INFORMATION MANAGEMENT AND THE ROLE OF INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE MANAGERS: MANAGERS PERCEPTION

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1 INFORMATION MANAGEMENT AND THE ROLE OF INFORMATION AND KNOWLEDGE MANAGERS: MANAGERS PERCEPTION Ahmad Momeni Rad (Ph.D.) Department of Law, Sharif university of Technology, Tehran, Iran Gholamreza Shams (Ph.D.) Department of education, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran Behzad Naderi Research Scholar in Education, Dept. of Education, Suren University Abstract A study conducted to investigate the progression of information and knowledge Management (KM) within the business organizations in Iran from the managers point of view is reported in this paper. Among the objectives set are to identify the information requirements of managers, to identify the need for effective information management (IM) and information managers, and to identify the role and skill requirements of information and knowledge managers in the organizations. Using survey questionnaires and interviews, the findings provided rich and meaningful information about information requirements of managers and their overall perception of information and KM. The findings also revealed the important roles of information and knowledge managers and their desired competencies as perceived by the managers. Positive perception towards the establishment of a one-stop resource center or library was also reported. Overall, the findings may assist in the initial stage of effective IM and KM strategy by organizations, and in the development of curriculum for the IM program and the related management fields. Keywords: Information needs of managers, The roles of information managers, Information and knowledge management, Effective information management ١. INTRODUCTION Information is important to any organization. Good and quality information can improve decisionmaking, enhance efficiency and allow organizations to gain competitive advantages. Many organizations are continuously looking for solutions to effectively seek and handle information within their internal and external environments. Business sectors also need information and effective means of managing information in order to assess their strengths and weaknesses. Porter and Miller [ ٩] reported that one of the most important elements in competitive advantage is information. Some information are critical enough that it is crucial for organizations to identify and manage them using various means and tools from both knowledge management (KM) and information management (IM) approaches [ ٣]. IM has been identified as an important area in which its contribution can ensure organizational success and effectiveness. At present, the concept of KM has also been introduced as part of the important component for successful business operations and organizations. In this report, the authors will regularly refer to the concept of IM, although the concept may include both IM and KM due to their commonality in the concept when it comes to managing tacit knowledge or information [ ]. According to Lueg [١], knowledge and IM share similar concepts, which involve the collection and dissemination of information and knowledge to the benefit of an organization and its individuals. They not only dispose of similar tools and goals but are also based on similar methods and face similar problem. According to Wilson [٣٩], IM refers to planning, organizing, directing and controlling information within an open system, and the use of technology and techniques for effective management of information and knowledge resources and assets within the organizational internal and external environment to gain competitive advantage and to improve performance. On the other hand, IM has also been equated with the management of information and knowledge resources, the management of Proceedings of EDULEARN09 Conference. 6th-8th July 2009, Barcelona, Spain ISBN: ١

2 information tools and technologies, or the management of information policies and standards [١۴]. Section ١ ١ further elaborates the existing concepts of IM as approached by various literature and organizations, and how the concept is relevant in the context of this study. In its early stage, IM also involves the assessment of information needs and requirements within the organization [ ١]. Understanding their information needs and requirements would be a significant step in developing information and KM strategy and tools for providing effective information services and promoting organizational wide creativity and innovation. In addition, advances in information and communication technology (ICT) may have imposed immense challenge for managers to handle the existing overly loaded information. This is due to the decrease ability of managers in getting the relevant, timely, and accurate information, and in managing information and knowledge flows for future utilizations and developments. Many organizations seek to resolve this issue through some computer tools, which can perform the function of sorting, comparing, or visualizing the data quite well. However, these tools can be rather limited when applied to the processing of information that requires human cognition and interpretation. Some organizations may resolve these overly loaded information problems by establishing a knowledge repository such as corporate resource center or information service department as a onestop center to provide integrated information resources and environment that can be shared organization wide. The center may be equipped with the facilities, infrastructures, information system (hardware and software), and qualified information or knowledge professionals. Though not many organizations can afford to have a centralized knowledge repository, they may also consider hiring information professional or a knowledge manager to internally assist top managements perform their managerial tasks and facilitate knowledge sharing and information gathering within the organizations. Subsequently, effective IM will involve the identification of information or knowledge managers with relevant skills and qualifications who can play important roles in fulfilling broad and specific information needs within the organizations, as well as identifying the right tools in facilitating effective group work collaboration, information flow and control. From another perspective, IM is mainly seen by many as a mean of deploying new technology solutions, such as content