Chapter 2. Review of Literature. This Chapter reviews the literature relevant to the subject matter of the

Transcription

1 Chapter 2 Review of Literature This Chapter reviews the literature relevant to the subject matter of the current research. The literature survey is presented in seven sections with each section reviewing the empirical studies conducted abroad and in India. Section 2.1: Traces the theoretical framework and the studies on Emotional Intelligence. Section 2.2: Deals with the research work relevant to Job Satisfaction. Section 2.3: Presents the research works related to Organizational Citizenship Behaviour. Section 2.4: Provides the outline of the research related to Emotional Intelligence and Job Satisfaction. Section 2.5: Brings out the outline of the research related to Job Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour. Section 2.6: Outlines the research related to Emotional Intelligence and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Section 2.7: Brings out the research developments with faculty in educational institutions as the target audience Section 2.8: Outlines the focus of the present research. 17

2 Section 2.9: Enumerates the research questions to be addressed by this thesis Studies on Emotional Intelligence Daniel Goleman s EI Goleman (1998) [1] defines EI as the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in us and in our relationships. Goleman in 1995 [2] developed the original model of Emotional Intelligence and this was again reviewed by Goleman in 1998 which depended on 200 competency models. He discovered 25 social and emotional competencies which strongly forecasted increased performance in many occupations. Goleman (1995) [2] condensed these competencies into five dimensions namely self awareness, self regulation, self motivation, social awareness and social skills. Boyatzis, Goleman & Rees (1998) [3] developed the emotional competence inventory which was a measure of EI and this was the refined version of the original model. This competency framework is composed of four dimensions and 19 emotional competencies [4, 5]. 18

3 Goleman s four dimensions of EI are Self-awareness, Self-management, Social awareness and Social skills. The nineteen emotional competencies described by Goleman are [6] emotional self awareness which means identifying one s emotions, accurate self assessment describing one s strength and limits, self confidence which is a strong sense of one s self worth and capabilities, adaptability explaining the flexibility in handling change, keeping disruptive emotions and impulses in check, conscientiousness and reliability taking the blame for personal performance and maintaining the honesty and integrity, initiative and innovation which explains the person s originality, achievement drive struggling to improve the standard of excellence, empathy which means taking an active interest in other people s feelings and concern, service orientation which meets the customer s needs, organizational awareness describing the power relationships and emotional currents of the group, developing others which senses other s needs and abilities, leadership which helps in motivating various individual and groups, influence exerting effective tactics for persuasion, change catalyst which motivates change, 19

4 communication which discusses openly and sends persuasive messages, conflict management resolving all arguments, collaboration and building bonds developing the relationships with others, team capabilities which creates group synergy in motivating goals. Out of these nineteen competencies, the first three refer to self awareness, next five pertain to self management, consecutive four indicate social awareness and the last seven measure social skills. A framework of Emotional Competencies is shown below: Table 2.1. A Framework of Emotional Competencies [8] Recognition Regulation Self Personal Competence Self Awareness: Emotional selfawareness Accurate selfassessment Self-Confidence Self Management: Self-Control Trustworthiness Conscientiousness Adaptability Achievement drive Initiative Other Social Competence Social Awareness: Empathy Service Orientation Organizational awareness Relationship Management: Developing others Influence Communication Conflict Management Leadership Change Catalyst Building Bonds Teamwork & Collaboration 20

5 2.1.2 Bar-On s EI Dr. Reuven BarOn, defines Emotional Intelligence as "an array of noncognitive capabilities, competencies, and skills that influence one's ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures" [7]. Bar-On s (1997) [9] idea about Emotional Intelligence was based on that of Goleman s and its concentration was mainly on the clusters of personality traits [10]. Bar-On defined Emotional Intelligence as an array of non-cognitive capabilities, competencies and skills that influence one s ability to succeed in coping with environmental demands and pressures [9]. Bar-On (1997) [9] popularized the term Emotional Quotient. Bar-On divided Emotional Intelligence into five components that aid emotionally and socially intelligent Behaviour [9]. Table 2.2. Bar-On s Emotional Competence Framework [9] Intrapersonal Emotional Self-Awareness Assertiveness Self-regard Self-actualization Interdependence Interpersonal Empathy Social Responsibility Interpersonal Relationship 21

6 Adaptability Reality Testing Flexibility Problem Solving General Mood Optimism Happiness Stress Management Stress Tolerance Impulse control The first component, Intrapersonal Intelligence comprised of emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, self-regard, self-actualization and interdependence. The second dimension, Interpersonal Intelligence consisted of empathy, social responsibility and interpersonal relationship. The third component, Adaptability included reality testing, flexibility and problem solving. The fourth dimension, Stress Management incorporated tolerance of stress and control of impulses. The last dimension, General Mood is composed of happiness and optimistic outlook [9]. Intrapersonal Intelligence includes self awareness and self expression. It refers to accurately perceive, understand and accept oneself, being aware of and understanding one s emotions, effectively expressing one s emotions, being self reliant i.e.., being free of emotional dependency on others and striving to achieve the personal goals [14]. 22

