THE CITIES AND THEIR PEOPLE New Zealand s urban environment

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1 THE CITIES AND THEIR PEOPLE New Zealand s urban environment Office of the PARLIAMENTARY COMMISSIONER FOR THE ENVIRONMENT Te Kaitiaki Taiao a Te Whare Paremata

2 THE CITIES AND THEIR PEOPLE New Zealand s urban environment Office of the PARLIAMENTARY COMMISSIONER FOR THE ENVIRONMENT Te Kaitiaki Taiao a Te Whare Paremata PO Box , Wellington June 1998 Investigation Team

3 Phil Hughes (Team Leader) BSc (Geog.), BA (Econ.), MRRP Dr Chris Pugsley BSc (Zool.), PhD (Zool.) Urban Advisory Group Jim Bradley David Brunsdon Grant Hawke Ann Magee Vanessa Moore Stuart Niven Roland Sapsford Isobel Stout Montgomery Watson Ltd, Dunedin Spencer Holmes Ltd, Wellington Te Hao O Ngati Whatua, Auckland Waitakere City Council, Waitakere City Air New Zealand, Auckland Wellington City Council, Wellington Consultant, Wellington Christchurch City Council, Christchurch Consultant (analysis of submissions) Alison Gray Gray Matter Research Ltd, Wellington Cover and Ecological Footprint Illustrations William McDonald Illustrator, Wellington Peer Reviewers Graham Bush Prof Peter Newman Ken Tremaine Gill James Bob McClymont Editing and layout Jeanne M Boland University of Auckland Murdoch University, Western Australia KPMG, Auckland (Solicitor), Office of the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment (Director Citizens Concerns) Office of the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment Capstone Consultants, Wellington Acknowledgments The Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment and his investigation team would like to thank the many individuals who generously assisted with this investigation by providing information and comments. We would like to thank Auckland, Wellington, and Christchurch City Councils for their use of photographs, which appear in this report. A full list of organisations and individuals consulted appears as appendix 1 of this report. Bibliographic reference Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment The cities and their people. New Zealand s urban environment. Wellington: Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment. This document may be copied provided that the source is acknowledged. ISBN

4 PREFACE In my 1997 strategic plan, Future Directions, I indicated that I would focus on the urban environment and the enormous challenges of creating sustainable urban ecosystems. New Zealand is coming of age in the sense that in little more than a century we have moved from being a predominantly rural, natural resource-based nation, to a predominantly urban people with a much more diverse range of wealth-generating businesses. While this is no different from many other nations evolution, New Zealand has, in common with Australia, compressed this transition into an extremely short timeframe. As a consequence, I believe we are still getting to grips with the challenges and opportunities of the New Zealand city and town. Cities are clearly very complex, highly managed ecosystems. Successful cities in economic, social and environmental terms appear to be those that, like a good business, have leaders with vision, good strategic planning, and strong partnerships between city government (the city business), community and commerce. This partnership is essential because urban areas require high levels of infrastructure investment - frequently across a wider range of systems than rural areas, which tend to have high investment in roading infrastructures. The significant risk in many parts of urban New Zealand is the under investment in urban infrastructures and the lack of a cohesive approach to its evolution. Cities and towns, like businesses, need ongoing investment in their plant: water, waste management, transport, libraries, sports fields, museums etc. Urban areas need the capacity to craft visions for the future, plan for the realisation of those visions and, of course invest in the infrastructure to achieve it all. Many of New Zealand s urban authorities have faltered in all these areas, not helped by persistent central government criticism of some of their efforts and the investments needed to achieve them. An ongoing strategic risk is the lack of clear central government, local government and community partnerships in terms of how all this should be achieved. The debates about roading reform and the future of the Auckland Regional Services Trust are classic examples of the tension between central government, local government and communities in terms of infrastructure investment and management of the environment. The recently released Draft Regional Growth Strategy for Auckland is, however, a positive example of how our thinking about our urban systems needs to proceed.

