Chapter 3. Theories of Career Choice. 3.1 Introduction

Transcription

1 Chapter 3 Theories of Career Choice 3.1 Introduction This chapter highlights various theories that are related to career choice. These have been cumulated from various journal articles and discussion is based around what various authors think about these theories. The concept of career decision making has its roots way back in 1909, but it was accepted as a concept in Frank Parsons (1909), who first introduced the concept broadly, said it to be influenced by three broad factors: 1. A clear understanding of yourself (aptitude, abilities, interests, ambitions and limitations etc.) 2. Awareness and knowledge of requirements (defining success, compensation, and prospects in different fields). 3. Reasoning on relation between the above two factors. Parson s work due to the times was more about vocational choices. The above three factors laid simple guidelines for individual and stressed the importance of selfunderstanding and how this could be related to alternatives available. This theory faded off a bit until 1950s, which witnessed major changes to employment and social environment policies of many countries. These changed led to better career opportunities. In 1979, Michael Krumboltz conducted his Social learning theory of career choices and this was the first time the term career decision-making was used (Inkson, 2007). His work was considered to be an important contribution to the modern world theories as this laid the foundation of career decision making theory as it developed an understanding of how individuals make career decisions at different stages of their life (Sharf, 2006). The recent years have seen many further developments.

2 Despite modern theories, Parsons theory from 1909 is still considered to be the most influential theory as it laid the foundation of the later theories. The three broad factors he proposed help individuals to get better understanding and career alternatives, thereby enhancing ability to make better decisions. This, therefore, is still the foundation of the modern day theoretical approaches. The following sections highlight some such theories and in the latter part the researcher discusses some theories from other domains that possibly influence decision making as well.

3 3.2 Career Choice Theories According to Brown (2002), the two theoretical underpinnings of career decision making and development are psychological and sociological. The psychological perspective is what leads to intrinsic influencing factors and the sociological perspective is what leads to extrinsic factors. The intrinsic factors tend to focus on personality, interests, abilities and job satisfaction. On the other hand, the extrinsic factors tend to be based on demographics and the environment. The demographics are about gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, and nationality whereas the environmental factors are about the social influence such as family, friends, community values, mentors, labour market structure and the economic environment. The theories with sociological underpinnings will be discussed first, followed by the ones with psychological underpinnings. Employability needs a construct in which the foundation is psychology. An individual considers both individual and external factors while estimating employability. Individual factors include all those skills which were developed during education, early experience, internship or work placements whereas the external factors are family, friends, labour market, economic trends etc. (Creed and Gagliardi, 2015). The relation of career satisfaction (DeVoset al., 2011), career success and career commitment (Rothwell and Arnold, 2007), self-presentation skills and job related skill being found with self-perceived employability (Creed and Gagliardi, 2015). In other research it was reported that students has reported low level of perceived employability who faced less satisfaction in their academic and career direction they followed during seeking information of the employment market (McIlveen, et al., 2013). Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT):

4 This theory tries to contextualise how individuals make career decisions considering individual (internal factors) and environmental (external factors) factors that have an impact on individual s self-efficacy and career interests (Sharf, 2006). It describes that one s efficiency and effectiveness for some particular task is related to choice is the career choices. It discusses the interaction of learning experiences, self-efficacy and outcome expectations and the way in which these affect career interest and choices. According to Kidd (2006), this theory implies that it is important to understand the impact on self-efficacy of things like family, social class, gender, ethnicity and learning experiences, which include quality of experiences and also the individual nature. The typical example is revealed by the study of Gushue (2006), in which he investigated relationship between ethnic identity, career decision-making, selfefficacy and outcome expectations among Latino high school students in northeastern USA. The study revealed a strong relationship between individual s ethnicity and their beliefs regarding their ability to seek a career (self-efficacy) and no relationship/impact on their outcome expectations. The study highlighted that the career decisions were based on their self-efficacy i.e. the more they were successful in their tasks the more confidence they develop in terms of their career decisionmaking. Lent et al. (1994) developed a model of career choice which was more of a learning model. It highlighted that the choices may change when they will have encounter with the real execution and the barriers to achieve the goals if they will think that they can overcome those barriers then they will stick to the previous choice. But any difficulty can be seen then there will be career shift. An individual give up their desirable choices of career and will select most achievable once they will be confronted face to face with the real work situation (Creed and Gagliardi, 2015).