or document management systems, data warehousing or portal applications in order to provide an integrated IM environment [ ٣١]. It encompasses all the systems and processes within an organization for the creation and use of corporate information. This perspective, according to Lueg [١], is rather rationalistic and may face the problem of constructing a concise description of a user s information needs, and the use of inappropriate tools for IM. Evidently, it is important that we understand the concept of IM and the practice of IM as perceived and applied in organizations, particularly in the Iranian context. This paper aims to report a study conducted to investigate the perceptions of managers on information and KM in the organization. The study also includes the investigation of their information behavior (in terms of what, where and how information is gathered), and their perceived needs, roles and skills of information or knowledge professionals in order to effectively manage and handle information in their organizations. Accordingly, this study attempts to achieve the following objectives: to identify the information needs and requirements of managers; to identify the needs for information managers and their perceived roles, skills and qualifications; and to investigate the general perceptions of managers on IM and the need for effective IM. ١ ١. What is information management (IM)? Besides Wilson s [٣٩], the definitions of IM can be found given by many, which include individual researchers, government agencies and organizations. One short example given by a government agency is, "the planning, budgeting, manipulating, and controlling of information throughout its life cycle," by US Government Accountability Office ( According to Computer Desktop Encyclopedia ( ٠٠۶) IM is a discipline that analyzes information as an organizational resource. It covers the definitions, uses, value and distribution of all data and information within an organization whether processed by computer or not. It evaluates the kinds of data/information an organization requires in order to function and progress effectively. The functions of IM are commonly associated with managing the information assets of an enterprise, typically a corporation or government organization. Increasingly, companies are taking the view that information is an asset of the enterprise in much the same way that a company s financial resources, capital equipment, and real estate are assets (Science and Technology Encyclopedia, ٠٠۶). Properly employed, assets create additional value with a measurable return on investment. Forward-looking companies carry this view a step further, considering information as a strategic asset that can be leveraged into a competitive advantage in the markets served by the company

3 Though we can find some common meaning in the definition of IM, the application of its concepts are found to be diversely interpreted in different fields such LIS, information system, management, etc. It is also possible that the concept has evolved to KM for reasons continuously debated due to the changing nature of organizational issues involving people, information knowledge, and IT development [ ٣٣]. Effectiveness in either IM or KM is seen as necessary in ensuring organizational continuous survival and competence in the face of increasingly continuous environmental change. The diversity in the interpretation and application of IM may also be seen in the scope of the IM function, which may vary between organizations (Science and Technology Encyclopedia, ٠٠۶). As a minimum, it will usually include the origination or acquisition of data, its storage in databases, its manipulation or processing to produce new (value-added) data and reports via application programs, and the transmission (communication) of the data or resulting reports. Many companies include the management of voice communications (telephone systems, voice messaging, and, increasingly, computer-telephony integration or CTI), and even intellectual property and other knowledge assets. While the technical solution has been commonly perceived among the managers as important for effective IM, the real issues may involve people who are managing and using the information. According to Robertson [٣١], the real issue is getting the right information to the right person at the right time and in a usable form. In this sense, information may be a perishable commodity. Thus, perhaps the most critical issue facing information managers is requirements definition, or aligning the focus of the information systems with the mission of the enterprise. The best technical solution is of little value if the final product fails to meet the needs of users. Hence, it is within the scope of this study to understand what managers perceive in relation to what is important in the context of IM, what is happening in their respective organizations, and what do they need as the users of information. ١. IM and information requirements of managers IM seeks to efficiently and effectively exploit the data, information and knowledge resources available in the organization. It ensures that all the data and information needed by the organizations are collected and processed efficiently and effectively into information and knowledge useful to the organization. IM also supports decision-making through efficient access to accurate and relevant information. Other benefits of IM also involve continuous improvement in the quality of information, improvement in information and knowledge organization and retrieval through the use of appropriate technology, effective organization of corporate memory, improvement in information and knowledge sharing, and enhancement in organizational learning as staff are able to share the knowledge and learn from experts and others [ ٣٧]. According to Robertson [٣١], organizations continue to improve IM practice due to the need to improve the efficiency of business processes, the demands of compliance regulations and the desire to deliver new services. One important measure for effective IM would be, assessing how people within the organization behave when performing activities that require the use and access to information. Information-rich activities are more likely those that are performed at the managerial levels, which tasks would determine the organizational future course of actions. Actions taken from various managerial activities would in the end result in how an organization performs in relation to its