5 In this report I have identified the challenges and some of the opportunities for improving the environmental qualities of our urban systems and, even more importantly, the whole thrust of sustainable development in an urban context. More attention needs to be given to improving the quality of the urban environment and the quality of life for all urban people and communities. My aim with this investigation is to stimulate debate on the ways forward and provide a basis for future studies of needs and opportunities. Dr J. Morgan Williams Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment

6 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY This is the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment s first investigation of the management of the urban environment; an area of work foreshadowed in the strategic plan, Future Directions. Given the broad nature of the topic, and the complexity of urban environmental issues, work has begun with this overview. This report investigates the state of the urban environment, and identifies the key issues, strategic risks and poses a series of questions regarding how we may advance the sustainable development of our cities and towns. This information will be used to focus future work by both this office, and other agencies. In this report urban is defined as the spatial area including the central business district, the inner city, industrial and commercial areas, suburban areas and peri-urban areas. The findings of this investigation highlight the need to increase the focus on, and level of debate about, how to progress sustainable development and urban sustainability. It is clear there is a need to be more proactive as a society, if New Zealand s urban evolution is to deliver the environmental qualities and urban system efficiencies that are within our grasp. Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It can also be described as getting more, from less, for longer. The concept of sustainable development has not been widely adopted or implemented in New Zealand despite the enormous influence of the Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA) and the concept is not owned by politicians or key agencies. The broad goals of sustainable development (in contrast to sustainable management) are not a feature of any legislation or policy, and Agenda 21 is not widely supported. This means that local communities and businesses are not adequately informed of opportunities to improve the quality of life and urban environments. The global Agenda 21 programme that New Zealand has adopted post-rio provides one framework for a sustainable development focus. Unfortunately, it has received little attention by Central Government and it has been embraced by only a few local authorities. Sustainable urban development With a few notable local exceptions, the concept of sustainable urban development is largely being ignored in New Zealand, with a lack of leadership and vision particularly at the national level. Sustainable urban development involves improving the efficiency of resource use, reducing waste and addressing environmental, economic, and social issues in an integrated way. As our urban population has become more affluent, our per capita demand for land, housing, energy, transport, and goods and services has increased. More waste has been generated. These per capita trends affect the quality of urban life (ie eroding of amenity

7 and heritage values and adverse affects on the health,wealth and well-being of communities). Decoupling increases in our quality of life (well-being) from increasing resource consumption and waste production is a significant challenge for New Zealand. That is the fundamental challenge of sustainable development. The purpose of the RMA is to promote the sustainable management of natural and physical resources, principally through the management of effects. However, effects-based management does not address the nature and efficiency of resource use with insufficient emphasis on issues relating to the health and well-being of people and communities. Moving towards sustainable development necessitates greater efficiencies in resource use and not just managing effects. With increased efficiencies there will be substantial cost savings to be made by businesses, the wider community and government (eg reducing the quantity of imports of raw materials, cost savings of improving health and well-being, less waste, and greater reuse of materials). The urban community Critical to future urban sustainability will be greatly enhancing the role of the community and participatory democracy. A major challenge exists at all levels of government to find new and creative ways to inform and empower communities, to involve them in decisionmaking, and to enable them to make choices in an efficient and effective way. Education about the value of urban areas, the elements of improved urban sustainability and civics is urgently needed to improve appreciation of what sustainable development is, and can be and to identify opportunities for progress. Consumers require more information to enable them to make choices about goods and services that contribute to advancing sustainability. Businesses need to be more involved and better informed about the practical applications of sustainable development. The liveability of urban areas stems from unique combinations of amenity values (open space, design features, urban vegetation); historic and cultural heritage; location; and intangibles such as character, landscape, and sense of place. The value of Liveability issues and the importance of good urban design are not adequately recognised in management approaches, policy or legislation. The provisions of the RMA that address amenity values and the interactions between development and the environment (including people and communities) are essential and they must be retained. Urbanisation can lead to health problems from poor living conditions and inadequate access to basic necessities of life. There is no doubting the health benefits of environmental factors associated with good air quality; safe, secure and quality housing; safe drinking water; access to open space, and safe management of chemicals and hazardous substances. The ongoing review of the Health Act 1956 must be completed to clarify roles, improve management of risk and obtain better outcomes for public health.

