A Structural Equation Modeling to Understand the Moderating Effect of Correlates on Structural and Process Determinants

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1 A Structural Equation Modeling to Understand the Moderating Effect of Correlates on Structural and Kirti Arekar K.J. Somaiya Institute of Management Studies & Research Bharthi Desphande Kohinoor Institute of Management Prem Sherin Ambuja Cement Kim, Price Mueller & Watson (996) Price and Mueller s Model is comprehensive employee turnover model which captures 36 degree view of the determinants of employee turnover. Its comprises of Individual determinants, Structural determinants, Environmental determinants, Process variables and correlates. In this paper, initially we studied the impact of age, salary and marital status of the correlates on structural and process determinants and further we consider studying the moderating effect of eight variables of structural and two variables of process determinants in Indian context by using Structural equation modeling. Keywords: Structural determinants, process determinants, Job satisfaction, organization commitment, autonomy and job stress.. Introduction One of the biggest challenges for the human resource professional is to retain its employees. Employee turnover has grown in complexity and many new theories and concepts have evolved over a period of time, beginning from March & Simon (958) believed that under nearly all condition the most accurate single predictor of labour turnover is the state of economy (March & Simon, 958. P. ; om & griffeth, 995, P.53) they also believed enticement provided through employer can influence an employee job satisfaction and the desire to remain with the present employer as turnover theory and practice progressed. Price 977 links structural or organizational determinants to the turnover process. e suggested that employees will develop activities to enhance job satisfaction rather than be dissatisfied, because employees are more likely to stay on the job when job satisfaction outweighs dissatisfaction. Structural determinants play a vital role in creating job Satisfaction and organizational commitment in the employees. The author would like to study few co relates such as Age, Cost to Company, Marital Status, Number of companies worked for, Years of Experience and Number of years in the same company and understand the Impact of the same on the structural determinants and process variables. In these paper intents to study the moderating effect of six correlates on structural and process determinants in Indian context. 2. Literature Review Employee turnover from organization is a very serious issue and costly for the organizations to search, select, train and replace leavers (Mobley, 982; Price 977; Staw, 98). When an low or average performers leave the organization it doesn t create much of impact whereas turnover of high performers, especially those managers and professionals is negatively related to overall organizational effectiveness and firm success ( holtom, Mitchell, Lee, & Inderrieden, 25; Mitchell, oltom, Lee, Sablynski, & Erez, 2). owever the literature review and analysis of the causes of the effect of employee turnover is quite limited, most of the research on employee turnover over the past focuses on understanding and explaining employee turnover at the individual levels ( Griffeth, om & Gaertner, 2; om & Griffeth, 2; om & griffeth, 995; Mowday, Porter & steers, 982; Peterson 24). Barrick & Zimmerman (25) searched 5 studies in the past 5 years on employee turnover. Most of the studies focused on understanding the reasons of employee departure. Only few studies focused on what the employer should do hold people back otherwise increase stickiness to the organization. Terborg and Lee (984) was the first one to stress that without the study of organizational determinants the concepts of employee turnover would reduce the understanding and also questioned the existence of homology between functional relations found at the individual level of analysis and those that might exist at the organizational level of analysis. Among the most frequent causes of turnover in the European context is the status of the employees in the organization. Turnover is negatively related & commitment positively related to Age, Seniority (tenure), Skill, Job prestige, Earnings, and chances of promotion. Women have higher turnover than men. Other determinants, which may themselves be a result of status of status in the organization, are job satisfaction, job challenge, Job achievement and cohesiveness with fellow employees these are again negatively related to turnover and positively related to commitment to the organization (Kerr 947; Smith and Kerr, 953; Silcock, 954; erzberg et al., 957; edberg 96; all and Schneider, 972; rebiniak and Alutto, 972; Buchanan, 974;). Although the relationship between pay and employee turnover has generated a tremendous amount of interest and research over the years but not been able to produce much interest in this area as most of the researchers have downplayed the importance of pay to the turnover. om & Griffeth (995) maintain that although both employers and employee perceive pay as playing a central role in turnover. Prevailing Motivational theories have tended to emphasize intrinsic motivation, maintaining that lower needs are less 5

