Lecturer: Dr. Joana Salifu Yendork, Department of Psychology Contact Information:

Transcription

1 Lecturer: Dr. Joana Salifu Yendork, Department of Psychology Contact Information: College of Education School of Continuing and Distance Education 2014/ /2017

2 Session Overview This session will explore how people choose and develop occupations, as well as the obstacles faced in career. Next, what people do when they are not working will be explored. Lastly, what happen to people when they stop working will be discussed. Slide 2

3 Session Outline The key topics to be covered in the session are as follows: Work Leisure Retirement Slide 3

4 Reading List Read Chapter 12 of Recommended Text Adult development and aging, Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields (2006). Slide 4

5 Topic One WORK Slide 5

6 Why work? Although most people work for money, other reasons are highly variable. They include, prestige, recognition, and a sense of worth Occupational priorities (what people want from their employment) change over time because of changes in cultural values. Younger workers expectations from their occupations are lower and their emphasis on personal growth is higher. Slide 6

7 How does the importance of work change over time? A longitudinal study conducted by American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) documented changes in workers' priorities. The shorter the time a person had been on the job, the lesser their expectations of rewards (and vice versa). However, this was only true for high-level management. Lower-level management showed a decline over time. Slide 7

8 Figure 1: Changes in the relative importance of work at different levels of management in the AT&T study. Slide 8

9 Occupational Choice Decisions people make about occupations may change over time due to life issues, new insights, personal/social clock, age, personality, interests Holland s (1985) theory explains how and why people choose occupations Holland s theory is focused on the idea that people choose occupations that optimize the fit between their individual traits and their occupational interests He categorized occupations in two ways: 1. by the interpersonal settings in which people must function and 2. by their associated lifestyle Identified six work environments/personality types in which individuals can express their vocational personalities Investigative Social Realistic Artistic Conventional Enterprising Slide 9

10 General occupational themes in Holland s theory Slide 10

11 Occupational Development: Super s theory After securing a job comes desire to progress How a person advances in a career depend on professional socialization factors such as expectations, support from coworkers, priorities, and job satisfaction Super (1957, 1980) describes five stages in adulthood, based on changes in self-concept and adaptation to an occupational role Implementation: Begins in late adolescence/early 20s when people take a series of temporary jobs to learn first hand about work roles and try out some possible career choices. Establishment: Begin selecting a specific occupation during young adulthood. It continues as the person advances up the career ladder in the same occupation Maintenance: Transition phase during middle age, as workers maximize their efficiency, they begin to reduce the amount of time they spend fulfilling their roles. Slide 11

12 Occupational Development: Super s theory Deceleration: Begins as workers begin planning upcoming retirement and separating themselves from their work. Retirement: Begins when people stop working full-time The more similar a person s occupational behaviours are with what is expected of them at different ages, the more vocationally mature they are. A shortcoming of Super s theory is that the progression assumes that once people choose an occupation, they stay in it for the rest of their working lives Slide 12

13 Occupational expectations People have expectations about what they want to become and when they hope to get there Through adulthood, career expectations may be modified, change or abandoned Expectations change as the result of: Realizing that one s interests have changed or the dream was not a good fit. Failure on the job But also due to age, race, or sexual discrimination, lack of opportunity, and obsolescence of skills. Slide 13

14 What do people expect from their occupation? Reality Shock: The realization that one s expectations about an occupation are different from the reality one experiences. Reality shock is common among young workers. This happens most to young adults and people with little relevant experience prior to assuming a new job. The outcome of reality shock is often a revision of personal priorities in life. Slide 14

15 Why do workers mentor or need mentoring? A mentor is a co-worker who teaches a new employee the unwritten rules and fosters occupational development. Mentor-protégé relationships develop over time, through stages, like other relationships. Being a mentor helps middle-aged workers achieve generativity. Kram (1985) suggests that a four-stage sequence occurs in mentor-protégé relationships: Initiation: 6-12 months during which the protégé selects a mentor and they begin to develop their relationship Cultivation: from 2 to 5 years; most active phase of mentoring relationship the mentor provides occupational assistance and serve as a confidant. Separation: begins when protégé promotion, often to the level of the mentor. Redefinition: the protégé and mentor re-establish their relationship. Slide 15

16 Job Satisfaction The positive feelings that results from an appraisal of one s work. Job satisfaction tends to show low to moderate increases with age. Older workers report higher job satisfaction than younger workers. This may be partly because of self-selection Unhappy workers may quit Other reasons include intrinsic satisfaction, good fit, lower importance of work, finding non-work diversions, and lifecycle factors. Slide 16

17 Gender differences in occupational choices Proportion of women who work outside the home has been on the increase over the past 4 decades Traditional (teaching, social work etc.) and non-traditional occupations (engineering) Research in this area has focused on three issues: Selection of non-traditional occupations. Selection of non-traditional occupation by women is related to personal feelings and expectations about the occupation (being work-centred). Characteristics of women in non-traditional occupations. Endorsement of feminine gender role associated with poor match between abilities and occupational choice many women have difficulty finding occupations that match their skills Perceptions of non-traditional occupations. Women in non-traditional occupations are viewed more poorly by both men and women. Slide 17

18 Women in the workplace Women in traditional female occupations tend to change jobs less often Women in traditional occupations are more likely to change a job with a lower rank and pay compared to changes made by women in non-traditional occupations. Women who leave well-paid occupations do so for many reasons, including: Family obligations - for women working part-time. Workplace issues - for women working full-time (e.g., unsupportive workplace environment, organizational low opportunities for advancement). Women who continue to work full-time: Have adequate child care. Look for ways to further their occupational development. politics, Slide 18