8 Well maintained infrastructure is critical for ensuring the quality of the urban environment. The polluter pays-user pays principle needs to be applied more extensively to fund the full costs of infrastructure (ie construction, maintenance and operating costs) including environmental costs. Increased attention needs to be given to integrate the management of urban transport systems with wider environmental management. Road pricing, energy use, vehicle emissions, mobility, access and community issues need to be addressed, with more attention focused on alternatives to car based transport. Information There is information about our urban environments, but it is dispersed, of variable quality and lacks integration and analysis. Awareness of what does exist is also poor. The absence of national support and coordinating agencies has resulted in low levels of quality information and very limited funding for urban research. The State of New Zealand s Environment report (1997) is a valuable document, but it does not adequately address urban sustainability issues, or the integration of social and economic influences on the biophysical environment. Similarly, our environmental indicators programme is not yet adequately addressing urban sustainability issues. A new agenda The sustainable development agenda is no longer one that New Zealand has any real choice over, it is now a global agenda, with increasingly challenging global performance targets. New Zealand is entering a new era of globalisation. Global competition is shifting the focus from countries onto cities. This gives local communities an important opportunity to provide creative local solutions for sustainable development. Sustainable development of New Zealand s urban environments has been plagued by a lack of vision, lack of concern ( urban denial ), and a history of many (small) starts but few finishes. Decision makers may be unaware of how our current attitude to urban issues and sustainable development is in conflict with that espoused by international organisations (eg the United Nations and the OECD) and other countries and target markets that are considered important. This attitude is a strategic risk for the environment, the economy, and the well-being and resilience of urban communities. There are opportunities for New Zealand to progress sustainable development through: central government preparing a strong national sustainable development strategy that specifically recognises the requirements for creating more sustainable urban environments (eg addressing resource use, eco-efficiency and integrated management of environmental, economic and social issues); local government working with their communities of interest in resourced, well-managed partnerships to address urban sustainability issues; and requiring a government agency to provide national support (including funding) and coordination of research and information on urban sustainability.

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10 CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 A report roadmap 1.2 Sustainable urban development 1.3 The New Zealand urban environment 1.4 Why is the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment doing this work? 1.5 Methodology 2. THE URBAN ISSUES PAPER AND SUBMISSIONS 2.1 Summary of the urban Issues Paper 2.2 Summary of submissions 3. THE STATE OF THE URBAN ENVIRONMENT 3.1 Assessment approaches 3.2 A metabolism flow model for our urban areas Resource inputs Social-economic drivers Waste outputs Liveability 3.3 National state of the urban environment reporting 3.4 Local state of the urban environment reporting 3.5 Other urban environment reporting 3.6 Conclusion 4. KEY URBAN ISSUES 4.1 Governance and vision 4.2 Partnership 4.3 The urban community and participation 4.4 Management of growth 4.5 Liveability, amenity values and heritage 4.6 Public/environmental health 4.7 Infrastructure and transport systems 4.8 Energy efficiency and waste management 4.9 Monitoring and indicators 4.11 Urban sustainability research 5. THE CRITICAL ISSUES AND THE WAY FORWARD 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Summary of sustainable urban development issues and trends 5.3 The critical urban issues Sustainable urban development the role of Agenda Leadership, vision and governance Sustainable urban communities Liveability and quality of life Sustainable transport and eco-efficiency Future research and innovation priorities

11 5.4 Priority areas for investigation 6. KEY MESSAGES Glossary References Appendix 1 Organisations and individuals consulted in the preparation of this report Appendix 2 List of submitters Appendix 3 The Rio Declaration and Agenda 21

12 Intended outcomes from the investigation It is anticipated that the investigation will have the following internal and external outcomes: Internal outcomes the development of a database of contacts who are involved with the management of the urban environment; the identification of significant issues affecting the urban environment (ie through the submissions analysis and the overview report); and the identification of likely priority areas for future urban investigations by the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment. External outcomes greater public awareness of the significant issues affecting the urban environment (ie through the submissions analysis and the overview report); increased recognition by Parliament, local government and other decision-makers of the need to debate and respond to sustainable development issues in urban/suburban areas (ie as part of the investigation process, through the release of the report and subsequent presentations and investigations); the provision of a resource document for other agencies/researchers; and increased recognition of the role of the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment in undertaking strategic environmental/sustainable development investigations.

13 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 A report roadmap This report provides an overview of the management of the urban environment in New Zealand and identifies and prioritises issues to be explored in future investigations. It has taken a sweeping review of a large number of different issues and sectors. It has been purposely written for Parliament, local government, other decision makers and researchers, in order to inform and provide an agenda for future action. Chapter 1 provides an introduction to the report with background on New Zealand s urban environment and the background and the methodology for this investigation. Chapter 2 summarises the investigation s discussion paper and the submissions that were received. A report on the analysis of submissions is available from the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment. Chapter 3 provides an overview of the state of New Zealand s urban environment and major resource use trends and sustainable development issues. It shows that many resource use and waste trends per capita are deteriorating and there is a lack of comprehensive information documenting the state of the urban environment in New Zealand. Chapter 4 provides an overview of ten key urban issues with background information, the New Zealand context and international comparisons. The issues covered include: governance and vision, partnership, the urban community, integrated management, liveability, environmental health, infrastructure, monitoring and research. These issues were identified through submissions to the investigation, discussions at meetings and as part of the analysis and preparation of this report. Chapter 5 summarises the key urban issues and current government responses in a comparative table. It then discusses the principles of sustainable urban development in relation to resource use trends, gaps and deficiencies in current management approaches and how New Zealand could improve in this area. The chapter concludes with future work priorities resulting from this investigation. This report finishes with a series of key messages from the investigation in chapter 6.