2 important in modern society (brief & Aldag, 989). Research in the management literature has generally underscored the limited role of pay, with findings indicating only modest associations between compensation and employee departure. Age has been found positively correlated with what was defined as commitment but it s effect on structural determinants and individual determinants are not clearly mentioned ( ackett et al., 994; rebiniak and Alutto, 972, Meyer allen and Smith 993). With the Indian economy growing the rate of employment has seen a tremendous upward moment. The expansion of boundaries and the credible usage of internet heightened the demands for highly skilled managers and professionals. An opinion poll from the R professionals from various countries shows an unanimous view that the rampant Job hopping has become a culture (Khatr, chong, & Budhwar, 2: 54) A number of earlier studies suggest that the length of service in a job could be used to estimate the levels of job satisfaction of workers. The assumption is that the less satisfied workers tend to resign while the more satisfied ones tend to remain in a job. Consistent with this thinking, a negative relationship between job satisfaction and turnover has been reported by several researchers (Atchinson and Lefferts, 975; Karp et al., 973; Locke, 976; Mobley et al., 979). This situation should result in a higher average level of satisfaction being reported by employees, whose length of service in an organization is longer, Relationship of structural determinants and organizational commitment as suggested by Price & Mueller (996) Model The structural determinants under study have been taken from Kim, Price Mueller & Watson (996) Price and Mueller model. In this model Kim differentiated three different types of determinants named as Individual determinants, structural determinants, Environmental determinants, which in turn affects Process variable and correlates influences the determinants. The author in this study would like to understand the moderating effects of correlates ( Age, Cost to Company, and Marital Status ) A brief definition of Structural determinants, Process variable and correlates are mentioned below: : Structural determinants are also termed as organizational determinants the factors which are under the control of the organization (Mueller and price 99) defined Structural determinants of employee s turnover as relationship of structural attributes of the work environment as well as pattern of social relations within the work environment Such structural determinants find their roots in internal causes such as characteristics of the work performed, the reward system, the promotion system, and the interaction of organizational members,there are eight determinants of structural determinants which are as follows Autonomy, Distributive justice, Job stress, Pay, professional growth, promotional chances, Routinization and social support Autonomy: Autonomy is one of the most important determinants which influences turnover. Autonomy plays a major and important role from the employee growth and development. Autonomy also increases the risk taking ability of the person. Price and Mueller (98) & (986) defined autonomy as Degree to which an employee exercises power relative to his/her job, and found negatively related to turnover through job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Distributive Justice: Distributive Justice is the perception of the employees towards the organization. It covers all the aspects such as promotion, rewards, salary hikes, fringe benefits etc. It is also a comparison of the employees with respect to other employees in the system. Price & Mueller (986) & Mueller et. Al (994) define distributive justice as Degree to which rewards and punishments are related to the amount of an employee s input into the organization and they also found that distributive justice is negatively related to turnover through job satisfaction and organizational commitment Job Stress: Job stress is one of the critical determinants to be studied. The most important point to be noted is does the employee has the sufficient skill sets to execute the job or Is the organization expecting more from the employee than his ability and there by unable to fulfill the job duties and responsibility. The basic definition of Job stress is Extend to which job duties cannot be fulfilled. Job stress is positively related to turnover via job satisfaction and organizational commitment Price & Mueller (98) (986) & Mueller et al (994). Pay: With the Indian economy in a vibrant state there is a demand and supply mismatch of the professionals. Many instances are quoted in the literature about job hopping. Literature review has shown that Pay has been neglected and distributive 52