19 Bias and discrimination as barriers to occupational development Age Discrimination Making employment decisions only on the basis of age or denying employment or promotion if the worker is over the age of 40. Age discrimination occurs in many ways, such as differential layoff patterns and stereotypical views about older workers. Sex discrimination: denying a job to someone solely on the basis of whether the person is a man or a woman Few occupational opportunities exist for women Women are less likely to rise to certain level Sexual harassment: Slide 19

20 Occupational change Factors influencing occupational change include: Dislike Which results in quitting or seeking other employment. Worker obsolescence E.g., technological developments that eliminate jobs. Economic factors which result in layoffs or downsizing E.g., recessions. Slide 20

21 Retraining workers Rapid changes in the nature of work resulting from introduction of new technology, additional responsibilities, or promotion may result in The displacement of older workers This also results in greater career plateauing: When there is a lack of promotional opportunity in an organization or a person chooses not to seek advancement. As such, learning new skills is essential to maximize one s opportunities. To adapt to the effects of the global economy and an aging work force, many companies provide retraining opportunities for workers. Slide 21

22 Dual-earner families Two-parent households in which both partners are involved in paid employment. Dual-earner couples often face challenges with caring for dependents. Unequal division of household labour, with women taking the lion s share of house work The second-shift phenomenon This has significant negative effect, especially for women (e.g., stress, absence from work, poor quality of life). Inter-role conflict results in a clash between competing sets of roles, in this case between work and family responsibilities. Balancing the demands of paid work and caring for dependents can be challenging Excessive demands from work and family results in work-family conflict The feeling of being pulled in multiple directions by incompatible demands from one s job and one s family Slide 22

23 Topic Two LEISURE Slide 23

24 Leisure Activities Leisure is referred to as a discretionary activity, which includes simple relaxation, activities for enjoyment, creative pursuits, and sensual transcendence (Gordon et al., 1976). Four categories are usually used to help organize leisure activities Cultural (e.g., attending events, church services, meetings) Physical (e.g., participation in sports) Social (e.g., visiting friends, attending parties) Solitary (e.g., reading, listening to music, watching TV) Leisure activities can also be considered in terms of the degree of cognitive, emotional, or physical involvement. Preoccupations Ideas and feelings about things one would like to do can become more focused as interests. This can lead to the selection of particular leisure activities Slide 24

25 Why do people engage in leisure? According to Kelly et al. (1986), the following are the reasons why people engage in leisure activities: Companionship in the activity Strengthening primary relationships Competence and skill development Expression and personal development Health and exercise Meeting role expectations General enjoyment Slide 25

26 Developmental changes in leisure Cross-sectional studies show Young adults participate in a greater range of activities than middleaged adults do Young adults tend to prefer intense leisure activities, such as scuba diving and hang gliding. In contrast, middle-aged adults focus more on home- and family-oriented activities Later middle age, they spend less of their leisure time in strenuous physical activities and more in sedentary activities such as reading and watching television. Older adults narrow the range of activities and lower their intensity even further Longitudinal research shows that leisure preferences in adulthood reflect those in earlier life. However, as people grow older, they tend to engage in leisure activities that are less strenuous and more family-oriented. Slide 26

27 Why is leisure important? Leisure activities promote well-being and can enhance all aspects of people s lives. What matters is the amount of satisfaction one derives from leisure activities, not the level of participation. Leisure does enhance psychological well-being, and is a crucial factor in life satisfaction in early retirement. Slide 27

28 Topic Three RETIREMENT Slide 28

29 What does it mean to be retired? Retirement is largely a development of the 20 th century, and is still an evolving concept. What does being retired mean? The way in which people withdraw from full-time employment. Changing conceptions of work are resulting in changing conceptions of retirement. Retirement can be crisp or blurred. Crisp - making a clean break from employment by stopping work entirely. Blurred - repeatedly leaving and returning to work, with some periods of unemployment. Slide 29

30 Why do people retire? Retirement by choice: most people retire because they choose to Some people are forced to retire because of financial status or serious health problems. Health: The most important factor in determining early retirement and satisfaction. Gender differences A married woman's decision to retire is predicted most by her husband s health status or number of dependents, the opposite is true for men. Slide 30

31 Planning for retirement Financial planning and realistic expectations toward retirement are important predictors of future satisfaction. People who plan for retirement tend to be more successful in adapting to this major life change. Preparation is an important element in successful retirement Preparation can be conscious or unconscious planning, informal or formal steps Pre-retirement education programs cover a variety of topics, including finances, attitudes, health, and expectations. Slide 31

32 Adjusting to retirement Retirement is an important life transition and can be stressful. However, the degree of stress is related to attitudes toward retirement and whether retirement is voluntary. Most people are satisfied with their retirement, as long as people: Have financial security. Have their health. Have a supportive network of relatives and friends Have good community ties Slide 32

33 Adjusting to retirement High satisfaction in early retirement includes For men Being in good health Having enough income Having retired voluntarily For women No one role was associated with satisfaction For both men and women, high personal competence was associated with higher retirement satisfaction over the long run. Slide 33

34 Sample Questions How do people view work? How do occupational priorities vary with age? How do people choose their occupations? What factors influence occupational development? What expectations do people have about occupations? What role do mentors play in occupational development? What factors influence job satisfaction? What causes alienation and burnout? Slide 34

35 References Slide 35