CHAPTER 2 MODELS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR

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1 CHAPTER 2 MODELS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR AN ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR SYSTEM The primary purpose of organizational behavior system (OBS) is to identify and then help manipulate the major human and organizational variables that affect the results organizations are trying to achieve. The outcomes are measured in various forms of three basic criteria: Performance, employee satisfaction and personal growth and development. Elements of the system The philosophy of organizational behavior held by managers stems from two sources, they are fact and value premises: Fact Premises Represent our descriptive view of how the world behaves. They are drawn from both behavior al science research and our personal experiences. Value Premises On the other hand, Value premises represent our view of desirability of certain goals and activities. Manager also has primary responsibility for instilling three other elements into the OBS they are: Vision, represent a challenging OBS and its members can be a possible and desirable future. Mission, it s identifies the business it is in, the types of customers it is likely to have, and the reasons for its existence. Goal is relatively concrete formulations of achievements the organization. MODELS OF ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR Douglas McGregor was one of the first writers to call attention to managerial models. The model calls as Theory X and Y. McGregor s Theory X and Theory Y Theory X Theory Y It is a traditional set of assumptions It implies a more humanistic and

2 about people The typical person dislikes work and will avoid it if possible. The typical person lacks responsibility, has little ambition, and sees security above all. Most people must be coerced, controlled, and threatened with punishment to get them to work supportive approach to managing people it assumes that people are not lazy. Work is as natural as play or rest People aren t inherently lazy, they have become that way as a result of experience. People will exercise self-direction and self-control in the service of objectives to which they are committed People have potential. They have imagination, ingenuity, and creativity that can be applied to work. With these assumptions the managerial role is to coerce and control employees With these assumptions the managerial role is to develop the potential in employees and help them release that potential towards common objectives. There are five models of Organizational Behavior, they are: Autocratic Custodial Supportive Collegial System Basic of Model Power Economic Resources Leadership Partnership Trust, Community, meaning Managerial Orientation Authority Money Support Teamwork Caring, compassion Employee Obedience Security and Job Responsible Psychological Orientation Employee psychological result Employee benefits Performance behavior ownership Dependence Dependence Participation Self discipline Self motivation on boss on organization Subsistence Security Status and Self Wide range needs met recognition actualization Performance Minimum Passive Awakened Moderate Passion and

3 result security cooperation drives enthusiasm commitment to organizational goals The Autocratic Model Autocratic Model depends on Power. Those who are in command must have the power to demand you do this or else, meaning that an employee who doesn t follow orders will be panelized. In autocratic environment, the managerial orientation is formal official authority. Authority is delegated by right of command over people to whom it applies. The autocratic model was an acceptable approach to guide managerial behavior when there were no well-known alternatives, and it still can useful under some extreme conditions, such as organizational crises. The Custodial Model The custodial approach leads to employee dependence on the organization. Rather than being dependent on their employer for just their weekly paycheck, employees now depend on organizations for their security and welfare. Employees working in a custodial environment become psychologically preoccupied with their economic rewards and benefits. The custodial model is described in its extreme in order to show its emphasis on material rewards, security and organizational dependence. The search for a better way is not a condemnation of the custodial model as a whole but rather a condemnation of the assumption that this is the final answer the one best way to motivate employees. The Supportive Model The supportive model depends on leadership instead of power or money. Through leadership, management provides a climate to help employees grow and accomplish in the interests of the organization the things of which they are capable. Management s orientation is to support the employee s job performance rather than simply support employee benefit payments as in the custodial approach. Since