3 justice has been given more importance. The definition of pay is the money and its equivalent which employees receive for their services to the employer. Price and Mueller (99) argue that distributive justice rather than pay affects an employee s attitudes and ultimately turnover. Professional Growth: ow do employees see him in a defined span of time? Is there enough growth opportunity (March and Simon 958) argued that if the organization is large enough then the employees would continue to stay. Definition of professional growth is Chances provided by the employer to increase job-related knowledge and skills however Kim et al (996) found negative relationship to turnover to via job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Promotional chances: The employee s perception about the career growth in the organization. ow fast the employee can grow in the organization. Promotional chances are defined as Degree of potential vertical occupational mobility within an organization. Price & Mueller (98),Price & Mueller (986), Kim et al. (996) found negative relationship to turnover via job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Routinization: Repetitive jobs coupled with good educational background can increase the chance of employee quitting the job. Organizations normally hire over qualified personnel for doing repetitive work Mueller et al (994), Kim et al. (996) found that Routinization is positively related to turnover via job satisfaction and organizational commitment Social Support: Social support has three aspects, social support from coworkers, family & Supervisor. All the three support are very important from the employee point of view. If the employee is deprived from assistance on job related problem then it acts as a catalyst for quitting. Mueller et al (994), Kim et al. (996) found that social support is negatively related to turnover via job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Process variables: Process variable are the intermediary linkages between turnover and the structural, environmental, and individual determinants of turnover. There are primarily two, Job satisfaction and organizational commitment. Job satisfaction is defined as degree to which employees have a positive affective orientation towards employment by the organization (Price 997) & Organizational commitment is defined as loyalty by the organization (Price 997). These two variables are viewed as an essential component of turnover models because their empirical relationship with voluntary turnover has been firmly established through numerous Meta- Analyses (e.g., Cohen, 993; Cohen & udecek, 993; Cotton & Tuttle, 986; om & Griffeth, 995; om, Caranikas- Walker, Prussia & griffeth, 992; Steel & Ovalle, 984; Tett & meyer, 993). 3. Objective of the Study. Impact of age on Structural and Process determinants. 2. Impact of salary on Structural and Process determinants. 3. Impact of marital status on Structural and Process determinants. 4. Moderating effect of six correlates on structural and process determinants. 4. Research Methodolgy Descriptive and inferential research was conducted with the help of structured questionnaire. Employees from different industry were collected. Questions were framed using likert scale (five and seven point). The data is collected from binary solution. Binary solutions are the biggest distribution of Dell, p and Lenovo in India. Also they have a back office for client s servicing. The Survey sampled is basically customer touch point employees. The data was collected from the 386 employees. 5. Data Anlaysis and Findings (I) Impact of age on Structural and (A) - : Age is independent of all the variables of Structural determinants : Age is dependent of all the variables of Structural determinants Table Variables P-value Decisions ( α=.25) Autonomy. P < α ; reject Distributive Justice. P < α ; reject Job Stress. P < α ; reject Professional Growth. P < α ; reject Promotional Chances. P < α ; reject Routinization. P < α ; reject Social Support. P < α ; reject 53

4 From the above table, we concluded that at 95% level of significance the null hypothesis rejected for all the factors of structural determinants so alternative hypothesis accepted, it means age is dependent of all the variables of Structural determinants. So further we have to find out which age group perception was more or less for that we will use descriptive statistics. Table 2 Descriptive Statistics Variables Age Group Mean Younger Older Autonomy Distributive Justice Job Stress Professional Growth Promotional Chances Routinization Social Support From the above table, we concluded that the employees of older age group are having negative perception for the variables of structural determinants like autonomy, distributive justice, job stress, promotional growth, routinization and social support as compared to the younger age group. (B) : Age is independent of all the variables of process determinants : Age is dependent of all the variables of process determinants Variables Table 3 P-value Decisions ( α=.25) Job Satisfaction. P < α ; reject Organization Commitment. P < α ; reject From the above table, we concluded that at 95% level of significance the null hypothesis rejected for all the factors of process determinants so alternative hypothesis accepted, it means age is dependent of all the variables of process determinants. So further we have to find out which age group perception was more or less for that we will use descriptive statistics. Table 4 Variables Mean Age Group Younger Older Job Satisfaction Organization Commitment From the above table, we concluded that the employees of older age group are towards negative perception for the variables of process determinants like job satisfaction and organization commitment. Thus, we can conclude that the younger age group employees are more satisfied with their jobs and they are more committed towards the organization. (II) Impact of salary on Structural and (A) : Income of employee is independent of all the variables of Structural determinants : Income of employee is dependent of all the variables of Structural determinants 54

5 Variables Table 5 P-value Decisions ( α=.25) Autonomy. P < α ; reject Distributive Justice.2 P < α ; reject Job Stress. P < α ; reject Professional Growth.6 P > α ; accept Promotional Chances. P < α ; reject Routinization.2 P < α ; reject Social Support. P < α ; reject From the above table, we concluded that at 95% level of significance the null hypothesis rejected for all the factors except professional growth of structural determinants so alternative hypothesis accepted, it means salary of the employee is dependent of all the variables of Structural determinants except professional growth. So further we have to find out which group perception was more or less for that we will use two sample tests. Two-Sample Test For the two sample test initially we have to take two groups together in total there are three groups together i.e. high salary, medium salary and low salary group. At first level we will consider the two groups i.e. high and medium salary group. Next we will take other two groups i.e. high and low income group and finally it were medium and low income group. igh and Medium Income Group : There is no significance difference between the perception of high and medium income group for all the factors of structural determinants : There is significance difference between the perception of high and medium income group for all the factors of structural determinants Table 6 Variables P-value Decisions Autonomy. P < α ; reject Distributive Justice. P < α ; reject Job Stress. P < α ; reject Promotional Chances. P < α ; reject Routinization. P < α ; reject Social Support.3 P < α ; reject From the above table, we concluded that there is significance difference between the perception of high and medium income group for all the factors of structural determinants, so further we have to identify group perception is more or less for that we will use the descriptive statistics. Table 7 Variables Mean Income Group igh Medium Autonomy Distributive Justice Job Stress Promotional Chances Routinization Social Support From the above table, it is observed that the high income group perception was more positive as compared to medium income group for all the variables except professional growth. 55