7 Interpersonal Intelligence comprising social awareness and interpersonal relationship includes being aware of and understanding how others feel, identifying with one s social group and cooperating with others and establishing mutually satisfying relationships [14]. Stress Management comprising of emotional management regulation aids in effectively and constructively managing and controlling emotions [14]. Adaptability which is also termed as change management involves validating one s feelings, thinking with external reality, adapting and adjusting one s feelings, thinking to new situations and effectively solving problems of personal and interpersonal nature [14]. General Mood which can also be called as self-motivation is composed of the positivity of life and to feel contented with oneself, with others and with life [14]. Bar-On s EQi is a self report test which does not directly test the individual s actual ability and potential. Moreover, it measures the person s personality and behaviour, which has already been measured in the personality tests [11]. Bar-On s Emotional Intelligence measuring tool, the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) is not the measure of personality traits but a measure of emotionally and socially competent Behaviour [12]. 23

8 Bar-On s definition of Emotional Intelligence is found be faulty as there is no significant discrimination between personality traits and emotionally competent behaviour leading to lack of discriminate validity [10,13]. Bar- On makes no direct reference to the acquisition, retrieval and instantiation (through approximate behaviour) of emotional information [13]. Though the cognitive functioning like problem solving is included in his model, the role of cognitive ability is excluded in his definition of Emotional Intelligence [13] Mayer & Salovey s EI Mayer and Salovey (1990) [15] define Emotional Intelligence as the ability to monitor one s feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use this information to guide one s thinking and actions. According to Mayer and Salovey [15], Emotional Intelligence is a category of social intelligence that comprises of the abilities to check one s own and other s emotions, to differentiate between them and to use this to direct one s thinking and actions. The scope of Emotional Intelligence composes the oral and written estimation of the expression of emotions, the decree of emotion in self and in others, and the use of emotional content in problem solving [16]. In 1990 [15], Mayer and Salovey described three components of Emotional Intelligence namely appraisal 24

9 and expression of emotions, regulation of emotions and utilization of emotions. In 1997, Mayer and Salovey defined Emotional Intelligence as the ability to perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote emotional and intellectual growth [17]. This definition is the improvised version of the definition given by them in 1990 in the sense that it combines the ideas that thinking is made more intelligent through emotions and that person thinks intelligently about emotions. This definition connects both intelligence and emotions [17]. The main focus of the concept of Emotional Intelligence was on the complex, potentially intelligent tapestry of emotional reasoning in day to day life [17]. Analyzing emotional intelligence demands understanding the person s own cultural framework [17]. According to Mayer and Salovey, the earlier definitions seemed vague as they did not take into consideration, the thinking about feelings. Hence, in 1997, they defined Emotional Intelligence as the ability to perceive accurately, appraise and express emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional 25

10 and intellectual growth [17]. Major areas of skills that are portrayed in this definition are [17] Perception and Expression of Emotion Assimilating Emotion in thought Understanding and Analyzing emotion Reflective Regulation of Emotion. Perception and Expression of Emotion involves identifying and expressing emotion in one s physical states, feelings and thoughts and in other people, artwork, language etc. Assimilating Emotion in thought comprises of emotions that prioritize thinking in productive ways and emotions that are generated as support to judgment and memory. Understanding and Analyzing Emotions is composed of ability to label emotions which includes complex emotions and simultaneous feelings and the ability to understand relationships concerned with shifts of emotions. Reflective Regulation of Emotion consists of ability to stay open to feelings and the ability to monitor and regulate emotions reflectively to promote emotional and intellectual growth [17] Four-Branch Model of Emotional Intelligence Mayer and Salovey s 1990 ability model was improvised and the ability to identify was included to form the Four-Branch Model of Emotional Intelligence [17]. The four branches are explained below [17]: 26

11 Perceiving Emotions: This branch of emotions explains the ability to identify the emotions in oneself and others. This also includes stories, art, music, objects etc. Facilitating thought: This branch comprises of the ability to produce, utilize and feel the emotions that are essential or use them in other cognitive processes. Understanding Emotions: This branch of emotions composes of the ability to comprehend emotional information and how emotions blend and progress through relationship transitions. Managing Emotions: This is the last branch of emotions which shows the ability to be open to feelings and regulate them in oneself and others so as to improve the personal understanding and growth. The figure depicting the four branch model is given below: Emotional Intelligence Experiential Emotional Intelligence Perceiving Emotions Facilitating Thought Faces and Pictures Facilitation and sensations Strategic Emotional Intelligence Understanding Emotions Managing Emotions Changes and Blends Emotional Management and Emotional Relations Figure 2.1. Four Branch Model of Emotional Intelligence [17] 27