4 management supports employees in their work, the psychological result is a feeling of participation and task involvement in he organization. The supportive model works well with both employees and managers and it has been widely accepted at least philosophically by many managers in the United States and elsewhere. The supportive model organization behavior tends to be especially effective in affluent nations because it responds to employee drives toward a wide array of emerging needs. It has less immediate application in the developing nations, where employees current needs and social conditions are often quite different. The Collegial Model A useful extension of the supportive model is the collegial model. The term collegial relates to a body of people working together cooperatively. The managerial orientation is toward teamwork. Management is the coach that builds a better team. The employee response to this situation is responsibility. The psychological result of the collegial approach for the employee is self-discipline. The System Model An emerging model of organization behavior is the system model. The system model reflects the values underlying positive organizational behavior, which focuses on identifying, developing and managing psychological strengths within employees. Under this approach, managers focus their attention on helping employees develop feelings of hope, optimism, self-confidence, empathy, trustworthiness, esteem, courage, efficacy and resiliency. Individuals at all levels need to acquire and display social intelligence, which has five dimensions: 1. Empathy appreciation for and connectedness with others 2. Presence projecting self-worth in one s bearing. 3. Situational radar ability to read social situations and respond appropriately. 4. Clarity using language effectively to explain and persuade. 5. Authenticity being real and transparent, while projecting honesty.

5 Conclusion about the Models They are subject to evolutionary change. They are a function of prevailing employee needs. There is a trend toward the newer models. Any of the models can be successfully applied in some situations. The models can be modified and extended in a variety of ways. 1. Evolving usage: Managerial and organizational use of these models tends to evolve over time. The primary challenge for management is to identify the model it is actually using and then assess its current effectiveness. 2. Relation of Models to Human Needs: Five models are closely related to human needs. New models have been developed to serve the different needs that became important at the time. A comparison suggests that each newer model is built upon the accomplishment of the other. 3. Increasing Use of Some Models: The trend toward the supportive, collegial and system models will undoubtedly continue. Only the newer models can offer the satisfaction of their needs for esteem, autonomy and self-actualization. 4. Contingent Use of All Models: Although one model may be most used at any given time, some appropriate uses will remain for other models. Probably all five models will continue to be used, but the more advanced models will have growing use as progress is made and employee expectation will rise. 5. Managerial Flexibility: Managers not only need to identify their current behavioral model but also must keep it flexible and current. Managers need to read, to reflect, to interact with others and to be receptive to challenges to their thinking from their colleagues and employees. CHAPTER 8 EMPOWERMENT AND PARTICIPATION THE NATURE OF EMPOWERMENT AND PARTICIPATION

6 What is Empowerment? Empowerment is any process that provides greater autonomy to employees through the sharing of relevant information and the provision of control over factors affecting job performance. Five broad approaches to empowerment: 1. Helping employees achieve job mastery (proper training, coaching and experience guidance). 2. Allowing more control (giving them discretion over job performance). 3. Providing successful role models (allowing them to observe peers who already perform successfully on the job). 4. Using social reinforcement and persuasion (giving praise, encouragement and verbal feedback). 5. Giving emotional support (better role definition, task assistance and honest expression of caring). When managers use these approaches, employees begin believing they are competent and valued, that they truly have some autonomy, that their jobs have meaning and impact, and that they have opportunities to use their talents. What is Participation? Participation is the mental and emotional involvement of people in group situations that encourages them to contribute to group goals and share responsibility for them. This definition entails three important ideas: 1. Involvement: Participation means meaningful involvement rather than mere muscular activity. A person who participate is ego-involved instead of merely task involved. 2. Motivation to Contribute: Participation stimulates people to contribute. They are empowered to release their own resources of initiative and creativity toward the objectives of the organization. 3. Acceptance of Responsibility: Participation encourages people to accept responsibility in their group s activities. It is a social process by which people become self-involved in an organization, committed to it and truly want to see it work successfully.