6 igh and Low Income Group : There is no significance difference between the perceptions of high and low income group for all the factors of structural determinants : There is significance difference between the perceptions of high and low income group for all the factors of structural determinants Table 8 Variables P-value Decisions Autonomy.55 P > α ; accept Distributive Justice.882 P > α ; accept Job Stress.566 P > α ; accept Promotional Chances.649 P > α ; accept Routinization.887 P > α ; accept Social Support.882 P > α ; accept From the above table, we concluded that there is no significance difference between the perception of high and low income group for all the factors of structural determinants, so we concluded that the perceptions of high and low income groups for all the variables of structural variables is same. Medium and Low Income Group : There is no significance difference between the perception of medium and low income group for all the factors of structural determinants : There is significance difference between the perception of medium and low income group for all the factors of structural determinants. Table 9 Variables P-value Decisions Autonomy.543 P > α ; accept Distributive Justice.774 P > α ; accept Job Stress.564 P > α ; accept Promotional Chances.446 P > α ; accept Routinization.232 P > α ; accept Social Support.344 P > α ; accept From the above table, we concluded that there is no significance difference between the perception of medium and low income group for all the factors of structural determinants, so we concluded that the perceptions of medium and low income groups for all the variables of structural variables is same. Finally, we can say that there is the major perception difference between employees of high and medium income group s for all the factors of structural determinants. (B) : Income is independent of all the variables of process determinants : Income is dependent of all the variables of process determinants Table Variables P-value Decisions ( α=.25) Job Satisfaction.3 P < α ; reject Organization Commitment. P < α ; reject From the above table, we concluded that at 95% level of significance the null hypothesis rejected for all the factors of process determinants so alternative hypothesis accepted, it means income is dependent of all the variables of process 56

7 determinants. So further we have to find out which age group perception was more or less for that we will use descriptive statistics. Table Variables Income Group Mean igh Medium Low Job Satisfaction Organization Commitment From the above table, we concluded that the employees of lower income group are having adverse perception for the variables of process determinants like job satisfaction and organization commitment as compared to medium and high income group. So, the organization should concentrate on lower income group. (III) Impact of marital status on Structural and (A) : Marital status of employee is independent of all the variables of Structural determinants : Marital status of employee is dependent of all the variables of Structural determinants Table 2 Variables P-value Decisions ( α=.25) Autonomy. P < α ; reject Distributive Justice.2 P < α ; reject Job Stress. P < α ; reject Professional Growth.67 P > α ; accept Promotional Chances.3 P < α ; reject Routinization. P < α ; reject Social Support.2 P < α ; reject From the above table, we concluded that at 95% level of significance the null hypothesis rejected for all the factors except professional growth of structural determinants so alternative hypothesis accepted, it means marital status of the employee is dependent of all the variables of Structural determinants except professional growth, so we can conclude that the married and unmarried group perception was same for the professional growth. So further we have to find out which group perception was more or less for that we will use descriptive statistics for remaining factors. Table 3 Variables Mean Marital status Married Unmarried Autonomy Distributive Justice Job Stress Promotional Chances Routinization Social Support From the above table, we concluded that the employees of married status group are having more positive perception for the factors like autonomy, job stress, promotional chances, Routinization and social support where as for distributive justice is more in unmarried status group. 57