12 This model called for empirical testing. In order to carry out the empirical testing, a Multibranch Emotional Intelligence scale (MEIS) was developed. This scale consisted of 12 subscale measures of Emotional Intelligence. Initially, this study was carried out in general, expert and target approaches to Emotional Intelligence. It was discovered that the results of all the three methods of scoring are related and the results of the general approach predicted the criteria at the highest level. Most important goal of developing MEIS was to test the Four-Branch Model of Emotional Intelligence. Results from this MEIS displayed that Emotional Intelligence was a unified intelligence with three dimensions namely emotional perception, emotional understanding and emotional management [18]. Though MEIS was found to be a reliable source of measuring the Four- Branch Model of Emotional Intelligence, it had its own limitations. It consisted of 402 items which was too long for all practical purposes. After this scale was developed, lots of opportunities for improvement were noticed which also expected to include the Facilitating Thought which is the second branch of the Four-Branch Model of Emotional Intelligence. For this reason, Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) was developed [18]. 28

13 MSCEIT also proposed to measure the Four-Branch Model of Emotional Intelligence. This scale of measurement was proposed to attain one overall Emotional Intelligence score, two area (Experiential Emotional Intelligence and Strategic Emotional Intelligence) scores and four branch scores. The scores are interpreted as Emotional Intelligence quotients (EIQs). Each branch score is again subdivided into two individual tasks. This consisted of 141 items. The EIQ scores of the MSCEIT can be calculated according to the measure of what most people say (the general consensus) or the measure of what experts say (the expert consensus) [18]. The Total Emotional Intelligence quotient (EIQ) measures the overall Emotional Intelligence. The next two scores correspond to the broad areas of skill in Emotional Intelligence. The Experiential Emotional Intelligence Quotient explains the extent to which one takes in emotional experience, identifies it, correlates it to other sensations and understands how it interacts with thought. It indicates how accurately a respondent can read and express emotions and how a respondent is able to compare the emotional information to other sorts of sensory experiences like colors and sounds. It also explains how a respondent reacts under the effect of different emotions [18]. 29

14 The Strategic Emotional Intelligence Quotient (SEIQ) explains the level of one understands their emotional meanings, their significance for relationships and how to manage emotions in one and in others. This score measures the respondent s ability to understand and manage emotions without actually perceiving the feelings or experiencing those feelings. It indicates the accuracy of the respondent s understanding about what the emotions convey and how emotions in oneself and in others can be managed [18]. The remaining four Emotional Intelligence Quotients relate to the individual branches of Emotional Intelligence from the four branch model. Scores on Perceiving Emotions convey a respondent s ability to identify emotions. This branch scores requires the individual to make out and to communicate the feelings. Emotional perception demands concentrating and accurately deciphering the emotional signals in facial expressions, artistic expressions and tone of voice. The two tasks involved in perceiving the emotions are faces and pictures. In Faces task, the respondents are asked to point out how the individual feels based on his or her facial expression. In Pictures task, the respondents are asked to display the expressions given out by certain images and landscapes [18]. 30

15 Scores on Facilitating thought displays the use of emotions to help and foster ideas. This scores shows how much an individual s thoughts and other thoughts which are conceived by the individual are revealed by his or her experience of emotion. The focus of this score helps the individual to effectively solve problems. This also aids in reasoning, decision making and being creative. This branch score is made up of two task scores namely Sensations task and Facilitation task. In Sensations task, the individual is asked to compare various emotions to various sensations like light, color and temperature. Scores of the Facilitation task measures the respondent s expertise of how moods interact and aid reasoning and thinking powers of the individual [18]. EIQ on Understanding Emotions expresses one s knowledge about emotions. This branch score is composed of the individual s ability to label the emotions. This branch aids in understanding of emotions which lead to a critical component of Emotional Intelligence. This branch comprises of two tasks namely the Changes task and Blends task. The Changes task quantifies the respondent s awareness about the emotional chains which signifies how emotions transition from one to another. The Blends task appraises the ability of the respondent to evaluate blends of emotions into their parts which can be interpreted as combining of simple emotions into complex feelings [18]. 31

16 EIQ on Managing Emotions intimates the capacity for emotional regulation. This score aids the respondent to feel the feeling rather than limiting it and then uses the feeling to take good decisions. It also means dealing with feelings in a forensic way instead of acting on them without thinking. This branch of emotions includes participation of emotions in thought and enabling thought to involve emotions. This branch of emotions comprises of two tasks namely the Emotional Management task and the Emotional Relations task. The Emotional Management task assesses the individual s ability to comprehend his or her own emotions into decision making. This task questions the individual to rate the effectiveness of choice of actions in attaining a certain result in situations where a person must control his or her own emotions. The Emotional Relations task assesses the person s ability to include emotions into decision making involving other people. This task asks the individuals to appraise how effective various actions would be in accomplishing an outcome which involves other people [18]. From all the above literature, it can be observed that Daniel Goleman, Bar-On and Mayer, Salovey and Caruso have defined Emotional intelligence under various dimensions which measure the same. The dimensions which all of them have in common are the self awareness, social skills, managing in self and in others. These dimensions are cited in different ways by different authors. Thus, in general, all the three 32