14 1.2 Sustainable urban development Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (World Commission on Environment and Development 1987). At the Habitat II conference, sustainable development was described as a process of change which improves people s quality of life while protecting the natural and human resources on which future generations will also rely (United Nations Centre for Human Settlements 1996). Sustainable development can be thought of as getting more, from less, for longer. Sustainable urban development involves integrating the requirements of environmental management, social equity and economic opportunity into all decision-making. Sustainable urban development is not a fixed state, but rather a process of change in which the use of resources, technological development, and institutional change are managed so as to meet future as well as present needs.

15 The concept of sustainable development Sustainable natural & built environment Environment (viable natural environment) Sustainable Development (well-being) Sustainable economic environment Social (nuturing community) Equitable social environment Economic (sufficient economy) Core components of sustainable urban development Economic Social Environment - growth - empowerment - ecosystems integrity - equity - participation - carrying capacity - efficiency & effectiveness - social mobility - biodiversity - risk - social cohesion - global issues - resilience - cultural identity - resilience - productivity - institutional development

16 The city as an ecosystem A city can be considered as an ecosystem and ecological concepts can be used to understand urban sustainability issues and to develop solutions. A city is a physical ecosystem like a forest or wetland, and energy and material flows can be analysed as well as the effects on other ecosystems. Ecosystem concepts can also be applied to the social and economic dimensions of cities with the city viewed as a complex, interconnected and dynamic system. Viewing a city in ecological terms as a dynamic organism resident in a wider ecosystem is a profound departure from viewing a city solely as a site for clean-up action involving topdown management measures. It can be likened to changing management from end-of-pipe pollution control thinking to closed-loop thinking with an increased focus on efficient use of resources and the reuse of waste (Commission of the European Communities 1996). Urban ecosystem: habitat, flows and impacts Habitat - humans - plants - animals - buildings & workplaces - public & private space - historic & cultural heritage Flows Impacts - energy - land use - air & water - construction - waste & emissions - transport - traffic - consumption - goods & services - waste & emissions - capital - flora & fauna - information - cultural change - humans Using this ecosystem model we can view New Zealand s urban areas 1 as complex ecosystems with high levels of resource consumption per unit area and high waste disposal requirements. This approach recognises not only ecological challenges but the wider social, economic, political and cultural challenges. These challenges require the development of new methods, skills and attitudes to address and change existing patterns of human development, production and consumption. As New Zealand s population and consumption levels have grown, so have the pressures we place on the urban environment. We have increasing demands for water, energy, transport, 1 The spatial area including the central business district, the inner city, industrial and commercial areas, suburban areas and peri-urban areas

17 housing and services with increasing air emissions and discharges of sewage and stormwater. This has caused the consequent loss of heritage and amenity values; intense pressure on traditional relationships of tangata whenua with significant places and other taonga; and has had adverse effects on people s health and well-being. Current resource use trends in urban New Zealand indicate that our consumption of resources per capita is increasing each year (see chapter 3.2). There is a significant risk to New Zealand s economic performance if the urban environment is not efficiently managed, in economic, social and environmental terms. Moving towards sustainable development (ie getting more, from less, for longer ) necessitates greater efficiencies in resource use, and ultimately a reduction in total resource flows. The challenge for New Zealand is to develop economic systems and lifestyles where the individual and cumulative effect is within the environment s capability to sustain itself. Cumulative effects of individual decisions (eg waste disposal decisions or transport choices) are obvious in urban areas, yet often people may feel that their personal actions will have little effect on improving urban sustainability. This perception is a major challenge to the development of a more sustainable community, economy and environment. Efficient and productive cities and towns are essential for maintaining national economic growth and welfare. Equally at the local level, strong urban economies can generate a healthy urban tax base and the resources needed for public and private investment in infrastructure, education, health and improved living conditions. 1.3 The New Zealand urban environment New Zealand is a relatively urbanised country with more than 85% of its population living in urban/suburban environments. Each of our urban areas is to some extent unique but they all have been shaped by a mixture of geographic, economic and demographic forces. New Zealand s cities and towns started as trade centres and expanded around road and rail corridors. Post World War II they expanded very rapidly with low density subdivisions and car and roading networks strongly influencing the shape, form and density that is apparent today (Perkins et al 1993). Auckland is the largest urban region in New Zealand although Hamilton, the Wellington region, Christchurch and Dunedin play an important part in defining our urban culture. Urban issues discussed in this report are also relevant for smaller urban areas (ie Whangarei, Tauranga, Rotorua, Gisborne, Napier, Hastings, New Plymouth, Wanganui, Palmerston North, Nelson, Timaru and Invercargill).