competitors. Therefore, understanding the information seeking behavior of managers, for instance, would be one important area which research should explore in order to achieve effective information and knowledge flow within the organization. Managers or top management officers in the business organizations regularly seek information to perform various managerial tasks [ ١]. They regularly use various types of information resources such as printed materials (i.e. reports, journals, and newspapers); Internet, online databases and various other sources supported by ICT. They also gather information on various aspects such as customers, competitors, market fluctuations, government regulations, reports, etc. within their internal and external environments [ ١٨]. Managers seek for information for various purposes, the sources of which come from various locations and in various formats. Managers also need quality information to help them make decisions, achieve company s goals and objectives, and improve services and productivity. Information needs are more likely influenced by factors such as organizational culture, individual attributes, tasks and roles in the organization, and many others [ ]. In performing their tasks, different managers would require different information. This is true for managers who work in different business sectors or industries, and in a different geographical area bounded by different cultures and backgrounds. A good number of researches can be found assessing information needs and requirements of managers worldwide. Previous studies have been conducted on information use by managers in decision-making [ ١, ٩, ١٧, ٣٠] and environmental scanning as part of information seeking activities in businesses [ ١۴]. A number of conceptual works was found available on information behavior in various ٣

4 managerial activities [ ٨, ١, ۶, ٣۶]. Several studies were also found conducted in various geographical location such as UK, USA, Australia, Hong Kong, Singapore [ ٩, ١٠, ١٧, ۶], and Canada [ ١٣]. Others focused on different business sectors such as finance and banking, retail and distribution, manufacturing and telecommunications [ ١٠, ۶], health [٨] and educational institutions [٠]. On the other hand, very little research can be found focusing on similar area in the Iranian context. Three elements regularly discussed pertaining to managers information needs and requirements were: the sources of information, which managers regularly refer to in getting the information; the information itself, which managers seek to get such as information about customers, competitors, etc.; and the information criteria that characterized the attributes of information such as accuracy, comprehensiveness, etc. [ ١٨]. Many studies indicated that the most popular information sources used by managers were informal sources such as personal contact, subordinates, superiors and colleagues, customers and business associates [ ١٧, ١١, ١۴, ]. Formal information sources (information that may be made available in print or electronic documents) such as newspapers, reports, and journals were also considered as important [ ۶]. Choo [١٣] reported that CEOs in Canada used various types of information sources such as customers, business associates, government, newspapers, journals, external reports, trade associates and electronic information. However, this very nature of information use may change due to the proliferation of the Internet and the emergent trend in KM in gaining competitive advantage. Butcher [ ١] reported the characteristics of useful information in organization. According to his review, the most important information criterion was relevance. Relevance, according to him was "information which is needed with respect to the current task(s) or is perceived as likely to be useful in the future because it can be used to further the aims and goals of organization or help the recipient make sense of the complex business environment". Other characteristics besides relevance were timeliness, accuracy, reliability of information sources, quality information and good quality information sources. Constructing a profile of user on their information interest and needs is considered very important in the development of various IM and KM tools and strategies. They are expected to provide the users with the information they need as well as the tools that allow them to share and collaborate among themselves. Hence, this study attempts to contribute to the development of collective user profile of managers in terms of their information behavior and requirements. Although the needs of an individual user may vary and context specific, some common profile can be identified and dealt with through the development of KM and IM strategy, tools, and environment to facilitate the fulfillment of their information needs. ١ ٣. The roles and skills of information and knowledge managers In some situation, the role of information managers is perhaps defined differently from those of knowledge managers. However, in most cases both are either assumed the same roles or possessed a great amount of overlapping in their job descriptions. The authors believe that information and knowledge managers are differentiated only in terms of terminology, where the later is simply the evolution of the former due to the pressing needs and demands for KM practices in organizations. In the Iranian context, many existing information managers positions were given the responsibility of KM related tasks such as assisting the company in its strategic planning to facilitate the KM processes organization wide. On the other hand, the visible diversity may be seen in the management of human capital since much of the tasks are handled at the human resource level. In many organizations, human capital is becoming a very important asset which may implicate the change in approaches to performance measurement of employees [ ]. In general, it has been agreed that information or knowledge managers should play important roles in ensuring effective IM and in identifying information needs and requirements organization wide [ ١۶]. In essence, the technology can only assist in processing the data into information that managers can later digest into knowledge and innovation. Only people who can determine which information are useful and which is not in the knowledge creation process. Drucker pointed that "managers believed it is the information professional s job to identify their information needs " In terms of positions information professionals work in business organization as information managers, information resource managers, knowledge managers, librarian, customer supporters, trainers, product development, editors, indexers, etc. [ ٨]. In banking industry, the role of an information manager is often played by those working in the marketing departments [ ١٠]. Wilson [ ٣٩] defines the roles of information managers as those who are responsible for identifying recurrent activities within the organization, seeking feedbacks on information provided, monitoring the organization s changing priorities, and continually seeking to understand how employees function in the organization. On the other hand, Choo [١۴] defined the notion of information professionals as "information experts", which refers to an "individuals in the organization who have the skills, training ۴

