS projects in operation globally and nine under construction. North America leads in the implementation of CCS technology and China is quickly increasing in importance. There are many demonstration and 53

56 Fossil Fuels with CCS pilot-scale projects for CO2 capture technologies, particularly for post-combustion capture and oxy-combustion technologies. The scale of these is generally in the order of MWth, or a capture capacity of up to a few hundred thousand tonnes of CO2/year. Dedicated test facilities for the capture of CO2 have been set up in Canada, China, Norway, the United Kingdom and the USA. Public concern and opposition in some countries to pipelines for CO2 transport and the geological storage of CO2 are a major concern. Further R&D into storage that improves the risk management aspects of CO2 transport and storage sites will contribute to safe, long-term storage and public acceptance. 54

57 References Aresta M., Dibenedetto A. and Angelini A., The changing paradigm in CO2 Utilization, Journal of CO2 Utilization (in press), CSLF, Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum Technology Roadmap 2013, Carbon Dioxide Capture & Storage European Industrial Initiative (CCS EII), EII Implementation Plan European Technology Platform for Zero Emission Fossil Fuel power Plants, ERKC, Policy Brochure: CO2 capture and storage, European Research Knowledge Centre, European Commission, Communication from the Commission to the Council and the European Parliament, Sustainable power generation from fossil fuels: aiming for near-zero emissions from coal after 2020, COM(2006) 843. European Commission, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Supporting Early Demonstration of Sustainable Power Generation from Fossil Fuels, COM(2008) 13. European Commission, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Investing in the Development of Low Carbon Technologies (SET- Plan), COM(2009,) 519. European Commission, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Energy Roadmap 2050, COM(2011) 885. European Commission, Communication from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, A Roadmap for moving to a competitive low carbon economy in 2050, COM(2011) 112. European Parliament and Council, Directive 2009/31/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 April 2009 on the geological storage of carbon dioxide. GCCSI, The global status of CCS, Global CCS Institute,

58 Fossil Fuels with CCS IEA, Redrawing the energy climate Map, International Energy Agency, IEA, Technology Roadmap: Carbon Capture and Storage, International Energy Agency, IEA, Energy Technology Perspectives (ETP), International Energy Agency, IEA, Energy Technology Perspectives (ETP), International Energy Agency, Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, Technology Map of the European Strategic Energy Technology Plan, Rutters, H. and the CGS Europe partners, State of play on CO2 geological storage in 28 European countries, CGS Europe report No D2.10, June ZEP, The Costs of CO2 Capture, Transport and Storage, Zero Emissions Platform, ZEP, CO2 Capture and Use (CCU), Zero Emissions Platform,

59 Annexes Annex 1: Acronyms and abbreviations General CORDIS Community Research and Development Information Service EC European Commission EEPR European Energy Programme for Recovery EERA European Energy Research Alliance EIIs European Industrial Initiative ENEA National Agency for New Technologies, Energy and Sustainable Economic Development ERKC Energy Research Knowledge Centre ETP Energy Technology Perspectives ETS Emissions Trading System EU European Union FP7 Seventh Framework Programme (EU R&D programmes) IEA International Energy Agency MENA Middle East and North Africa MISE Italian Ministry of Economic Development PB Policy Brochure OGS Istituto Italiano di Oceanografia e di Geofisica Sperimentale R&D Research and development RAS Sardinia Regional Ministry RD&D research, development and demonstration SETIS Strategic Energy Technologies Information System SET-Plan European Strategic Energy Technology Plan TRS Thematic Research Summary USA United States of America ZEP European Technology Platform for Zero Emissions Fossil Fuel Power Plants 57

60 Fossil Fuels with CCS Technical and related to the theme 2DS ADEME ANR APGTF ASU CBM CaCO3 CaO CC CCS CCS EII CCUS CFB CLC CO2 CPU CSLF DME DOGF ECBM EGR EOR ETP GCCSI GHG GIS GJ GT Gt H2 H2S H2O HP IGCC Ils LCOE LPPS-TF LSCF LSIP 2 C scenario Agence De l'environnement et de la Maitrise de l'energie Agence Nationale de la Recherche Advanced Power Generation Technology Forum Air separation unit Coal bed methane Calcium carbonate Calcium oxide Carbon capture CO2 capture and storage Carbon Dioxide Capture & Storage European Industrial Initiative CO2 capture, utilisation and storage Circulating fluidised bed Chemical looping combustion carbon dioxide Carbon dioxide purification unit Carbon Sequestration Leadership Forum Dimethyl ether Depleted oil and gas fields Enhanced coal bed methane Enhanced gas recovery Enhanced oil recovery Energy Technology Perspectives Global Carbon Capture and Storage Institute Greenhouse gas Geographic Information System Giga joule Gas turbine Giga tonne Hydrogen Hydrogen sulphide Water High pressure Integrated gasification combined cycle Ionic liquids Levelised cost of electricity Low pressure plasma spraying thin film Lanthanum strontium cobalt ferrite Large-scale fully integrated project 58