17 models mentioned above propose to comprehend and measure the components involved in the regulation and recognition of one s own emotions and the emotions of others [8]. 2.2 Job Satisfaction Job Satisfaction is defined as the attitude of an employee towards a job, sometimes expressed as a hedonic response of liking or disliking the work itself, the rewards pay, promotions, recognition or the context (working conditions, benefits) [19]. Job Satisfaction is a state which causes a lot of fulfillment the worker acquires from his job and his job experience [20]. Robbins (2000) conceptualizes Job Satisfaction as the overall attitude towards or the outlook about the job they perform [21]. Job Satisfaction refers to the primary affective reactions of individuals to various facets of the job and to job experiences [22]. Cranny et al., (1992) defines Job Satisfaction as the emotional reaction a worker has towards his/her job after the comparison of the outputs he/she expects or desires with real outputs [23]. It can also be defined as an attitude that affects an individual s Behaviours as well [24]. Job Satisfaction can be explained as the contentment the employee obtains from the job or job experience [22]. Job Satisfaction is acquired if the attributes of the job yield with the employee s expectations. This is 33

18 because it consists of the employee s expectations from the job with the rewards the job provides [25]. Job Satisfaction is based on the experience of the workers which in turn is connected with worker s needs, expectation and their job benefits [25]. Literature states that in Organizational Psychology, Job Satisfaction has become one of the most critically and widely used research concepts [26]. Significant relationship has also been established between Job Satisfaction, absenteeism and other workplace Behaviours [26]. Job Satisfaction is affected by the consistent job requirements with other roles like the family roles [27, 28]. A contradiction between these roles leads to Job dissatisfaction [29]. Worker s Job Satisfaction can also be effected by education or training needed for their jobs, with job requiring more interesting and engaging levels of training [30]. Job Satisfaction is affiliated to two factors namely the situational factors and personal factors [31]. Situational factors are composed of Job related conditions like pay, opportunities for promotion and working conditions. It also consists of job characteristics such as task identity, task significance, skill variety, autonomy and feedback [32]. Studies have proved a positive relationship between Job Satisfaction, job conditions and job characteristics [32]. Personal factors comprise of personality 34

19 disposition, traits, self-esteem, motivation and emotions [26]. A literature reveals that positive factors like high energy, enthusiasm and pleasurable engagement are highly correlated to Job Satisfaction and negative factors like distress, nervousness and displeasing engagement are negatively correlated to Job Satisfaction [32]. Research suggests that Job Satisfaction is composed of three elements namely task satisfaction, employment satisfaction and market satisfaction [33]. Task satisfaction refers to the execution of the tasks required from the job. Some of the elements like personnel policies, benefits, career opportunities, work environment, style of management and fit in the organization fall under the category Employment satisfaction. Most of these elements are controlled by the company itself. Market satisfaction includes the external forces to the company which affects the individual s job [34]. A traditional theory suggests that increased Job Satisfaction increases the Job Performance [33]. This can be explained using a two dimensional view of the figure given below: 35

20 Low Task Performance High Task satisfaction Low Task satisfaction High Task Performance Figure 2.2. Two Dimensional view of Task satisfaction vs Task Performance [33] High Task satisfaction and High Task Performance reveal the employee s love and aptitude towards his/her job. Low Task satisfaction and Low Task Performance may reveal the employee s unfavorable conditions in performing the task. These two quadrants fall under the traditional theory. The person under the third quadrant i.e., the Low Task satisfaction and High Task Performance may not be very satisfied with their job, but they give their maximum effort in doing their job. The fourth quadrant implies High Task satisfaction and Low Task Performance. This indicates employee s love and aptitude for the work he or she does but lacks the skill to perform the job in an effective manner [33]. Job Satisfaction can be described as the degree to which the employees enjoy their job [34]. A study indicates that Job Satisfaction is composed of several dimensions namely satisfaction with compensation, satisfaction with top management, satisfaction with promotions and satisfaction with coworkers [35]. Job Satisfaction refers to the attitude of 36

21 the workers that lead to effective performance and functioning of the organization [36]. Certain other demographic factors affecting Job Satisfaction are age [37] and the academic qualification [38]. Certain attributes of the working environment such as union membership [39, 40], size of the workplaces [41] and the impact of permanent and part time jobs [42] provide support to the Job Satisfaction of the workers. The considerable contribution to the study of Job Satisfaction was given by Hertzberg who affirmed that factors leading to Job Satisfaction are distinguishable from the factors leading to Job Dissatisfaction [43]. Hertzberg discovered that Job Satisfaction is initiated through two kinds of work related drives namely growth needs and avoidance needs. The growth needs are explained by certain job elements like recognition, advancement and job enhancement to encourage the employees. Avoidance needs are composed of items that affected an employee s ability to be dissatisfied such as salary, policies and working conditions [44]. Hertzberg ascertained the specifics of Job Satisfaction and Job Dissatisfaction [44]. Some of the variables which affect Job Satisfaction of employees are age, marital status, educational qualification, personality, time spent at work 37