18 Central government agencies Many central government agencies are directly and indirectly involved with aspects of the management of the urban environment (see figure 1.1). However, there is no central government agency that has the urban environment as its sole or even major focus. The lack of this national focus on urban issues (eg the urban environment, sustainable development and management of infrastructure) is reflected in national environmental policies such as the Environment 2010 strategy (MFE 1995) and national research priorities such as the Public Good Science Fund output classes, and the Mess sustainable management fund. The focus has been on generic environmental management that is applicable to all ecosystems (see box 1). In contrast, this report identifies that New Zealand faces some real challenges to the sustainability of urban ecosystems. These issues are much wider and cannot be properly addressed by generic environmental management approaches and the management of effects via the Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA). There is a compelling need to focus on improving the efficiency of resource use and integrated management of the urban environment, with people and communities being recognised as core elements of that environment.

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20 Box 1 The Environment 2010 strategy (MFE 1995) The Environment 2010 strategy (E2010) is the Government s strategy on the environment. It was prepared to develop an overall vision and coherent focus for environmental management. E2010 recognises that most New Zealanders are urban dwellers. However, it states that while urban environments face many significant environmental challenges, these typically do not transcend the cross-cutting environmental challenges, such as water pollution, air quality and land management that are addressed in the strategy. Interestingly, the strategy then proceeds to recognise that many environmental problems can have more concentrated effects in an urban setting and this can give issues a sharper edge (eg sewage disposal, water supply and noise pollution). It concludes: Although the emphases in cities may be different, the environmental issues that arise are essentially the same. This strategy takes the view that it is unhelpful to divide environmental issues into urban and rural but recognises that in urban settings, the different pressures may lead to different priorities for action within the overall Agenda for Action... E2010 identifies current environmental problems and threats to our biophysical environment. However, the primary focus is on the current problems facing the natural environment (ie threats from pests and weeds, soil erosion, the loss of biodiversity, overfishing, damage to wetlands, and logging of lowland forests). It does not recognise significant urban and sustainable development issues that generate significant environmental pressures such as: New Zealand s high levels of energy use and poor record of energy efficiency, which ultimately affects our economic performance; New Zealand s increasing numbers of vehicles per capita with increased energy use by the transport sector; New Zealand s very high per capita levels of domestic and industrial waste; and adverse effects on the quality of the urban environment for people and communities such as changes to amenity values and landscapes and the loss of historic and cultural heritage. Of the eleven identified goals in the Agenda for Action, many are focused on the natural environment (ie land, biodiversity, fisheries and global issues). Goals for the management of water resources, energy services, transport services and waste do have urban themes and implications. However, these goals and subsequent actions do not sufficiently address the efficiency of resource use, the absolute levels of the consumption of resources, and the integrated management of the environment with people and communities recognised as part of the environment. For example, the E2010 goal for managing the environmental impacts of energy services is to manage sustainably the environmental effects of producing and using energy services. This goal does not adequately address the need to improve New Zealand s performance in terms of total energy use and energy efficiency, particularly in the transport sector. These efficiency issues are also not recognised in the goal to manage the provision of transport services in a manner that minimises adverse effects.... The management of effects is not