5 and know-how to organize knowledge into systems and structures that facilitate the productive use of information and knowledge". Among other common roles identified in the literature were information collection and collation, information analysis and information dissemination [ ٩, ١۴]. In addition, information professionals in retail bank services identified their roles which involved market research, coordinating external suppliers, evaluating information, and presenting it to colleagues and superiors [ ١٠]. Other roles identified include the following: Providing and evaluating the quality information in terms of ease of use, noise reduction, accuracy, adaptability, time saving, and cost saving [ ١۴, ١٩]. Discussing with managers their media preferences, and providing information services they requested [ ٩, ١۴, ١٩]. Conducting market research, and analyzing customers and competitors information [ ٩, ١٩]. Participating in planning and decision-making activities [١۴]. Developing methods and systems of structuring and accessing information, designing information strategies and evaluating of information [ ١۴]. Taylor and Farrell [ ٣۶] provided guidelines for information managers in managing information in business organization. These are designing and managing an information system, or systems supported by appropriate technologies, either standalone or networked; managing staff, equipping, resourcing, and maintaining adequate information flow (electronic and paper-based) within an organization; determining information needs and requirements and specifying the best solutions for presenting that information; and producing the "information commodity" and ensuring its passage, security and integrity throughout the organization (pp. ٨ ٨٣). Among important skills highlighted in the literature, but highly overlook in the IM curriculum development are communication skills, business impact awareness skills, and personality or analytical and logical thinking skills [ ۶, ١٠, ٨, ٣]. Communication skills may refer to the ability to explain how and why subject classification works to people, the ability to inform them about how a database should be designed to effectively manage information, the ability to inform people about information architecture, the ability to work as part of the project management team, and the ability to ascertain client s information needs and requirements [ ۶]. Evidently, some works have been done in defining the role of information professionals or managers in organizations. For instance, Snyman [٣۴] investigated how the real business world define and perceive the role and responsibilities of the information and knowledge manager by looking at the job advertisements. However, much of these works are less empirical in nature. Even if there are such works such as Snyman s, these studies are subjected to numerous limitations due to methodological constraints, geographic location, culture, individual traits, and differences in various organizational factors. Therefore, in addition to what Snyman [٣۴] offered in his study, this study attempts to redefine the role of the information and knowledge managers through the collective perception of other managers. The contribution should be apparent for organizations hiring the IM or KM personnel and the development of the IM and KM curriculum at the university level.. METHODOLOGY This study used questionnaire-based survey and interviews for data collection using both open and close-ended questions. The population unit involved managers in business organizations by focusing on the banking industry, oil and gas, and IT and Telecommunication services around the Tehran city. A total of ٠٠ questionnaires were sent out and ١۴ questionnaires were gathered from managers working in ١٣ business organizations ( ٩ response rate). ١. Instruments and measurements The instrument was constructed into several sections with the questions format following the suggestions made by Alreck and Settle [٣]. The items used in the questionnaire for the constructs information sources, information types, and information criteria were developed based on the review of

6 literature on studies on information behaviors such as those conducted by Choo [١٣], de Alwis [١٧], Broady-Preston and Hayword [ ١٠], Burke [١١] and Oppenheim [۶]. Additional information was gathered through preliminary interviews with several managers working in several departments at the university and a manager from an oil and gas company to ensure the items were relevant with the current information needs of managers in the context of the Iranian environment. A pilot study was also conducted on ٣ managers to explore the actual study environment and to further refine the research instruments. The final study ended up with a revised questionnaire, which comprise of questions that are accompanied by several possible responses (items). The lists of the items were meant to be mutually exclusive and exhaustive for each question. For instance, questions about information sources were asked with ١٩ items as possible responses, e.g. business associates, superiors, information managers, library, etc. Information types were asked using ١ items as possible responses, e.g. customers, competitors, staff members, business trends, markets, etc. Information criteria were asked using ١ items, e.g. information should be accurate, information should be reliable, etc. Five-point Likert scale was used to correspond to itemized questions on information sources, information types, information criteria, the importance of IM, the important role of information managers, and the skills and qualifications of information