22 etc. [45].A research proves that women have lesser Job Satisfaction when compared to that of men [46]. Job Satisfaction is a multi dimensional concept and the dimensions of Job Satisfaction determined by Luthans are [47] Job Satisfaction as a emotional reaction towards the job. Job Satisfaction explained by the job s meeting or exceeding expectations. Job Satisfaction under the influence of some factors like pay, promotion, co-workers and the attitude of the supervisors. Low Job Satisfaction leads to high attrition and as a result of which employee Job Satisfaction becomes crucial to the success of the organization [48, 49]. Low Job Satisfaction also leads to low productivity and high labor costs [50]. On the contrary, high Job Satisfaction leads to improved work performance in terms of quality and quantity [51]. This is because the characteristics of the work match the expectations of the employee [20]. Another study reveals that the causes of the Job Satisfaction are [52]: satisfaction enhances performance Performance enhances satisfaction Incentives cause both performance and satisfaction 38

23 Literature also proves that workers at higher position have greater Job Satisfaction while those in lower position have lesser Job Satisfaction. Employees who receive high incentives also have high Job Satisfaction [52]. High Job Satisfaction of the employees in the Organization is indicated by the following criteria [53]: Employees given challenging opportunities for professional growth in the organization. Compensation package which includes benefits, vacation, perks etc to be given to the employees. Leadership qualities of the boss. Organization to be positioned well for global competition. Morale of the employees to be kept high by the Organization. Organization to provide with the necessary resources and tools to the employees which in turn increases the productivity. Employees of the organization to be encouraged to give out innovative ideas. Adhering to the corporate values of the organization yielding high productivity. Ethics and integrity to be maintained within the organization. 39

24 Some of the ways to enhance Job Satisfaction are [53]: To provide a positive work environment. Appreciation of the performance by the employees by giving suitable reward and recognition (both intrinsic and extrinsic). Allowing the involvement of employees in the decision making process. Improving the employee s sills and potential by providing them with continuous training programmes. Reduce the stress of the employees. Flexible working schedule can be encouraged. Prompt and direct formal communication to be implemented within the organization. Job Satisfaction surveys to be conducted at least once a year for constant improvement of the employees A study confirms that Job Satisfaction is used to ascertain a teacher s commitment to their job [54-57]. Highly qualified teachers tend to leave their job due to dissatisfaction when compared to the less qualified teachers [58, 59]. The Principal s leadership behaviour also affects the Job Satisfaction of the teachers [60, 61]. Researches were conducted based on the gender differences in Job Satisfaction. Five national studies were conducted and it was concluded 40

25 that men were more satisfied in three surveys and women were more satisfied in the remaining two surveys. But the final results conclude that there is no significant difference in Job Satisfaction based on gender [62]. Job Satisfaction can be measured in two ways namely the overall and the facet. Overall Job Satisfaction depends on the combination of the mathematical scores of work satisfaction overall evaluation rating of the job and the facet Job Satisfaction depends on information related to specific facets or elements of the job [63]. One of the instruments to measure Job Satisfaction is the Job Descriptive Index (JDI, 1997) [54]. It is composed of five variables namely work on the present job, present pay, opportunities for promotion, supervision and coworkers. In addition, another reliable instrument in measuring Job Satisfaction is the Job diagnostic survey consisting of four items [64]. Based on all the above literature, a researcher has quoted If a person s work is interesting, her pay is fair, her promotional opportunities are good, her supervisor is supportive, and her coworkers are friendly, then a situational approach leads one to predict she is satisfied with her job [65]. 41

26 2.3. Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Organizational Citizenship Behaviour can be described as the extra-role contributions in the Behaviour of the individuals making the organization that are above and beyond the call off duties [66]. Organ in 1997 defined Organizational Citizenship Behaviour as Contributions to the maintenance and enhancement of the social and psychological context that supports task performance [67]. Organ in 1988 [68] defined Organizational Citizenship Behaviour as individual Behaviour that is discretionary, not directly or explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and that in the aggregate promotes the effective functioning of the organization. Researches have proved the drastic growth of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour in areas concerning management like strategic management, leadership, human resource management [69]. OCB has a positive effect on increasing the organizational performance [68, 70, 71, 72]. OCB is considered as the extra-role behaviour as it exhibits the job performance of the individual beyond the stated job requirement [68]. Workers take personal interest in going beyond the contract signed by them at the time of their appointment in the organization and they perform tasks which are not expected out of them without expecting any rewards of recognition [68]. 42