5 Figure 3.5: Social Cognitive Career Theory (Lent et al., 1994)

6 Control theory and social cognitive theory: The social cognitive model has been mainly used to investigate career decisionstudents of making within younger individuals/students. In his study of IT undergraduate programmes in US, Smith (2002) used this model and suggested that social cognitive variables were related to students interest towards IT. Therefore students who had anxiety towards interest/experience in computers/computing showed less interest in IT as compared to the ones who had experience in IT. Furthermore the study indicated that favourable learning environment and encouragement amongst them to develop their computing skills is likely to raise their interest in IT. Another study done by Flores et al. (2010) on Mexican American students also revealed the strong relationship between the students perceived selfefficacy and their career interests. Similar study by Roger et al. (2008) on high school students in Australiaa indicated personality affected development of self- efficacy whereas social factors influenced career goals and decision-making. Figure 3.1: Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura and Schunk, 1981)

7 The social cognitive theory, therefore, is good to understand the career decisionmaking process. It provides means of evaluating the factors influencing career decision making and also how these factors are interrelated. This theory is also relevant in different cultural contexts as well. The social learning theory has application in a career decision making theories based on sociological underpinnings. Both social cognitive theory and the control theories suggest that most of the individuals frame their goals and try to monitor the career path and progress towards to the goals. They react and respond towards the performance gap means the difference between the target goals and the actual performance. This monitoring gives result to two situations one to increase the effort in the performance to achieve the gap and second to desert that goal. In other terms it can be said to be career compromise or career shift. These theories also suggests that the appraisal of the goal progress or the career path have affects where the lack of the progress can bring negative effects, the positivity can be seen as result of theperceived goal progress. Career choice is very crucial decision and if the career shift orcareer compromise is done it is even more. In one of the research it has been seen that the individuals with the career compromise and career shift are less satisfied and have more negativity related to their career and work (Heskethand McLachlan, 1991). The women who were not happy with their achievement level were reported to be more depressed and dissatisfied (Carr, 1997). In other study the students with the higher level of career compromise were facing low level of satisfaction and more career pain. (Creed and Gagliardi, 2015). Despite the fact that all career decision-making theories highlight the fact that it a developmental and incremental process the application is focused on different areas. Bandura s Self-efficacy theory (1977) defines impact of social factors on how individuals develop self-efficacy and in turn make their career decisions.

8 Figure 3.2: Self efficacy Theory Elaborated: ( Krumboltz s Social Learning Theory (1979): is about how individuals recognise the individual and environmental factors, which in turn can hinder or support their career choices. Lent, Brown and Hackett s social cognitive theory (1994): helps to provide a structure to the career decision making process based on relationship between their learning experiences, self-efficacy and outcome expectations.

9 Psychoanalytic theory and social exchange theory and job demand-controls model (Psychological Approaches): The two earliest theories; Vocational Personalities and Work Environments theory by John Holland (1959) and Career Anchors Theory by Edgar Schein (1978) were based on psychological approaches. The former was about vocational choices and work environment which was about understanding themselves and the nature of jobs and then try and find alignment between the two factors. The base of the theory was that the human behaviour depends on the environment in which the person lives and the way they express their interests and values through the choice of work and experience (Holland, 1992). Holland (1992) came up with six personality types: Realistic (R) Investigative (I) Artistic (A) Social (S) Enterprising (E) Conventional (C).

10 Figure 3.3: Six Personality Types from Holland s Theory (Source: The vocational types might opt for mechanical, agricultural or technological jobs; the realistic might opt for manipulation of objects, tools, machines and animals; the artistic were more likely to go towards drama, music and art etc. For example the study done by Afolabi (1996) amongst the librarians in Nigeria found majority of them to be investigative type. Holland, defined the investigative personality to be introspective rather than impulsive and seem to prefer jobs related to research, classification and cataloguing. The study concluded that if individuals pursue jobs in their personality type areas it leads to better job satisfaction as compared to the contrary when the personality type and the job are not matching. Furthermore this in long-term influences their career choices. Kidd (2006) referred to this theory as a bit simplistic as this was purely based on personality and the environment and tends to ignore the process affecting the choice career and the decision of the individual. A study done by Toit and Bruin (2002) among South African men using multidimensional scaling analysis found mis-match between data and Holland s

11 model. The study concluded that the theory is not universally applicable and cultures have an influence. It was even mentioned that the theory was mostly applicable in the western world. Holland (1996) later acknowledged that there are other factors such as gender, age, social class and educational background which tend to influence career choices. The latter theory of career anchors discusses alignment of personality, ability and the work environment. Schein (1978) introduced the concept of career anchors. He specified that individuals carry some values or desires towards their work at different stages of life, which may include things like work-life balance, or skills and abilities to do the work. He came up with five career anchors to which another three were added later (the last three): Technical/functional competence Managerial competence Security and stability Autonomy and independence Entrepreneurial activity. Service and dedication to cause Pure challenge Lifestyle Each anchor drives individuals expectations and attitudes towards work and this then influences their career choices. The individuals with security and stability will possibly look for jobs which offer job-security, long term growth and benefits whereas ones with autonomy and independence will go for jobs that provide more freedom of operation and decision making. The concept of career anchors is beneficial to both workers and employers. It provides alignment for workers between career orientation and job environment and helps employers to provide the right work environment that lead to better employee satisfaction and furthermore loyalty to the organisation (Baruch, 2004). For example, the study by Stewart and Knowles (2000) found that the individuals wanting stability