managers. Other types of questions involved "yes" and "no" responses and several open-ended questions, typically asking the respondents to elaborate on "why" they responded accordingly. Several questions were also opinion-based such as, "In your opinion, what can you say about IM as practised in your organization?". Data analysis This study is meant to be dominantly exploratory and descriptive in nature. In the analysis, the distribution of the mean as a measure of central tendency was used to describe about the data as it is considered most appropriate for variables that are measured using five-point scales. Other statistical indicators used were percentages, frequency distributions, ranges and standard deviations. Besides descriptive statistics, attempts were also made to use factor analysis in order to explore possible indicators for variables such as information criteria and the importance of IM. The study also gathered a substantial amount of qualitative data in the form of written texts from the responses made through the open-ended questions. The texts were analyzed using content analysis approach to categorize and count the most common answers to the questions. Three inter rater coders were used in the coding process of the texts. Some of the results were presented in a table format and some were simply described in the paragraphs. ٣. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS The findings of this study are presented in the following sequence: demographic data, information needs and requirements of managers, perceptions of respondents of importance of IM in organization, and perceptions of effective IM in organization. ٣ ١. Demographic data Among the ١۴ respondents who participated in this study ۶٨ ( ٩٩ respondents) were males and the remaining ٣ were females ( ۴۶ respondents). This is somewhat expected due to the nature of the current managerial position, which is still monopolized by men. Managers who participated in this study were mostly from the finance and banking industry. According to their age distribution, as expected most of them were at the age of ٣۶ and above ( ۶٩ ). This is due to the level of maturity and long years of experience required to become a manager. In terms of managerial positions ۴٨ of the respondents were managers, ١ were assistant managers, ١٧ were senior managers, ١٣ others, and the remaining ١ were senior general managers. While many of the managers representing the banking industry were branch managers, a considerable proportion of managers were also holding various other managerial positions such as marketing manager, human resource manager, IT manager, etc. Most of them held at least a diploma degree for their academic qualifications. About more than half of the respondents ( ۶۶ ) were holding a bachelor s degree, followed by master s degree ( ١٩ ), and diploma ( ٩ ). While many respondents have had working experience somewhere between ۴ and ٩ years ( ٣٩ ), a good number of respondents were also found to have shorter years of experience (٣ of the respondents between ٠ and ٣ years), and longer years of experience ( ٨ of the respondents above ١٠ years). Therefore, we can conclude that years of experience of the respondents were somewhat fairly distributed. ٣. Information needs and requirements of managers ۶

7 ٣ ١. Information sources. Managers were asked to indicate on a scale of ١ (where ١ = never, = seldom, ٣ = sometimes, ۴ = often, and = always) from ١٨ items on where they seek the information required to perform their tasks. The finding showed that managers used various information sources to acquire information in performing their managerial tasks. The high mean scores would indicate the high percentage of responses on the scale closest to five, which showed that the proposed information sources were regularly used by the respondents. The use of printed materials such as books, newsletters, internal report, etc. (mean = ٣ ٩) was highest in mean score, followed by Internet and online services (mean = ٣ ٩٠). The High ranking in the use of Internet and online services is somewhat expected due to the widespread use of ICT to support various information needs organization wide. The use of other informal sources such as colleagues, superiors, subordinates, business associates and customers were also considered as important. These sources can be categorized as intermediaries, which may be unique to this category of information user [ ۴]. The finding is also supported by Mackenzie [] who indicated the preference of managers for oral communication based on certain characteristics of the resource person such as relationship, knowledge, communication style and behavior, and cognitive ability. On the other hand, the use of library or resource center fell within ٣ ٠ mean, which indicated that this information source was not regularly used by managers in getting information. As an intermediary, the resource center or IM manager was also in the not so important list. Although, managers depend highly on intermediaries or human resource, as Niedwiedzka [ ۴] and Mackenzie [] claimed, such intermediary may not include information manager. ٣. Information types. Information sources lead the managers to the type of information they need. Sources such as printed materials (i.e. reports) may lead to information about the content of the reports from various meetings or about customers and competitors. In the questionnaires, the respondents were asked to indicate the types of information they commonly gathered in performing their managerial tasks. Thirteen types of information namely, internal data and reports, customers and clients, business trends and news, products and services, markets, industry, finance, technology, government regulations/policies, competitors, staff members, conferences, seminar proceedings and reports, and politics were listed in the mutually exclusive categories measured with five-point Likert scale. Most of the items listed received score above three in the scale, only one item falls below ٣. This means that the respondents have used at some points or looked for the information types listed in the questionnaire. The results showed that the most commonly used or looked for information were information about the content of the internal reports such as meeting reports, program reports, past projects (mean = ۴ ٠٧), followed by customers and clients (means = ٣ ٩٣), business trends and news (means = ٣ ٨۶), product and services (means = ٣ ٨), etc. The result is consistent with the earlier