27 A study exhibits that social attractiveness can be increased in organizations with the help of OCB [73]. Literature reveals the fact that support given by the leaders is the strongest predictor of OCB [74]. There are a few literature that tries to decipher the potential implications of OCB for workers [75]. Organ and Ryan also suggested that OCB also has a positive influence on employee stress and overload [75]. Schnake defines OCB as functional, extra-role, pro-social Behaviour, directed at individuals, groups and/or an organization [76]. This definition is composed of ethical behaviour like aiding the freshers to the organization, helping co-workers on the job, avoiding unnecessary breaks and coming forward to do jobs which are not necessitated by the organization [76]. Organizations where employees constrain themselves to formal and inrole behaviour do not perform to the expected level [77]. Importance of OCB in lubricating the social machinery of the organization is ascertained by Smith [78]. Importance of OCB is also confirmed in the increase of organizational efficiency, organizational effectiveness, innovation and adaptability within diverse organizations [68]. High level of OCB in organizations leads to decrease in absenteeism, decrease in turnover, employees satisfaction and employee loyalty [79, 43

28 80, 81, 82] which in turn reflects on the organizational performance of the individuals Dimensions of OCB Smith et al., identified two dimensions of OCB namely altruism and generalized compliance [78]. Altruism referred to the behaviour of the employees that specifically targeted at aiding the individuals. Generalized compliance denoted the behaviour of individuals that reflect the compliance with general rules, norms and expectations. Later, in 1988, Organ [68] conceptualized OCB into five dimensions namely altruism, courtesy, civic virtue, conscientiousness and sportsmanship. Organ further expanded and stated that OCB can increase the productivity and efficiency of both the individuals and the organization which will finally help in the effective functioning of the organization [68]. Based on Organ s literature William and Anderson put forward a two dimensional theory of OCB namely OCB I and OCB-II. OCB-I comprised of altruism and courtesy which indicated the behaviour directed towards the individuals. OCB-II was composed of conscientiousness, civic virtue and sportsmanship which denoted the behaviour directed towards the organization [83]. 44

29 Podsakoff and Mackenzie considered OCB in three dimensions namely helping Behaviour, sportsmanship and civic virtue [80]. Hannam and Jimmieson in 1999 proposed that organization compliance, individual initiative, altruism, conscientiousness and civic virtue are the significant factors in explaining OCB [84]. In 2004, Markoczy and Xin identified only sportsmanship and courtesy as OCB dimensions out of the five proposed by Organ [85]. They confirm that interpersonal harmony and protecting organization resources are the necessary accompanying elements of OCB. Graham [86] and Van Dyne et al., [87] suggested two loyalty and boosterism as two significant factors of OCB. OCB has been brought out in a three factor model [88, 89, 90]. The model comprises of personal support, organizational support and conscientious initiative. Thus, OCB can be deciphered into nine major dimensions based on all the available literature. They are altruism, conscientiousness, sportsmanship, courtesy, civic virtue, functional participation, advocacy participation, loyalty and voice [91]. But, the generally accepted dimensions of OCB are the five dimensions proposed by Organ. They are detailed below. 45

30 Altruism In 2006, Organ et al. defined altruism as the behaviour of helping a specific person with an organizationally relevant task or problem [92]. Altruism is defined as discretionary behaviour that has the effect of helping a specific other person with an organizationally relevant task or problem [68, 78, 93]. In 1983, Smith et al., in their definition on altruism explain about the worker of the organization rending help to other workers of the organization in their work [69]. This dimension of OCB is composed of the behaviour of employees that aid other employees of the organization who are taxed with heavy work load or to educate new employees about the job tasks voluntarily [94] Conscientiousness Conscientiousness is defined as Discretionary Behaviour on the part of an employee that goes well beyond the minimum role requirements of the organization, in the areas of attendance, obeying rules and regulations, breaks and so forth [68, 78, 93]. This was originally termed as Generalized compliance. This is composed of the employees completing the task successfully or suggesting specific ideas to the organization without being asked for [95]. This refers to the employee exceeding their minimum requirements in carrying out the tasks assigned to them. The elements that are included in the definition of conscientiousness are following rules and regulations, taking timely breaks, punctuality etc. 46

31 [94]. Conscientiousness Behaviour for the medical practitioners are absolutely mandatory as it aids them in attending their patients on time and execute their duties as required [94]. In 2006, this is also defined as the behaviour that allows one to carry out his or her specific role requirement to levels well beyond those normally expected [92]. For example, An employee attending an official meeting under extreme weather conditions is a conscientious behaviour [92]. Thus, this type of behaviour indicates if the particular employee of the organization is organized, accountable and hard-working [69] Civic Virtue Civic Virtue is defined as behaviour on the part of individuals indicating that they responsibly participate in, are involved in, or are concerned about the life of the organization [68, 93]. This dimension of OCB is composed of employee s participation in the political life of the organization and attending meetings which are not mandatory and thus keeping track with the changes in the firm [68]. Some of the other elements of Civic Virtue are aiding other workers of the firm in organizing a get together and attending functions of the organization voluntarily [94]. One more element included under this category is answering all the intramural mails of the firm [95]. This dimension of OCB aids in increasing the performance quality of individuals and helps in reducing the customer complaints [96]. 47