8 : Marital Status is independent of all the variables of process determinants : Marital Status is dependent of all the variables of process determinants Table 4 Variables P-value Decisions ( α=.25) Job Satisfaction. P < α ; reject Organization Commitment. P < α ; reject From the above table, we concluded that at 95% level of significance the null hypothesis rejected for all the factors of process determinants so alternative hypothesis accepted, it means marital status is dependent of all the variables of process determinants. So further we have to find out which age group perception was more or less for that we will use descriptive statistics. Table 5 Variables Mean Marital status Married Unmarried Job Satisfaction Organization Commitment From the above table, it is observed that the in marries status group the perception of job satisfaction and organization commitment is more as compared to the married status group. So we can conclude that the married employees are more satisfied with their job and there are more committed towards their organization. (iv) Moderating Impact of the Variables a) Model Evaluation or Testing CFA model can be evaluated on basis of two major aspects (air et. al 998):. Overall goodness of fit. 2. The interpretability, size and statistical significance of the model parameter estimates. The model is shown in figure below Absolute Fit measures: It provided the most basic assessment of how well a researcher's theory fits the sample data. They do not explicitly compare the goodness of fit (GOF) of a specified model to any other model. The limitation of general goodness of fit can be overcome with help of absolute fit measures which includes RMR, RMSEA and GFI. RMR is Root Mean Residuals, the average of the residuals between individual observed and estimated covariance and variance terms. If the value is <.8 the model is better (air et. al 998). owever, values as high as.8 are deemed acceptable (u and Bentler, 999). RMSEA is Root Mean Square Error of Approximation, which measures attempts to correct for tendency of the chi square, RMSEA is less than <.7 indicate the model is absolutely fit (air et. al 998). Goodness of fit index (GFI), the possible range of GFI value is.95, which indicate better fit (air et. al 998). Incremental Fit Indices: It assesses how well specified model fits relative to some alternative baseline model. Normed Fit Index (NFI) is one of the original incremental fit indices. The value.95 indicates the better fit (air et. al 998). 58

9 Comparative Fit Index (CFI) is an incremental fit index that is the improved version of the normed fit index (NFI). The value.95 indicates the better fit (air et. al 998). Results of the Model Table 6 Overall Selected Fit Indices Overall selected fit indices Fit Measures Proposed SEM Model Comments RMR.6 RMR <.8; Model fit RMSEA.5 RMSEA <.7; Model fit GFI.95 GFI.95; Model fit NFI.78 NFI.95; Model fit CFI.9 CFI.95; Model fit air, et. al. 998 argued that there was not yet consensus among scholars regarding the standard of the goodness of fit test. Thus he suggested researchers can pick any one or two indices to evaluate the goodness of fit towards the model. In this research, overall the results showed significant values of goodness of fit to accept the proposed model. b) Structural Equation Modeling Estimates The structural equation model was estimated using the Maximum Likelihood estimation (MLE) procedure. SPSS AMOS was used to estimate the relationship between the exogenous and endogenous constructs in this research. The following hypothesis was examined: Null ypothesis: The overall model has a good fit. Alternative ypothesis: The overall model does not have the good fit. MLE estimation is done to know the goodness of fit test, the given below output is obtained after various iteration procedure. Table 7 Goodness of Fit Test Chi-Square Sig. df Table 7 showed the Goodness of fit test which indicates Chi Square (χ2) value is 96; and sig. value is.468. ence lower the chi square value, better the model, sig. value is >.5, i.e.468, test cannot reject null hypothesis. In other words, test showed the model is fit for the data. The critical ratio is calculated as Chi square value divided by degree of freedom (χ2/df). For our model the critical ratio value is (96/2 = 4.57) which is less than 5. The values of the fit indices indicate a reasonable fit of the measurement model with data (Byrne, 2, pp ). The model fit the data perfectly, since the estimation of this model required precisely al degree of freedom that was available. The completely standardized parameter estimates of this model are shown in the table 8, 9 and 2. Table 8 Completely Standardized Parameters Estimates for Model Completely Standardized Parameters estimates for Model Independent Variables Job Satisfaction Organization Commitment Autonomy Distributive Justice Job Stress.3.47 Promotional Chances Routinization Social Support.4.74 Professional Growth Table 9 Completely Standardized Significance Parameters for Variable Job Satisfaction Completely Standardized significance Parameters for variable Job satisfaction Independent Variables t Value p Value Autonomy Job Satisfaction Distributive Justice Job Satisfaction 5.8. Job Stress Job Satisfaction 5.9. Promotional Chances Job Satisfaction Routinization Job Satisfaction Social Support Job Satisfaction.3. 59