21 sufficient for sustainable development purposes when New Zealand has increasing per capita numbers of vehicles, the average distance travelled per person is increasing and energy use and emissions by the transport sector continue to grow (see chapter 3.2.2). It is worth noting that the goal of the Government s energy policy has been to ensure the continuing availability of energy services, at the lowest cost to the economy as a whole, consistent with sustainable development. There is no recognition in the E2010 Agenda for Action of urban environmental issues such as the management of urban growth and form, amenity values, landscape, historic and cultural heritage, and health and safety. In the strategy s definition of environmental quality the protection of cultural and historic values and an aesthetically attractive and healthy urban environment are core qualities. However, these issues are not addressed in the strategy. A section on the management of the urban environment was prepared for inclusion in the draft strategy but presumably this was excluded with the decision to focus on generic environmental issues. Managing land resources in its broadest term is a key issue for the management of urban environments with potential conflicts between different land uses and subsequent effects on people and communities with changes to amenity and heritage values. However, the E2010 goal for managing land resources is limited to maintain and enhance the quality, productivity and life-supporting capacity of our soils, so that they can support a variety of land use options. This goal has limited application in the urban environment and key urban issues such as the form and direction of urban growth and the management of amenity values are ignored. In summary, E2010 does not adequately address the nature and efficiency of resource use, the needs of people and communities living in the urban environment, and the interactions between the social, cultural, economic and environmental spheres (ie sustainable development). The coverage of urban issues in the strategy is sporadic with a lack of integration. The E2010 strategy is a classic example of the policy vacuum within which our urban ecosystems sit. In the forthcoming review of the strategy, sustainable development and urban issues must be more comprehensively addressed. Local authorities Both regional councils and territorial authorities have key roles in providing for the management of the urban environment. Regional councils have functions under the RMA including integrated management of the natural and physical resources of the region, and responsibilities under the Land Transport Act 1993 for transport management and the Biosecurity Act 1993 for weed and pest control. Auckland and Wellington Regional Councils also have a network of regional parks. Territorial authorities empowered by the Local Government Act 1974 (LGA), the RMA, Building Act 1991 and Health Act 1956 have the most direct role in managing the urban environment and safeguarding the health and well-being of local communities. Under the provisions of the LGA, territorial authority responsibilities include: recognition of the identities and values of different communities; definition and enforcement of appropriate rights within those communities;

22 provision for communities to make choices between different kinds of local public facilities and services; operation of trading activities on a competitively neutral basis; delivery of appropriate facilities and services on behalf of central government; efficient and effective exercise of the functions, duties and powers of local government (eg implementation of the RMA and the preparation of a district plan); provision for the effective participation of local persons in local government; preparation of an annual plan; and preparation of a long-term financial strategy (covering at least ten years) and funding policies. Territorial authorities have various roles with the provision of infrastructure (eg roads and wastewater treatment) and in improving the health and safety of the community (eg through activities such as civil defence, provision of a safe water supply, recreational facilities, monitoring of health standards, and animal control). 1.4 Why is the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment doing this work? In 1997 the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment (PCE) undertook the development of a strategic plan to set a broad framework for the office and identify future work priorities for the next five years (PCE 1997a). Following an environment symposium, discussions with interested parties and comment on the draft strategic plan, the management of the urban environment was identified as one of five significant environmental management areas to be addressed by the Commissioner. In summary, the management of the urban environment is a significant challenge because: the urban environment is home for around 85 per cent of New Zealanders and it constitutes the most highly managed and complex ecosystem involving a significant proportion of the nation s energy and other resources; New Zealand needs to continue investing in the maintenance and enhancement of its clean and green image in order to satisfy community expectations and the demands of its trading partners regarding management of both its rural and urban environments; New Zealand is a signatory to international agreements that have implications for the management of the urban environment (eg Agenda 21, which highlighted the importance of sustainable human settlements, cross-sectoral coordination, decentralisation of decision making and broad based participatory approaches), the Biodiversity Convention, the Framework Convention on Climate Change; and the urban environment has unique pressures on it due to the conflicting environmental, economic, social and cultural requirements of communities and failure to address urban issues will result in a decline in our quality of life (eg current traffic congestion and recent water and power crises in Auckland).

23 The sustainable development agenda is no longer one that New Zealand has any real choice over, it is now a global agenda, with increasingly challenging global performance targets. New Zealand is entering a new era of globalisation, where competition is shifting from countries to cities. This means that local communities have a crucial role in providing creative local solutions for sustainable development. The functions of the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment (s 16 Environment Act 1986) include: (a) reviewing the system of agencies and processes established by the government to manage the allocation, use and preservation of natural and physical resources...; (b) investigating the effectiveness of environmental planning and management carried out by public authorities; (f) undertaking and encouraging the collection and dissemination of information relating to the environment. The Environment Act 1986 defines environment to include: a) ecosystems and their constituent parts, including people and communities; b) all natural and physical resources; c) those physical qualities and characteristics of an area that contribute to people s appreciation of its pleasantness, aesthetic coherence, and cultural and recreational attributes; and d) the social, economic, aesthetic, and cultural conditions which affect the matters stated in paragraphs (a) to (c) of this definition or which are affected by those matters. The management of the urban ecosystems, the sustainability of natural and physical urban resources, and the needs of future generations form the basis for the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment s decision to review the management of the urban environment. Terms of reference With the objective of maintaining and improving the quality of the environment (s 16(1)(a) Environment Act 1986), the terms of reference for this investigation are: 1. to identify significant issues and strategic risks affecting the management of the urban environment; 2. to identify critical issues and strategic risks that require more detailed investigation; and 3. to report on the outcomes of the investigation to the House of Representatives by 30 June The report will: focus on the adequacy of urban environmental information and data; take a holistic approach to the management of the urban environment, examining the linkages between economic, social and environmental goals and policies; examine how values, attitudes and perceptions influence many decisions that affect the urban environment; illustrate how cities, New Zealand-wide, are exploring innovative ways of providing for a more sustainable urban environment; and