7 Why is Participation Popular? According to the collective results of a study by skillful social scientists, participation tends to improve performance and job satisfaction. Later research in organizations has repeatedly supported this proposition. Participation can have statistically significant effects on performance and satisfaction. Participation practices may also provide power opportunities to minority workers in an increasingly diverse workforce, since such workers need not wait until reaching higher organizational levels before being allowed to contribute meaningfully. Participation also seems to help satisfy the awakening employee need for meaning and fulfillment at work. Organizations have found that employees are searching for a sense of significance, the opportunity to use their minds and a chance to devote their efforts to a higher purpose in their work. Meaningful participation can help satisfy those needs. Participation practices are noteworthy. The educational level of the workforce often provides workers with unique capacities that can be applied creatively to work problems. These employees have also acquired both a desire for influencing work-related decisions and an expectation that they will be allowed to participate in these decisions. Below are the forces affecting the greater use of participation: 1. Research results 2. Productivity-improvement pressures 3. Utilization of workforce diversity 4. Employee desires for meaning 5. Employee desire and expectations 6. Ethical Arguments. HOW PARTICIPATION WORKS The Participation Process Situation

8 Participation programs Involvement (Mental & Emotional) Outcomes for Organization (higher output, higher quality, innovation etc) and Employees (Acceptance, Self-efficacy, less stress and satfaction). The figure 8.3 indicates that in many situations participative programs result in mental and emotional involvement that produces generally favorable outcomes for both the employees and the organization. The Impact on Managerial Power Leader-Member Exchange. Participation is a sharing process between managers and employees which is built upon the leader-member exchange model of leadership. This model suggests that leaders and their followers develop a unique reciprocal relationship, with the leader selectively delegating, informing, consulting, mentoring, praising or rewarding each employee. In exchange, the employee contributes various degrees of task performance, loyalty and respect to the manager. Two Views of Power. Participation may increase the power of both managers and their employees. See table FIGURE 8.4 below: Autocratic View Power 1. Is a fixed amount 2. Comes from the authority structure 3. Is applied by management 4. Flows downward Participative View Power 1. Is a variable amount 2. Comes from people through both official and unofficial channels 3. Is applied by shared ideas and activities in a group 4. Flows in all directions

9 Prerequisites for Participation Major prerequisites are as follows (can refer to FIGURE 8.5): 1. Employees must have enough time to participate before action is required. 2. The potential benefits of participation should be greater than the cots. 3. The subject of participation must be relevant and interesting to the employees. 4. The participants should have the mental capacity such as intelligence and technical knowledge to participate. 5. The participants must be mutually able to participate and communicate. 6. Neither party should feel that its position is threatened by participation. 7. Participation for deciding a course of action in an organization can take place only within the group s area of job freedom. Contingency Factors Several contingency factors influence the success of participative programs that can be found in the environment, the organization, its leadership, the nature of tasks performed, or the employees. 1. Emotional Intelligence: Leader s emotional intelligence, which is a combination of two personal abilities self-awareness and self-management and two social competencies social awareness and relationship management. Emotionally intelligent leaders use their empathy, compassion, optimism, humor, integrity, caring and persuasiveness to build the kind of relationship with employees that ensures them that their talents and inputs will be used effectively for the benefits of all. 2. Differing Employee Needs for Participation: Some employees desire more participation than others. Educated and higher-level workers often seek more participation because they feel more prepared to make useful contributions. And some other employees desire only a minimum of participation and are not upset if they are not actively involved. When employees want more participation than they have, there is underparticipation. In opposite situation, when they have more participation than they want, there is overparticipation.

10 3. Responsibilities of Employees and Managers: A degree to which all employees recognize that the opportunities provided are accompanied by a set of responsibilities. Ideally, all employees would agree to: 1. Be fully responsible for their actions and their consequences. 2. Operate within the relevant organizational policies. 3. Be contributing team members. 4. Respect and seek to use the perspectives of others. 5. Be dependable and ethical in their empowered actions. 6. Demonstrate responsible self-leadership. These responsibilities of employees provide a balance to those of the manager: 1. Identifying the issues to be addressed. 2. Specifying the level of involvement desired. 3. Providing relevant information and training (in advance). 4. Allocating fair rewards. PROGRAMS FOR PARTICIPATION An array of programs, ranging roughly from modest to more substantial in their degree of participation: Suggestion programs, quality circles, total quality management, self-managing teams and employee ownership plans. Suggestion Programs They are formal plans to invite individual employees to recommend work improvements. In most companies, the employee whose suggestion results in a cost savings may receive a monetary award in proportion to the first year s savings. The suggestions are screened for applicability and cost-benefit ratio, resulting in an acceptance rate of about 25% in most organizations. Quality Emphasis: Quality Circles and Total Quality Management 1. Quality Circles: Voluntary groups will receive training in process improvements and problem-solving skills and then meet to produce ideas for improving productivity and working conditions. Quality circles provide opportunities for personal growth, achievement and recognition. To be successful, quality circles should be used according to these guidelines:

11 1. Use them for measureable, short-term problems. 2. Obtain continuous support from top management.\ 3. Apply the group s skills to problems within the circle s work area. 4. Train supervisors in facilitation skills. 5. View quality circles as one starting point for other more participative approaches to be used in the future. 2. Total Quality Management: Some quality-circle groups felt isolated in their efforts, and they could not see their impact on the larger groups. In response to this checkered experience and continued competitive pressures, several firms have initiated a total quality management (TQM). The TQM approach gets every employee involved in the process of searching for continuous improvements in their operations. Quality of product and service becomes a rallying cry for employees to focus on. Self Managing Teams Self-managing team works are natural work groups that are given a large degree of decision-making autonomy; they are expected to control their own behavior and results. A key feature is the diminished role of a manager as the team members learn to acquire new skills. Employee Ownership Plans Employee ownership of a firm emerges when employees provide the capital to purchase control of an existing operation. The stimulus comes from threatened closings of marginally profitable plants where workers see little hope of other employment in a devastated local economy. Employee ownership has been tried in diverse industries, such as plywood, meat packing, steel and furniture manufacturing. This plan appears to offer the highest degree of participative decision making, as employees take control. Better management, heightened morale and improved productivity have all been predicted to follow. IMPORTANT CONSIDERATION IN PARTICIPATION

12 Benefits of Participation 1. Participation typically brings higher output and a better quality of output. 2. Participation tends to improve motivation because employees feel more accepted by their employer and more actively involved in the situation. 3. The results often are reduced stress and conflicts, more commitment to goals and better acceptance of change. 4. Organizational changes can often be implemented more rapidly. 5. Participation establishes better communication as people mutually discuss work problems. Limitations of Participation These are the forces affecting the lesser use of participation: 1. Theory X beliefs by managers. 2. Lack of support from higher levels. 3. Managerial fear of lost: power, status, control 4. Lack of adequate training for managers and employees. 5. Problems encountered in early stages. 6. Substantial efforts needed to implement. Managerial Concerns about Participation Some managers have difficulty adjusting to their new roles in a highinvolvement system. They may fear losing their former stats as key decision makers or they may be concerned they will have less power and control than previously. Managers need to start relinquishing their roles of judge and critic and begin viewing themselves as partners with employees. Their new role invites them to view themselves as stewards (caretakers, guardians and developers) of a broad range of human and technical resources. This stewardship paradigm shifts their emphasis from exclusively direction and control to that of servant leadership, where their challenge is to help others attain relevant goals while developing their skills and abilities. The goal of servant leadership is to help others develop their talents fully, make meaningful contributions and succeed. To accomplish this, servant leaders typically exhibit several key behaviors which they:

13 1. Listen actively and empathetically. 2. Engage in introspection to understand better their own attitudes and feelings. 3. Treat others with respect as equals. 4. Admit mistakes, confess their own vulnerability, and ask for help from others. 5. Seek to engage in dialogue and often paraphrase to ensure understanding. 6. Affirm the worth and contributions of each participant. 7. Build trust by articulating their values and acting consistently with them. 8. Place great emphasis on helping other people succeed. Concluding Thoughts Despite its limitations, participation generally has achieved substantial success and popularity. It is not the answer to all organization problems, but experience does show its general usefulness. Participation has been so successful in practice that it has become widely accepted in more advanced nations and will become an important tool in the progress of developing nations.