report on information sources most frequently referred to by managers, which was printed documents carrying mostly internal reports and data. Though not investigated by Mackenzie [] as the type of information used by managers, the status of internal reports and documents is well discussed by Soliman and Youssef [٣] as critical information for decision-making in organizations. Accordingly in KM, this type of information allows for organizational knowledge acquisition and creation, and for the evaluation of existing processes and services. On the other hand, findings on other types of information frequently looked for by managers such as customers and clients, business trends and news, products and services, etc., are also in line with what Mackenzie [] found in her research. In general, the ranking also reflects the nature of the information used within the finance and banking industry which focuses more on business trends and news, customers, markets, industrial news, and financial news. The needs for other types of information such as staff members, government regulations/policies, competitors, technology, and others are somewhat moderate. ٣ ٣. Information criteria. Respondents were asked about the information criteria that they think may lead to effective IM in the organization. Twelve criteria were listed on a scale ( ١ not important to very important). The result shows that majority of the respondents agreed that all the criteria asked in the questionnaire were important for effective IM. Table ١ shows the list of information criteria and their mean scores in descending order. All the criteria in the table were rated highly in mean scores. The table shows that the top five most important criteria of information were accuracy, reliability, up to date and current, available in a timely manner, and available and trustworthy. The lowest ranked criteria were comprehensiveness in coverage and its flow within organization. This finding also indicates that quality information as represented by accuracy and reliability is regarded as the most important criteria by managers, ٧

8 particularly those in the services and finance industries. This criterion is also reflected in the high ranking of printed documents as the most frequently used information sources. An exploratory factor analysis was also conducted on these ١ criteria items (see Table ). Two factors emerged from the analysis. One is what we grouped as information quality and the other as effective information flow. Information quality is a concept that is frequently used by researchers when evaluating the performance of an information system [ ١]. Information quality is also referred by Soliman and Youssef [ ٣] as critical information that is crucial to successful strategic planning. All the information quality items found in this study were used by the authors in highlighting the important of quality information in system development as well as in achieving organizational competitive advantage. Table ١. Perceived Information criteria for effective IM in organization Information criteria N Min Max Mean SD ١. Information should be accurate ١۴۴ ٣ ۴ ٧. ۴٨. Information should be reliable ١۴ ٣ ۴ ٧۴. ٠ ٣. Information must be up to date and current ١۴ ٣ ۴ ٩. ۶١ ۴. Information should be available in a timely manner ١۴۴ ٣ ۴ ١. ۶١.Information must be available and trustworthy ٣ ۴ ٠. ۶٠ ۶. Information should have good coverage and comprehensive ١۴۴ ۴ ٣٣. ۶۶ ٧. Information should be easy to use ٣ ۴ ٣. ۶ ٨.Information should be accessed conveniently ١۴ ۴ ٩. ٧٣ ٩. Information must be available in various sources (printed, ١۴ ۴ ١١. ٧٨ online, etc.) ۴ ٠٨. ٧٧ ١٠.Information must be shared within the organization ١١. Information should cover all aspects (technology, industry, ۴ ٠٨. ٨١ finance and banking, service sector, etc.) ١. Information must flow within organization ١۴١ ٣ ٩٧. ٨ Table. Factor analysis on effective information criteria in performing managerial task No. Item Factor Concept Reliability loading testing ١. Information should be accurate.٧٧٧ Information quality. ٧۶. Information should be reliable.٨٠۶ ٣. Information should be available in a timely manner.۶٩ ۴. Information should be easy to use.۶٠١. Information must be shared within organization.٨١ Information sharing &. ٧٩ ۶. Information should be available in various sources (printed, online, Internet).٧٩ flow ٧. Information should cover all aspects (technology,.۶٨ industry, finance and banking service sector, etc.) ٨. Information must flow within organization.۶٧ On the other hand, effective IM is perceived as capable of producing similar information quality found in this study for the managers and the organization. Effective IM is also expected to facilitate information that can be flexible in terms of format and types of sources, can be comprehensive in terms of coverage, can flow and be disseminated efficiently throughout the organization, and can be shared by others in achieving organizational common goals and objectives. With the relatively high reliability (alpha =. ٧۶ and. ٧٩), we would expect that these criteria can be used as a measure of IM effectiveness through information quality and information sharing and flow. ٣ ٣. Perceived importance of IM in organization Managers were asked if they perceived IM as important in their organizations in the form of "yes", "no", and "not sure" responses. Majority of the respondents regarded effective IM in their organizations as important ( ١۴١ out of ١۴ said "yes") and respondents were not sure about that and only one person did not perceived IM as important in an organization. In our effort to understand the manager s perception of IM, the respondents were also asked to state the reasons why they choose their answers (i.e. yes, no, or not sure). Upon analysis of the open-ended questions, ٧۶ respondents stated their answers. A content analysis was conducted based on three inter rater coders. Managers came up with several common reasons for the importance of IM. Among top on the list are to assist in decision-making, to ensure good quality information is being used and transferred within organization ٨