24 report on international developments with innovative approaches to managing the urban environment and their potential for wider use in New Zealand. 1.5 Methodology As part of the initial scoping of this investigation, meetings were held with: local government, engineering, architecture and resource management professionals; University of Auckland planning and geography departments; the Auckland growth forum team (councillors and staff); and the Christchurch growth forum team. Information was also gathered as part of the PCEs suburban amenity values report (PCE 1997b) and during the development of the strategic plan (PCE 1997a). Further information was gathered through PCE involvement with Canterbury Dialogues (see chapter 4.2) and the Pathways to Sustainability conference (Newcastle, Australia) where progress by local communities towards local and global sustainability was explored. In January 1998 an Urban Advisory Group (see page ii for list of members) was formed to assist the Commissioner to undertake this overview investigation. This group assisted with the development of terms of reference, the Issues Paper (see summary in chapter 2.1) and this overview report. At the end of February 1998 the Issues Paper was widely circulated (around 800 copies) requesting submissions on both the investigation and the seven preliminary investigation themes. 2 Sixty-three submissions were received on this paper and these are summarised in chapter Meetings to discuss issues and gather information were held with more than 70 organisations and individuals in Auckland, Hamilton, Tauranga, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin during March and April In early April the team leader also attended the Urban Environment Foresight Workshop. 4 This workshop was one of a series of workshops promoted by the Ministry of Research, Science and Technology (MORST) as part of the Foresight project. The objective of the project is to identify future science needs so that national research priorities can be established. MORST has requested that different sectors identify their preferred vision for the future (say by 2010) and how science can contribute to the achievement of this vision and determine, by working back, what research is required now. Published reports and papers, submissions and information gathered from meetings have been used in preparing this overview report. A list of organisations and individuals that provided information and comments to the investigation is given in appendix 1 and a list of submitters is provided in appendix The seven themes were: attitudes, perceptions and risks; information; sustainability; partnership; management approaches; innovation; and technology. A copy of a report on the analysis of submissions is available from the Office of the Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment. The Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment is a member of the Environmental Foresight Programme steering group.

25 2. THE URBAN ISSUES PAPER AND SUBMISSIONS

26 This chapter provides a brief summary of the PCE urban environment Issues Paper and then summarises the main points raised in submissions. 2.1 Summary of the urban Issues Paper The urban environment Issues Paper was released on 27 February 1998 following initial scoping with a range of agencies and groups and input from the PCE urban advisory group. The purpose of the Issues Paper was to stimulate debate and obtain submissions and other information on aspects of the management of the urban environment and the strategic risks facing New Zealand. The reasons for undertaking the overview investigation were outlined in the introduction to the paper. The management of the urban environment presents a considerable challenge to New Zealanders because of the intensity of resource use, the nature of waste generated, the complexity of the effects of resource use, the nature of interaction between people and the biophysical environment, the particular impacts on environmental values of significance to tangata whenua, and the nature of the mix of environmental, economic and social factors. Key resource trends indicating that we are using more resources per capita were highlighted. It was noted that there appears to be a lack of understanding in New Zealand of the effect people s individual choices and consumption have on the life-supporting capacity of urban ecosystems and the quality of life (eg personal shopping choices and effects on the waste stream; transport choices and the level of energy use). The Issues Paper briefly explored the following themes with key questions posed on each theme: Attitudes, perceptions and risks: the management of the urban environment is influenced by individual and/or collective perceptions, attitudes, and values. The apparent neglect of urban issues and New Zealand s clean and green image are briefly discussed. Information: there is a lack of comprehensive, reliable and useful information that can be used to assess the state of the urban environment or to measure national trends. Sustainability: what does sustainable development mean in a New Zealand urban context and what more could be done to implement Agenda 21 in New Zealand? Partnership: what is partnership in the urban context (ie between central and local government; local government and community, business, and tangata whenua). Management approaches: how can an appropriate balance of planning and market solutions be achieved to provide for the management of the urban environment? Innovation: are new mechanisms required to coordinate, integrate and promote best practice solutions to urban issues? Can international approaches (eg ecological urban renewal and new urbanism) be adapted and used more in New Zealand? Research and technology: new technology will bring many changes to the way urban areas operate in the future (eg new information technology, alternative energy sources, waste management and transport systems, changing employment patterns and hours). What impact will technology have on the management of the urban environment and is there sufficient research into the management of the urban environment?

