Union Delegate Presence and the Decline in Union Density: Evidence from the AWIRS Panel

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1 Union Delegate Presence and the Decline in Union Density: Evidence from the AWIRS Panel Mark Wooden National Institute of Labour Studies Flinders University of South Australia Recent empirical analyses of workplace-level data have reported results indicating that the presence of an active union within a workplace can help prevent the decline in union membership apparent in many Australian workplaces. This hypothesis is revisited in this paper. It is concluded that the evidence in favour of this hypothesis is weaker than widely assumed and that inverse associations between union delegate presence and falls in union density partly reflect changes in union membership levels driving changes in the level of workplace union organisation and activity rather than the reverse. Nevertheless, it is still found that a union delegate presence is likely to have taken somewhere between six and nine per centage points off the decline in union density that could have been expected to have occurred in the absence of delegates. Introduction Trade union density in Australia, as in many other countries in the developed world, has fallen markedly over the last two decades. According to the most recent survey-based figures from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), trade union members represented only 30.3 per cent of the total number of Australian employees in August This compares with a rate of unionisation of around 50 per cent in The explanations for this decline are many and varied but, whatever the cause, there does appear to be widespread consensus that if the union movement is to halt this membership slide, it must do more to increase union presence within workplaces (Griffin and Svensen 1996: 534). Such views are based on the assumption that having a union presence at the workplace should have a positive impact on the retention and recruitment of union members, views which have received support from recent Australian empirical research. Peetz (1997), for example, reported on data from the federal government s 1992 Workplace Bargaining Survey, the sample for which was a sub-sample from the 1989/90 Australian Workplace Industrial Relations Survey (AWIRS). Unfortunately, union density was measured differently in the two surveys, and hence Peetz was only able to examine the incidence of deunionisation rather than changes in union density. He reports evidence indicating that deunionisation was far more likely to occur at those workplaces without union delegates in 1989/90 or where unions were relatively inactive. Green (1997) has also exploited panel data from the AWIRS. He makes use of the 1995 AWIRS panel data and hence is able to examine correlations between measures of union activity and changes in union density. He reports results which he believes confirm the importance of union workplace presence, and especially union delegate presence, as a key factor in arresting union decline. Current Research in Industrial Relations, Volume 1 225

2 In this paper, the relationship between changes in union density and union delegate presence is revisited. Panel data from the AWIRS are again exploited but, unlike the earlier studies, multivariate statistical methods are employed. 1 The AWIRS Panel Data Described in more detail in Callus et al. (1991) and Morehead et al. (1997), the AWIRS involved a suite of structured questionnaires administered by a variety of methods to managers, union delegates and (in 1995) employees, at representative samples of Australian workplaces. The samples for both surveys were randomly selected from the ABS Business Register, after stratification by location, size and industry. The survey covered all industry sectors with the exception of Agriculture, forestry and fishing and Defence. The scope of the survey was also restricted to workplaces with at least five employees (though researchers were often compelled to ignore workplaces with 5 to 19 employees since far less information was collected from the sub-sample of small workplaces). These exclusions mean that the AWIRS will tend to overstate union density given both small workplaces and the Agriculture sector are typically associated with very low rates of unionisation. The 1995 AWIRS also included a panel component. That is, a sample of workplaces from the 1989/90 main sample (2004 workplaces with 20 or more employees) was selected to be re-surveyed in The 1989/90 sample was screened for survivors and 780 workplaces then selected. Interviews were successfully conducted at 698 of these workplaces (giving a response rate of 89 per cent). The panel is not, however, a random sample of participants in the first survey for the obvious reason that it only includes firms that survived the period 1989 to Some analysis of survivors and deaths is provided in Morehead et al. (1997: 48-51) which indicates that deaths were more likely among workplaces that were small, relatively young (less than two years old), part of a larger organisation, part of a Government business enterprise, had not been performing well in 1990 (as indicated by low rates of capacity utilisation and negative rates of return on assets), and had already been in the process of downsizing at the time of the 1990 survey. There was, however, no difference in the death rate of workplaces with and without union members. Further analysis of these data, though, did reveal a small difference in the mean level of union density (measured in 1990) at surviving workplaces and at those that had died (64 per cent compared with 67 per cent). A key variable used in the analysis reported in this paper is union density the proportion of employees who are union members. Unfortunately, the survey instruments administered to respondents within the large workplace sample in 1989/90 did not yield an exact measure of union density. Rather than simply ask respondents to estimate the total number of workers who were union members, respondents were instead given four different response categories all, most, some or none when asked to indicate how many employees in each of the eight major ASCO occupation groups were union members. All and none obviously indicate occupation-specific union density rates of 100 per cent and zero, respectively. The AWIRS team then made the assumption that a response of most 1 Roy Green, in collaboration with Michael Alexander and Andrew Wilson, was, at the time of this paper s preparation, also preparing an extensively revised version of his paper (to appear in a special issue of The Journal of Industrial Relations) which will incorporate multivariate analysis. Current Research in Industrial Relations, Volume 1 226