61 LT MGD MIT's Mtpa MW N2 NER NETL CO2 NGCC nm3 nm3/h NOx O2 O&M OTM OTU PCC Pd PSA SA SC SEWGS SO2 TWh Low temperature (processes) Membrane gas desorption Carbon Capture & Sequestration Technologies website and database Million metric tonnes per annum Megawatt Nitrogen New entrants' reserve Capture, Utilisation and Storage database Natural gas combined cycle Cubic nanometer Cubic nanometer per hour Nitrogen oxide Oxygen Operating & maintenance Oxygen transfer membrane Once through (SC) Pulverised coal combustion Palladium Pressure swing adsorption Saline aquifer Super critical Sorption enhanced water gas shift Sulphur dioxide terawatt hours 59

62 Fossil Fuels with CCS Annex 2: Complete list of projects relevant to the theme Sub-theme 1: CO2 capture - post-combustion Project acronym Project title CCP_Brindisi CO2 capture plant Brindisi CESAR CAPSOL CAOLING CO2 enhanced separation and recovery Design technologies for multi-scale innovation and integration in postcombustion CO2 capture: From molecules to unit operations and integrated plants Development of postcombustion CO2 capture with CaO in a large testing facility Programme/ start-end EEPR FP7 ENERGY FP7 ENERGY FP7 ENERGY icap Innovative CO2 capture FP7 ENERGY IOLICAP Novel IOnic LIquid and supported ionic liquid solvents for reversible CAPture of CO2 FP7 ENERGY Project website energy-research/project/ co2-capture-plant-brindisi implementation/projectmapping/ccs/caoling.pdf/ view Sub-theme 2: CO2 capture - pre-combustion Project acronym CACHET II CAESAR DEMOYS DECARBIT H2-IGCC ZECOMIX Project title Carbon dioxide capture and hydrogen production with membranes CArbon-free electricity by SEWGS: advanced materials, reactor and process design Dense membranes for efficient oxygen and hydrogen separation Enabling advanced pre-combustion capture techniques and plants Low emission gas turbine technology for hydrogenrich syngas Zero emission coal mixed technology Programme/ start-end FP7 ENERGY 2010 FP7 ENERGY FP7 ENERGY FP7 ENERGY 2008 FP7 ENERGY Italian Government & ENEA (Italy) Ansaldo Ricerche Project website mech.ntua.gr/cachet Projectweb/DECARBit aspx n.a. 60

63 Sub-theme 3: CO2 capture - oxy-combustion Project acronym FLEXI BURN CFB HETMOC O2GEN ADECOS CCS SULCIS Project title Development of high efficiency CFB technology to provide flexible air/oxy operation for power plant with CCS Highly efficient tubular membranes for oxycombustion Optimisation of oxygenbased CFBC technology with CO2 capture Advanced development of the coal-fired oxyfuel process with CO2 separation CCS technologies in the Sulcis area, Sardinia (Italy) Programme/ start-end FP7 ENERGY 2009 FP7 ENERGY FP7 ENERGY FP7 ENERGY MISE, RAS 10 years Project website flexiburncfb Overview info n.a. Sub-theme 4: CO2 transport Project Project title acronym COMET COCATE CO2PIPEHAZ Integrated infrastructure for CO2 transport and storage in the West Mediterranean Large-scale CCS transportation infrastructure in Europe Quantitative failure consequence hazard assessment for next generation CO2 pipelines Programme/ start-end FP7 ENERGY FP7 ENERGY FP7 ENERGY Project website Projet/jcms/c_7861/fr/ cocate Sub-theme 5: CO2 storage Project Project title acronym MUSTANG SITECHAR CO2CARE CARBFIX TRUST A multiple space and time scale approach for the quantification of deep saline formations for CO2 storage Characterisation of European CO2 storage CO2 site closure assessment research Creating the technology for safe, long-term carbon storage in the subsurface High resolution monitoring, real time visualisation and reliable modelling of highly controlled, intermediate and up-scalable size pilot injection tests of underground storage of CO2 Programme/ start-end FP7 ENERGY FP7 ENERGY FP7 ENERGY FP7 ENERGY FP7 ENERGY Project website Projects/CarbFix 61

64 Fossil Fuels with CCS RISCS Research into impacts and safety in CO2 storage FP7 ENERGY ECO2 Sub-seabed CO2 storage EC ULTIMATECO2 ECBM SULCIS Understanding the longterm fate of geologically stored CO2 Methane recovery and CO2 storage in the Sulcis coal basin (Sardinia, Italy) FP7 ENERGY National and regional funds years n.a. Sub-theme 5: CO2 storage Project Project title acronym VIDA ECO2CO2 Research in advanced technologies for algae integral valuation Eco-friendly biorefinery of fine chemicals from CO2 photo-catalytic reduction Programme/ start-end CENTRO PARA EL DESARROLLO TECNOLOGICO INDUSTRIAL (Spain) FP7 ENERGY Project website

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