27 2.2 Summary of submissions The Commissioner received 63 submissions in response to the discussion document. These came from individuals (19), non-governmental organisations (15), government departments and quasi-government agencies (12), local authorities (11), and professional groups (6). A full list of submitters is included as appendix 2. There were few areas of contention among these different sectors, with strong agreement on the steps that need to be taken to promote urban sustainability. Many submissions commended the Commissioner for taking the initiative in opening debate on this important and complex issue. They welcomed the opportunity to become involved. Some submissions, particularly from non-governmental organisations and community groups, found the questions numerous and difficult to answer and the level of eco-jargon confusing. Definitions Several submitters wanted clearer definitions of terms such as urban sustainability and urban environment and their relationship to the RMA. Te Puni Kokiri commented on the use of the term tangata whenua and suggested that the vocabulary used to describe any grouping of Maori must be carefully and consciously considered. The Environmental Risk Management Authority expressed concern that the definition of ecological risk is in fact a mixture of risk measures, states and characteristics. Attributes Submitters identified the key attributes and outcomes of a more sustainable urban environment. The most frequently mentioned were that a sustainable urban environment: has good transport systems; is compact and limits urban growth; has a sound infrastructure; embraces recycling and minimises demand for resources; provides a healthy and pleasant environment; offers a good social infrastructure and cultural identity; provides business opportunities and employment choice; offers affordable housing choices; and is aware of and acts on sustainability issues. Attitudes Submitters were divided on whether urban New Zealanders see themselves as a rural or urban people, and what impact this has on urban sustainability. One pointed out that in New Zealand, the concept of urban is also a relative one, with provincial cities being considered urban centres. Some thought New Zealanders see themselves as a suburban or even frontier people and this, in part, accounts for neglect of urban issues. Others believed that any neglect stems from people feeling unable to effect change and therefore being unwilling to act. Some, like the Wellington Civic Trust, believed those who live in urban environments do see themselves as urban and are very concerned about their homes, the services provided for them and transport matters. They agreed with the submission quoted below that the problem lies not in people s perceptions but in lack of leadership, particularly from central government.

28 Urban issues neglect is not due to New Zealanders having a rural perception of themselves, but from a lack of role models. Central government especially needs to recognise that the urban-based economy is as important as the rural-based economy and lead people s thinking that way. Both central and local government need to articulate their visions and monitor their implementation. (submitter 13) Submitters suggested that people could be focused on urban issues through: involving people in decisions about their neighbourhood and city; making people aware of the financial and environmental costs of their actions; providing workable and sustainable alternatives; strengthening industrial standards and pricing all forms of energy to reflect their full costs; and carrying out a high profile communications campaign. In response to the question What environmental outcomes do tangata whenua want for the urban environment? Te Puni Kokiri said that a traditional Maori view would conceptualise urban and rural environments in exactly the same way. The view would be based on whakapapa links to the land as holding a greater importance than the population size of the town or the city. It would be a view of guardianship over natural resources and scrutiny of unsustainable resource management practices in order to fulfil obligations to past and future generations. (submitter 63) Risk rating Relatively few submissions commented on this topic. Most were ambivalent or did not understand the concepts of risk rating and risk evaluation and their application in the urban environment. A Maori group looked at risk from a tangata whenua perspective and found that: two key concepts emerge: kaitiakitanga and whanaungatanga. Maori have an invaluable contribution to make in this area and we, through our knowledge of tikanga, do not rely on professional expertise to manage these situations... Whanaungatanga the relationship that Maori have with the water and land arises from a cumulative body of knowledge and beliefs handed down through generations by cultural transmission and the relationship of all living things (including people) with one another and the environment. (submitter 45) The Environmental Risk Management Authority (ERMA) believes that developing a concept of risk rating is more complex than the question implies and that the focus should be on risk management. Those who did comment on the risk rating agreed that it is high because: we do not have sufficient contingency plans for possible and likely scenarios for adverse environmental effects; of the concentration of people and their impact on the environment; of the likelihood of loss of cultural heritage; and of the likelihood of water shortages, power failure and the threat of gridlock.