3 was equivalent to an occupation-specific unionisation rate of 66 per cent and a response of some to a rate of 33 per cent. These occupation-specific estimates can then be weighted by the proportion of each occupation in total workplace employment to derive a workplacewide union density rate. Identical questions were included in the questionnaire administered to employee relations managers surveyed as part of the panel component of the 1995 AWIRS. Thus, while union density is imperfectly measured, this is unlikely to lead to any bias in this study given that the emphasis here is on change in union density and union density is measured identically in both 1989/90 and Interestingly, the 1995 survey, unlike the 1989/90 survey, included an additional question that asked respondents to estimate the actual number of employees who were union members. Responses to this question should therefore provide a guide to the extent and impact of the measurement error associated with the union density variable used in this study. Specifically, comparison of the density measure used in this study for 1995 with the reported actual density levels in 1995 (using data only from those workplaces where both measures could be calculated) suggests that the measure used in this study results in a slight over-estimation of union density (less than one per centage point). Furthermore, there is a very strong correlation between the density measure used here and actual density (r = 0.91). Nevertheless, measurement error is still large, with the absolute value of the mean error being 10.6 per centage points or about 21 per cent of the mean of union density. Using the measure proposed by the 1989/90 AWIRS team, a summary of union density levels for both the panel and the two cross-sections is provided in Table 1. As can be seen, within the panel of firms that participated in the 1989/90 survey and were re-surveyed in 1995, union density fell from an estimated 63.9 per cent to 54.6 per cent, representing a nine per centage point fall. By comparison, within the wider population of workplaces with 20 employees or more, union density fell 14 per centage points (from 64.6 per cent to 50.5 per cent). Table 1: Change in Union Density, 1989/ : AWIRS Cross-section and Panel Samples Compared Union density (%) Change ( ) in 1989/ union density Panel sample * !9.3 Cross-section sample (workplaces with 20 or more employees) !14.1 Notes: Data are weighted by employee weights. * To ensure comparability over time, cases where insufficient information was provided to enable the calculation of union density at both points in time have been excluded. (Sources: AWIRS 90 and AWIRS 95 main surveys, and AWIRS panel survey) Current Research in Industrial Relations, Volume 1 227