10 Professional Growth Job Satisfaction Table 2 Completely Standardized Significance Parameters for Variable Organization Commitment Completely Standardized significance Parameters for variable Organization Commitment Independent Variables t Value p Value Autonomy Organization Commitment 3.3. Distributive Justice Organization Commitment 3.3. Job Stress Organization Commitment 7.7. Promotional Chances Organization Commitment Routinization Organization Commitment Social Support Organization Commitment Professional Growth Organization Commitment Table 2 Completely Standardized Parameters Estimates and Completely Standardized Parameters for the Moderating Effect of Job Satisfaction and Organization Commitment Variables Model Estimates Estimates t value & p value Job Satisfaction Organization Commitment ,. The above table shows the standard regression weights of the latent variables manifesting the construct overall job satisfaction and organization commitment. These regression weights represent the degree of association between the construct and the manifesting variables. For example, if overall job satisfaction increases by standard deviation, the standard deviation of autonomy, Distributive Justice, Job Stress, Promotional Chances, Routinization, Social Support and Professional Growth would have increased by.42,.39,.3,.34,.25,.4 and.3 respectively. Similarly, if organization commitment increases by standard deviation, the standard deviation of autonomy, Distributive Justice, Job Stress, Promotional Chances, Routinization, Social Support and Professional Growth would have increased by.22,.22,.47,-.4,.53,.74 and -45 respectively. And, job satisfaction level increases by standard deviation, the organization commitment increases by.839. Critical ratio is similar to t values in conventional statistics which is calculated by regression weights divided by standard error, the value.96 or more than 2 considered as significant. Out of 7 variables with job satisfaction 6 variables are significant at <. level and with organization commitment 5 variables are significant at <. level.which showed the relation between variables and their sub variables concerned are statistically significant. Both the variables job satisfaction and organization commitment are statistically significant. 6. Conclusions & Recommendations Employees of older age group having the negative perception for the attributes like autonomy, distributive justice, job stress, promotional chances, Routinization and social support as compared to the younger age group, so the employees for older age group are not satisfied with their jobs and they are not committed to the organization. So, the organization can give them the power to take the decision and there should be some different rewards and incentives for their achievements. Income of the employee is dependent of all the variables of Structural determinants except professional growth. So we can conclude the chances provided by the employer to increase job-related knowledge and skill for the different income groups i.e. lower, medium and higher are same. For the attributes autonomy, distributive justice, job stress, promotional chances, Routinization and social support the perception of higher income is positive as compared to the medium income group. So the higher income groups are more satisfied with their job and they are more committed towards the organization, so the organization should concentrate the lower income group s employees. The employees of married status group are having more positive perception for the factors like autonomy, job stress, promotional chances, Routinization and social support where as for distributive justice is more in unmarried status group. So we can conclude that the married employees are more satisfied with their job and there are more committed towards their organization, so the organization should support the unmarried employees group. There is the significant relationship between the variables i.e. Autonomy followed by distributive justice, promotional chances, job stress Routinization and social support of structural determinates on process variable i.e. job satisfaction. There 5

11 is no significant relationship between the variable professional growth with the job satisfaction it means employees feels that if the organization will not provide opportunity for professional growth then they will not satisfied with their jobs. And, finally there is the significant relationship between the variables i.e. Autonomy followed by distributive justice, job stress Routinization and social support of structural determinates on process variable i.e. Organization commitment. There is no significant relationship between the variable professional growth and promotional chances with Organization commitment it means employees feels that if the organization will not provide opportunity for professional growth and if they were no chances of promotion available in the organization then they were not committed towards the organization. 7. References. Allen, D., shore, L., & griffeth, R.W.23 - The role of perceived organizational support and supportive human resource practices in the turnover process. Journal of Management. 2. Barrick, M.R., & Zimmerman, R.D.25 - Reducing voluntary avoidable turnover through selection. Journal of applied psychology 3. Budhwar, P.24. Managing human resources in Asia- Pacific. London : Routledge 4. om, P.W., & Griffeth, R.W Employee turnover. Cincinnati: South/Western 5. otlem, B.C.,Mitchell, T. R., Lee, T.W., & Inderrieden, E.J Shocks as causes of turnover: What they are and ow organizations can manage them. uman resource management, 44(3): James P Guthrie - Alternative pay practices and employee turnover: An organization economics perspective. Group and organization management; Dec 2; 25, 4; ABI/ Inform global, pg Mobley, W Intermediate linkages in the relationship between job satisfaction and employee turnover. Journal of applied psychology, 62: Mobley, W Employee turnover: causes, consequences and control: Reading; Addison-Wesley. 9. Price J.L The study of turnover. Ames: Iowa state university press. Stefan Gaertner - Structural determinants of Job satisfaction and Organizational commitment in turnover models: uman resource management review, Volume 9, Number 4, 999, pages