32 Courtesy Courtesy is defined as Discretionary behaviour on the part of an individual aimed at preventing work related problems with others [68, 93]. This dimension of OCB points out the behaviour of the employees that controls the problems and takes necessary steps to reduce the results of the problem in future [69]. This definition also includes employees aiding other employees in their work. A study reveals that courteous employees help in reducing the intergroup conflict which in turn reduces the time spent on conflict management activities [97] Sportsmanship Sportsmanship is defined as Willingness of employees to tolerate less than ideal circumstances without complaining to avoid complaining, petty grievances, railing against real or imagined slights and making federal cases out of small potatoes [68, 93]. For example, if an employee does not complain about a new production method that forces him or her to be rearranged, then that employee has a good quality of sportsmanship [92]. This behaviour of OCB comprises of the willingness to tolerate without complaining and abstaining from activities like complaining about petty grievances [94]. Sportsmanship refers to the employees being patient not minding the nuisances on the job. It also involves making personal sacrifices and working overtime for the organization to get benefitted [95]. Literature suggests that good 48

33 sportsmanship develops the morale of the work group which in turn reduces the attrition rate of the organization [80]. 2.4 Emotional Intelligence & Job Satisfaction There are a few studies that have evaluated the relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Job Satisfaction. As the Emotional Intelligence of employees increases, their satisfaction with their jobs also increases [31]. It was found that job control acts as the moderator in proving the relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Job Satisfaction [98]. A study proved that Emotional Intelligence was the significant predictor of life satisfaction [99]. A research examined the relationship between Affects (consisting of emotions and moods) and Job Satisfaction and concluded that affect is moderately related to standard measures of Job Satisfaction [100]. Literature supports the fact that successful people in every field have high Emotional Intelligence leading to the assumption that employees with higher Emotional Intelligence experience higher Job Satisfaction [101, 102]. Significant relationship was established between Emotional Intelligence and Job Satisfaction [ ]. Modest relationship between total Emotional Intelligence scores and Job Satisfaction is proven by Bar- On [9]. A literature shows that Emotional Intelligence is related to Job 49

34 Satisfaction which is mediated through Organizational Learning Capability [108]. The relationship between total EQ and global Job Satisfaction was established among deans of U.S. Business schools [109]. It is stated that when individuals are less emotionally intelligent, then, they seem to be dissatisfied with their job. This research is carried out with respect to teachers [110]. The teachers who exhibit some of the Emotional Intelligence competencies like empathy, emotional self awareness, achievement orientation and optimism seem to be satisfied with their job [110]. Literature states that Job Satisfaction is considered to be the reflection of good treatment in the organization and also a good pointer of an emotional well being [34]. The Emotional Intelligence Job Satisfaction relationship has been proved in the Indian context [111]. This finding was supported by Mayer, Salovey and Caruso in 2002 and Srivastava, Sibia & Misra in 2004 [112, 113]. There are several reasons as to why employees Emotional Intelligence may influence Their Job Satisfaction. Interpersonally, Emotional Intelligence which consists of emotional awareness and regulatory process is expected to benefit people s social relationships. This in turn 50

35 influences the experience of emotions and stress at work. Intra personally, use of emotions and being aware of one s own emotions can lead to stress regulation and negative emotions so that individuals can perform better at work [114]. However, very few studies exhibit that there is no relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Job Satisfaction. One such study is done by Livingston and Day in 2005 and this study was carried out among the military personnel [115] Job Satisfaction & Organizational Citizenship Behaviour There are a few literature reports that support the positive relationship between Job Satisfaction and Organization Citizenship Behaviour. Job Satisfaction was found to be the significant predictor of OCB among the working professionals [116]. Job Satisfaction is considered to be one of the antecedents to extra-role behaviour in organizations though this is not always true [117]. In a meta-analytic review of 55 studies, Job Satisfaction was one among the three variables that proved the relationship with OCB in considerable number of cases [75]. Several studies have established the correlation between Job Satisfaction and OCB [66, ]. Job Satisfaction is found to be the strongest variable that is correlated to OCB [121]. 15 independent studies have 51

36 ascertained the significant relationship between Job Satisfaction and OCB [122]. Bateman and Organ ascertained a positive relationship between Job Satisfaction and OCB among University employees [118]. In a study of 145 government employees in the South eastern United States, Job Satisfaction was found to be significantly correlated with OCB [123]. A research supported the positive relationship between Job Satisfaction and OCB [83]. Job Satisfaction is expected to be correlated to OCB for two reasons. One is that if the employee s in-role job performance is restricted, then, the employees may use the extra-role behaviours to reciprocate to their manager or organization. The second reason is that employees who tend to engage in positive affect state tend in fall in trap for pro-social behaviours [124]. Organ and Konovsky in 1996 proved a significant relationship between Job Satisfaction and the five dimensions of OCB among hospital employees [125]. An investigation was carried out among the blue collar workers and it was evident that Job Satisfaction of coworkers was strongly correlated to OCB of blue collar workers [126]. A study proposed that team commitment in self directed teams moderates the relationship between Job Satisfaction and OCB and proved a significant relationship between Job Satisfaction and OCB [127]. Moore and Love claimed that 52