9 (as reflected in the need for accessibility, accuracy, and reliability of information, and effective information sharing), to become more competitive, and to become effective in various operations such as environmental scanning activities in order to learn more about market trends and events. Respondents were also asked to rate the importance of IM in their organization based on six statements acquired from the literature. The findings as listed in descending order were: to help them in making decision effectively (mean = ۴ ۶٩); to achieve company s goals and objectives (mean = ۴ ٩); to improve services and productivity (mean = ۴ ٠); to measure company s own progress (mean = ۴ ٣٧); to control internal operations (mean = ۴ ۶) and to analyze and evaluate market survey (mean = ۴ ١٨). The results are also consistent with the responses given qualitatively earlier. Majority indicated that effective IM would result in effective decision-making, the successful conduct of various organizational activities, and ultimately the achievement of organizational goals and objectives. We also made an attempt to conduct further analysis using factor analysis. The purpose was to explore the degree of agreement between the statements and if these purposes can be used as items that measures IM benefits. The result of factor analysis is shown in Table ٣. All of the items are found loaded into only one factor. The high reliability test (alpha =. ٨) of the items indicates the potentiality of the factor to be a good measure of IM or possibly KM benefits in organizations. ٣ ۴. The need for information and knowledge managers In addition, the study also investigated the importance of hiring or employing information or knowledge managers/professionals in the organization. Majority of the respondents, ١١ ( ٧٨ ) believed that employing information managers in the organizations was important. However, ١٧ ( ١ ) were not sure and about ١ ( ١٠ ) of them did not agree that it was important for their organizations to employ information managers. The figures are somewhat surprising and contradictory to the finding on the perceived important source of information that they rated earlier, which implied that information manager is not an important intermediary or source of getting information. This may imply that their perception on the role of an information manager may depart beyond the role of an information mediator. For those who indicated that an information manager is not important in their organizations, their justification was somewhat diversified. Among the responses were such that, "...it would be better to train internal staffs, who already have relevant background in the business operations of the organizations". In addition, they believed that the use of the Internet to gather information did not require the assistance of an information manager. This finding is in line with the conclusion made by Snyman [ ٣۴], which indicates that there is a lack of comprehensive understanding among organizations on how information and knowledge can be managed. Although an awareness of effective information and KM in organizations does exist, a comprehensive understanding of the field is lacking and should be improved. Not much is understood about the significance or the presence of an information or knowledge manager in many organizations. For those respondents who responded "yes", their justifications were summarized. The result shows that information managers are needed to ensure effective management and flow of quality information organizational wide and their presence evidently support organizational performance through good decision-making. This evidence is also consistent with the findings in Section ٣ ٣ earlier. Table ٣. The result of factor analysis Item Factor loading Reliability testing ١. Making decision effectively. ٧۴٨. ٨١. Analyzing and evaluating market survey. ٧٠ ٣. Controlling internal operations. ٧١٩ ۴. Improving services and productivity. ٧٨. Evaluating company s own progress. ۶٩١ ۶. Achieving company s goals and objectives. ۶۶ ٣. The role of information and knowledge managers The respondents were asked to rate ١٧ potential roles of information and knowledge managers listed in the questionnaire from ١-least important to -most important. The results were presented in Table ۴. All the potential roles of information managers listed were found important with the minimum mean score of ٣ ٧٠. However, among the five highest roles of information managers were to identify the quality of information, to acquire, collect and deliver information (e.g. reports, records, and projects), to identify organizations information needs and requirement, to evaluate information effectively, and to ٩

10 identify and analyze information about customers and competitors. All of these findings were supported by Broady-Preston and Hayward [٩, ١٠], Kirk [ ١٩], Choo [١۴], and Drucker [١۶] as reviewed in ١ ٣. The importance of identifying quality information is also consistent with the fact that manager s value quality information through accuracy and reliability as their most preferred information criteria reported earlier. This study also investigated managers perception of the skills and qualifications of information managers. The questionnaire listed ١٣ statements to be responded based on ١ point likert-scales ( ١-least important to -most important). The findings show that majority of the statements achieve high mean scores (minimum of ٣ ٩٩). Table shows the list of skills and qualifications and the corresponding mean distribution. Table ۴. Important role of information managers Roles of information managers N Min Max Mean SD ١. To identify the quality of information ٣ ۴ ٣٩. ۶٣. To acquire, collect and deliver information (e.g. reports, records, projects) ١۴ ١ ۴ ٣٧. ٧٧ ٣. To identify organizations information needs and requirement ۴. To evaluate information effectively. To identify and analyze customers and competitors ۶. To facilitate effective communication ٧. To organize and maintain online information ٨. To distribute information within and outside organization ٩. To develop and maintain database ١٠. To develop and maintain information resources web site ١١. To conduct organizational environmental scanning for external and internal information ١. To conduct and manage research projects ١۴ ١۴ ١۴۴ ١۴۴ ١ ١ ١ ۴ ٩ ۴ ۶ ۴ ۴ ۴ ۴ ۴ ۴ ١٩ ۴ ١ ۴ ٠٩ ۴ ٠۶ ۴ ٠١. ٧٣. ۶٨. ٧۶. ٨٠. ٧٣. ٧۶. ٨۶. ٨۴. ٨٠. ٨۴ ١٣. To develop and manage library ١۴ ١ ٣ ٩٩. ٩٠ ١۴. To form contact and liaise with others ٣ ٩. ٨۶ ١. To analyze market opportunities ١۴ ١ ٣ ٩۴. ٩۶ ١۶. To participate in decision making with superiors ١ ٣ ٨. ٨۶ ١٧. To be a mediator within an overall marketing environment ١ ٣ ٧٠. ٩٣ Table. Skills and qualifications of information managers Skills and qualification N Min Max Mean SD ١. Ability to collect, organize, store and utilize information and knowledge ٣ ۴ ٠. ۶٣. Information