12 and security applied to larger and more established organisations. They see such organisations for career development in long term and growth within the organisation. From employers perspective the study highlighted that the organisations, which are smaller, need to incentivise young graduates with clear career paths and good training and development opportunities. This theory was relevant when the organisations were more hierarchical i.e. when organisational structures were simple and the career paths were linear (operational level upwards to higher level) (Baruch, 2004). In the modern times the career paths and development is more transitional and can move across functions and is not bound to single domain. Therefore anchors are no longer static they are more dynamic and transform significantly within individuals and within organisations (Sutaari and Taka, 2004). The two theories discussed thus far are kind of inter-related. The gender, age and culture can be important to predict the career anchors for individuals. Gender is the anchor predictor in Asia whereas Age tends to be the key to anchor predictor in the western world. Both Holland (1959, cited in 1997) and Schein (1978, cited in 1996) provide useful psychological approaches for understanding career decision making. Holland s theory might be more relevant at choices stage and Schein s theory more relevant at the development stage. Cultural context once again over-rides the two theories as a common theme i.e. Holland s theory cannot be universally applied in different cultural contexts and Schein s theory on the other hand seems to be a bit more relevant in different cultures (Marshall and Boner, 2003). There are further theories which are based on psychological perspective but these tend to be more on the development rather than choices in the first place. The psychoanalytic existential theory assumes that the reason for the career burnout is the human need to believe that all they do is important and meaningful and their life is meaningful(pines, 2000). Frankl (1976) found that the striving to find meaning in one s life is the primary motivational force in man (p.154). The process of career choice is considered to be multi-faced and multi-dimensional complex process that almost revolves through all spheres of person s life (Hall, 1996). Many researchers after lot of research found that factors like aptitude, resources, interest,

13 requirements, opportunities and limitation influences the process of career choices(parsons, 1909; Ginzberg, 1951; Super, 1953, Swanson, 1996; cited by Pines and Yanai, 2001). This vocational choice is an ongoing process that goes through the whole personal life of a person. Modern status of the life career development is more broad and holistic (Gysberset al., 1998). Another psychological aspect is the childhood experiences both negative and positive and familial heritage. This affects majorly on the vocational choices. People try to choose the jobs which replicate childhood experiences, which fulfil their needs which were not fulfilled in the childhood (Pines and Yanai, 2000). Family forces are always being influencing the career choice of an individual many times it is out of their awareness. In past they might have not agreed to their decision but in back of their mind it is always there and keepsinfluencing their choices (Pines and Yanai, 2001). Linking individual behaviour and feelings related to existential need and their belongingness is also the familial influences. The values, constellation patterns and roles of the family or their origins influence the career interest of an individual (McKelvie and Friedland, 1978).

14 3.3 Research into other related theories: There are some of the theories that have already been discussed in previous chapters. These theories are not necessarily career choice theories but are very closely intertwined with individuals choice of career. These include: Gottfredson s (1981) developmental theory of occupational aspirations is about how people certain occupations. Self-concept in vocational development is a key factor in career choices i.e. individuals want jobs that align with their self-image. The determinants being social class, level of intelligence and experiences. Social expectations theory by Landau et al. (1992) found that men as a primary earner of the family (perceptionally) advance further in their career and believed by everyone in the family so they get a lot of support from all sides. Women on the other hand are perceived to have a role in family support and in most countries career for them ends up being their second preference. Even in dual career couples, the man s career is given preference. There are many theories and concepts such as glass ceiling which tends to support this theory. This implies gender tends to influence career aspirations and in turn influences career choice. There is a common theme between three key theories i.e. Theory of social learning (Bandura, 1972),Entrepreneurial Event Theory (Shapero and Sokol, 1982) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (Ajzen, 1991), which is that motivational elements influence individual s intention to convert specific behaviour into practice. The motives could be both cognitive personal on one side or contextual or environmental on the other. These have positive or negative influence on the career development and even before that entering a particular career path.

15 Figure3.5: Theory of Planned Behaviour (Muohfe and Toit, 2011, p350) There are many more theories that influence career choices and broadly they have social underpinnings (extrinsic) or psychological underpinnings (intrinsic).

16 Figure 3.4.: Career Motivations: Extrinsic and Intrinsic (Adapted from Aggarwal, 2008). This chapter has intended to present and overview of various theoretical approaches to career choices. The two broad strands within this were discussed; psychological theories and sociological theories. It is clear that there is no single theory that can explain career choice concept. They tend to contradict themselves within different environments and different contexts. The theories had their limitations when applied

17 to different cultural environments. This study is one such attempt to investigate the cross-cultural aspect of career choice within management education context. The following chapter now highlights the data and findings within this study before final conclusions and observations are made in the last chapter..