The Environmental Policy Paradox

Transcription

1 A/ The Environmental Policy Paradox Fifth Edition Zachary A. Smith Northern Arizona University PEARSON Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, Nj 07458

2 Contents Preface xi Abbreviations xv About the Author xix PART ONE: THE POLICY-MAKING PROCESS 1 Ecosystem Interdependence 1 The Steady State 4 Common Pool Resources 4 Summary 5 Notes 6 2 Changing Cultural and Social Beliefs: From Conservation to Environmentalism 7 Dominant Social Paradigm 7 Economics and Growth 8

3 vi Contents The Role of Religion 11 Science and Technology: Our Views of Nature 12 Toward Better Science Policy 15 History of the Environmental Movement 16 Dominance 16 Early Awakening 16 Early Conservationist 17 Later Conservationist 17 The Reawakening 18 Complacency 19 The Little Reagan Revolution 19 Post-Reagan Resurgence 19 Interest Groups 20 Public Opinion and the Environment 22 Demographics 24 Elections 25 Environmental Discourse 26 Survivalism 27 Prometheans 27 Administrative Rationalism 28 Democratic Pragmatism 28 Economic Rationalism 29 Sustainable Development 29 Ecological Modernization 30 Green Romanticism 30 Green Rationalism 31 Summary 31 Notes 32 3 The Regulatory Environment 36 The Regulatory Context 36 Science and Risk Analysis 37 Unanticipated Consequences 39 Cost-Benefit Analysis 40 The Role of Government 41 Approaches to Regulation 43 Fundamentals of Environmental Law 45 Summary 47 Notes 48

4 Contents vii 4 The Political and Institutional Setting 49 The Institutional Setting 49 Formal Institutions 49 Informal Institutions 52 Institutional Biases 55 Incrementalism 55 Decentralization 56 Short-Term Bias 56 Ideological Bias 57 Private Nature of Public Policy Making 58 Crisis and Reforms 58 The Political Setting 60 Pluralism 60 The Regulators 64 Summary 80 Notes 81 5 Air 85 PART TWO: ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY Sources 85 Health Effects 88 Motor Vehicles 90 Air Pollution: Law, Regulations, and Enforcement 93 Regulatory Innovations 96 Regulatory Issues 99 Toxic Air Pollution 101 Acid Rain 104 Stratospheric Ozone 108 The Greenhouse Effect (Global Warming) 113 Summary 118 Notes Water 126 Sources 127 Nonpoint Sources of Pollution 129

5 viii Contents Groundwater Pollution 130 Health Effects of Water Pollution 131 Water Law and Regulation 132 Clean Water Act 132 The CWA and Nonpoint Pollution Sources 134 The CWA and the Regulatory Environment 134 Safe Drinking Water Act 136 Criticisms of Water Pollution Policy 138 The Paradox in Water Pollution Policy 140 Summary 144 Notes Energy 149 History of Energy 151 Industrial Revolution 151 Oil and War 151 Role of Personal Consumption 152 Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries and the Oil Crises 153 Development of Nuclear Power 156 Development of a National Energy Policy 157 Nonrenewable Energy Sources 161 Coal 161 Oil 163 Natural Gas 164 Geothermal Energy 164 Nuclear Power 165 Renewable Energy 166 Hydropower 167 Solar Power 168 Wind Power 169 Biomass 170 Conservation and Energy Efficiency: Some Suggestions for the Future 172 Conservation in Homes and Buildings 173 Conservation in Transportation 174 Conservation in Industry 175 Obstacles to Conservation 176 An Ecological Conclusion 177 Summary 178 Notes 178

6 Contents ix 8 Toxic and Hazardous Waste 189 Solid Waste 190 What Is Solid Waste? Scope of the Problem Disposal Methods Regulations 193 Solutions 194 Hazardous Wastes 198 Nature of the Problem Disposal Methods Federal Regulations Regulatory Problems The Policy Paradox in Summary 214 Notes Hazardous Waste Management Land Management Issues 222 Local Land-Use Planning 222 Types of Land-Use Planning 223 Urban Planning 224 Smart Growth 226 Soil Erosion 228 Farmland Conversion 229 Desertification 231 Federal Land Management 231 Multiple-Use 232 Recreation 233 Fee Demonstration Project 233 Commercial Recreation Permits and Concessions 233 Fire Management 234 Roadless Areas 235 Wilderness 235 History 235 Proposed Wilderness and Wilderness Study Areas 237 National Park Service Management 239 Endangered Species 240 Ecosystem Management 244 Summary 246 Notes 246

7 x Contents I 0 International Environmental Issues 253 Population and Food Production 254 Desertification and Food Production 259 Global Pollution 260 The Ozone Layer 260 The Greenhouse 262 Deforestation 264 Ocean Pollution 265 Less Developed Countries: North Vs. South 266 International Conflict 268 Summary 270 Notes 271 I 1 International Environmental Management 275 International Environmentalism 275 Alternative Political Systems 277 Market-Based Economies 277 Collective Ownership Systems 278 Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union 278 China 280 International Environmental Management 281 Common Pool Resources 282 Creation of an IGO 283 Economic Globalization and the Second Industrial Revolution 285 International Regulatory Efforts 287 Controlling Oceanic Pollution 287 Atmospheric Conventions 288 Hazardous Waste Control at the International Level 290 Protection of Endangered and Threatened Species 290 Trends in the International Regulatory Process 291 Summary 292 Notes 292 Conclusion 296 Notes 299 Appendix A 300 How We Study Public Policy Theoretical Approaches 300 Appendix B 308 The National Environmental Policy Act of 1969, as Amended 308 Index 316