and knowledge management background, skills and professional ٣ ۴ ۴. ۶۴ ٣. Strong awareness of the business environment ۴. Good communication skills. Ability to ascertain customer needs ۶. Ability to work in team ٧. Pro-active in marketing the information ٨. Information specialist ٩. Strong IT application skills ١٠. Leadership skills ١١. Creative in creating new strategies to market services ١. Innovative by seeking new goals and objectives ١٣. Management experience ١۴۴ ١۴ ١۴١ ١۴۴ ١۴۴ ١۴۴ ١۴ ٣ ٣ ٣ ١ ۴ ۴٣ ۴ ۴٠ ۴ ٣٨ ۴ ٣ ۴ ٣٠ ۴ ١٩ ۴ ١۶ ۴ ١۴ ۴ ٠٩ ۴ ٠١ ۴ ٠٠. ٩. ۶٨. ۶. ۶. ٧٠. ٨٠. ٧٩. ٧١. ٨١. ٧١. ٧١ Among the statements rated, those high in mean scores were ability to collect, organize, store and utilize information and knowledge, possess information and KM background, skills and professional, have strong awareness of the business environment, have good communication skills, ability to work in team, and ability to ascertain customer needs. Based on their personal statements given in the open-ended section, the perceived skills involved ability to interact and understand the users information needs, possess various IT skills, strong background in management, marketing, business, effective communication, ability to conduct research, good attitude, knowledgeable, and informative. Orndoff [٧] used the term strategic thinking ١٠

11 and behavior as important human competencies that are needed by the IM managers. These competencies rely heavily on most of the skills found in this study. Among them are connecting information, communication, decision-making, experience, professionalism and leadership. Some of the skills found were also consistent with many IM curriculums and covered in many newly established field of KM [ ۴, ٧, ٣]. These findings should provide significant contribution to the development of curriculum in the training of both IM and KM managers. ٣ ۶. IM as practiced in current organization A question was asked in relation to managers perception of whether information and knowledge in their organizations were being managed effectively. Sixty-eight ( ۴ ) respondents answered "yes", ۴ ( ٩ ) answered "no", and ( ١٧ ) stated that they were "not sure". A small majority who indicated that their organizations had effectively managed the information justified their answers on several bases. These were due to the availability of good infrastructure in the form of existing information systems and services in support for effective IM; information provided and received within the organization is up-to-date, well shared, and accessible in a timely manner; information resources are well coordinated; and IM goals and benefits are achieved through good decision-making. These responses also provide the meaning of a good IM practice in organizations from the managers perspective. On the other hand, respondents who answered "no" also justified their answers, which were classified as follows: there was no one stop center or centralize "unit" which "control" information; information appeared to be scattered making it less timely to acquire and difficult to retrieve; information that was available had a very limited coverage; lack of resources and experts to man the knowledge bank or knowledge repository. The respondents were also asked whether a resource center or library is needed in their organizations. Unexpectedly, majority of the respondents, ١١۶ ( ٨٠ ), answered "yes". Out of the ۶ responses given, we managed to code several common reasons for the answers. These were the need for a one stop center or a centralize location to allow for easy access to information (١٩ responses); to allow for more effective information organization, retrieval and delivery ( ١١ responses); as a source of reference that provide information that is convenient, timely, and up-to-date ( ١٠ responses); and to better manage information resources through the existing IT system with more comprehensive information that is easily accessible, better retrieve and timely. On the other hand, ١۴ respondents ( ١٠ ) indicated that there was no need for a library or a resource center since the Internet and data warehousing was available and sufficient. According to them, the Internet allowed them to get the required information easily and quickly and also the electronic database is fast replacing the physical database. This result contradicts the earlier finding on information resources important to managers, which indicates that library or resource center at the bottom of the important list. ۴. CONCLUSION This study reports the status of the Iranian managers information requirements and their perception on what is IM as well as the role of the information or knowledge managers. The approach taken for this study is descriptive and exploratory in nature. As far as information requirements are concerned, the Iranian managers may not be seen as highly diverse in their information needs. It is somewhat expected that information needs of these group of people are fulfilled dominantly through informal information interaction with colleagues, subordinates or superiors, clients, etc. Information needs has also been achieved through information gathered from various resources in printed documents, electronic resources such as the Internet, and various databases developed and maintained by the organization. The findings are also in agreement with Wilson s general model of information behavior [٣٨] of managers. Gathering information about the profile of information users such as those of managers is crucial in order to develop effective information as well as KM strategies and tools. In this respect, the findings of this study allow us to develop such profile of user information needs. In respond to this understanding as well, a good model of effective IM or KM should accommodate work environment, or as Lueg [١] referred to as work ecology that take into consideration the social perspectives in influencing the fulfillment of information needs. The managers dependency on social interactions and informal communication to perform their tasks is a good example of information behavior that requires a good social information environment provided by IM and KM. The quality of information should also be regarded an important element in IM. The findings show that accuracy, timeliness, and accessibility as important element that IM should provide in order to assist managers make good decision. In addition, effective IM should also ensure that information could be shared, flexible (available in various ١١