37 valence of Job Satisfaction has a positive impact on IT Professional s OCB [128]. However, there are a very few studies that show that there is no relationship between Job Satisfaction and OCB. A study found that Job Satisfaction is significantly related to altruism but not directly correlated to generalized compliance in both large and small organizations [78]. A research was conducted in a small manufacturing firm and it proved that Job Satisfaction explained the variance in only two of the five OCB dimensions [129]. There are other factors like pride in task completion [130], job involvement, affective commitment, organizational trust and perceived needs which are more correlated to OCB than Job Satisfaction [131]. Studies show that there no relationship between Job Satisfaction with any of the dimensions of OCB [132, 133]. A literature ascertains that fairness is a predictor of OCB whereas Job Satisfaction is not a predictor of OCB [133]. A study confirms that Job Satisfaction is not related to OCB [134]. When perceptions of fairness are restricted, Job Satisfaction is related only to two dimensions of OCB out of the five dimensions [135]. A literature concludes that the relationship between Job Satisfaction and OCB is based on the nature of the Job Satisfaction measure [136]. 53

38 A few studies prove the inverse relationship between Job Satisfaction and OCB. Lapierre and Hackett found that more conscientious employees are more satisfied with their job [137]. It has been proposed that OCB exhibited by the IT Professionals will display high Job Satisfaction [138] Emotional Intelligence & Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Very few researches have been carried out on the direct relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour. Charbonneau and Nicol in 2002 established a significant relationship between Emotional Intelligence and both altruism and compliance which are the two broad dimensions of OCB [139]. This study was done among 134 adolescents in a military training camp setting. Emotional Intelligence intensifies the altruistic behaviour in individuals as it aids the individuals to comprehend their coworkers feelings [140]. Workers with higher Emotional Intelligence understand the organizational rules and regulations better and demonstrate high levels of sensitivity towards informal behavioural expectations in the workplace [141]. A significant relationship has been ascertained between Emotional Intelligence and the two dimensions of Organizational Citizenship Behaviour namely altruism and compliance. This study was carried out among the employees employed in diverse set of organizations in Israel [141]. 54

39 2.7. Research in Educational Institutions There has been a few research conducted in educational institutions with faculty as the target audience. Some of them are mentioned below. A study has been conducted among the school principals for developing successful leaders in 2005 [142]. A literature emphasizes the importance of library and its services of India s leading engineering and management schools [143]. A research has been carried out to establish if gender is related to the information seeking Behaviour of University students [144]. A research was carried out in tertiary educational institutions in Nigeria to determine the extent of fraud perpetration and to proffer strategies for bringing incidences of fraud to the barest minimum [145]. A research has been carried out in engineering colleges to understand their open access goals and attitudes of the faculty [146]. A study has been done to reveal how the national economic recession has affected the nature and extent of support for the academic librarians in educational institutions [147]. A research is done to understand the professional document gathering Behaviour and the use of Information Technology library at Wuhan University, China [148]. 55

40 An Investigation is done on the availability of information on higher education institutions through the websites of 40 higher education institutions [149]. An article presents the study on the use of facultyfaculty interaction programs in online learning environments in the U.S. [150]. An assessment has been done to provide the impact of various Information Systems Articles and the productivity Information systems researchers and institutions [151]. A study has been carried out among Middle level leaders and school teachers to detect the effect of Emotional Intelligence on Job Satisfaction [152] Focus of this Research Research on Educational Institutions has not talked much about the emotions in the workplace. Based on the literature above, emotions form an integral part of any educational institutions. Faculty in any educational institution has been identified as crucial to the emotional connection and development of a relationship with the students. Conceptually, having more understanding, sensitive, considerate and comforting principals of schools should help the teachers of schools to 56

41 have a pleasurable emotional state of mind which has resulted from the estimation of their jobs and the school environment [152]. With the concept of Emotional Intelligence having gained a legitimate place in the workplace, the need for a model to understand the role of emotions in the organization becomes essential. Extant Research has been done on the relationship between emotional Intelligence and Job Satisfaction and similarly, between Job Satisfaction and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour. But, there is no evidence to prove the relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour among the faculty of educational institutions. Based on the literature support, it can also be proposed that employees with high Emotional Intelligence will be very much satisfied with their jobs. This Job Satisfaction that the employees have will result in indulging themselves in extra-role Behaviour such as working long hours, attending meetings which they are not required to etc. There are a very few literature to support the direct relationship between Emotional Intelligence and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour. Faculty with nominal control of emotions is in a better position to deliver their responsibilities in the Organization. Moreover control over emotions influence the level of satisfaction in their jobs which in turn affects their 57