4 Measures of Union Activity and the Decline in Union Density: Evidence from Cross-tabulated Data Drawing on the AWIRS panel data, Green (1997) observes that changes in union density levels across the two survey periods appear to be sensitive to the presence of a union delegate (as well as other measures of union activity). Specifically, it is reported that among workplaces with union members in 1989/90, those which maintained a union delegate presence between 1989/90 and 1995 experienced a smaller decline in union density than those without a delegate presence or where delegate presence disappeared. The approach used is replicated, with some minor variation, in Table 2. 2 This table demonstrates that in workplaces without a delegate presence in 1995, union density (averaged across workplaces rather than employees) fell by close to or in excess of 20 per centage points from its level in 1989/90. By comparison, at workplaces where delegates were present at both periods, density fell by only half this amount (10 per centage points), while in workplaces which acquired a delegate presence subsequent to 1989/90, union density actually increased (though not by so much as to reach statistically significant levels). Green is thus led to conclude that the presence of active union delegate structures is an important factor in the maintenance of union membership levels. Table 2: Union Density by Delegate Presence, 1989/90 and 1995: AWIRS Panel (unionised workplaces in 1989/90) Delegate presence % of workplaces 1989/ R r Union density union density 1989/ % points Prob diff = 0 No No !21.7 <0.01 Yes No !19.9 <0.01 No Yes ns Yes Yes !10.3 <0.01 TOTAL !11.9 <0.01 Notes: Data are weighted so as to reflect the total population of surviving workplaces (with 20 or more employees) that were unionised in 1989/90. Significance of difference is based on a t-test for difference between two sample means. (Sources: AWIRS 95 panel survey and AWIRS 90 main survey) The presence of a union delegate, however, is likely to be a crude indicator of the degree of union organisation in the workplace. Green thus also reports how changes in union density vary with other broader measures of union activity; specifically, a variable representing delegate involvement in workplace negotiations and bargaining and a broad measure of union activity within the workplace. Both were constructed as simple dummy variables. 2 The figures reported here are different than those reported by Green (1997). The source of this difference is the application of different population weights. Green reports data weighted by the number of employees, whereas the figures in Table 2 are weighted by workplaces; ie, they represent average union density per workplace. The qualitative nature of the results, however, is not affected by the method applied. Current Research in Industrial Relations, Volume 1 228

5 The bargaining variable identifies whether a union delegate had been involved in negotiations over issues relating to staffing levels, wage increases, working conditions, occupational health and safety, discipline and dismissals, changes to work practices, and the introduction of new technology during the year prior to survey. The union activity variable, on the other hand, is a composite measure created by the AWIRS team (see Morehead et al. 1997: 326), and assumes that a workplace is actively unionised if: 1. the senior delegate from the union with most members spends one hour or more each week on union activities; and 2. at least one of the following conditions is met:! a general meeting of members is held at least once every six months;! a joint or single union committee exists and meets regularly with management; or! delegates meet with management at least once a month. Again, the presence of these union characteristics in both 1989/90 and 1995 are crossclassified against average union density (weighted by workplaces). The results are reported in Table 3. In both cases, the evidence in favour of the hypothesis put forward by Green is much weaker. This is especially so in the case of the active union variable where the decline in average union density at workplaces classified as having active unions at both data points is no different than among those workplaces classified as not having active unions at either date. Table 3: Union Density by Union Activity Measures, 1989/90 and 1995: AWIRS Panel (unionised workplaces in 1989/90) Presence of union characteristic % distribution Activity measure (% of workplaces) Change 1989/ R r 1989/ % points Prob diff = 0 Delegate(s) involved in bargaining No No !15.3 <0.01 Yes No !11.8 <0.05 No Yes ns Yes Yes !10.3 <0.01 Active union No No !13.2 <0.01 Yes No ! 8.6 <0.10 No Yes ! 7.3 ns Yes Yes !13.3 <0.01 Notes: Data are weighted so as to reflect the total population of surviving workplaces (with 20 or more employees) that were unionised in 1989/90. Significance of difference is based on a t-test for difference between two sample means. (Sources: AWIRS 95 panel survey and AWIRS 90 main survey) Current Research in Industrial Relations, Volume 1 229

6 However, even if the weaker relationships suggested in the data presented in Table 3 are ignored, the inferences drawn by Green (1997) on the basis of the kind of data presented in Table 2 may still be misleading. The problem here is one of identifying cause and effect. An alternative interpretation of the data presented in Table 2 is not that union delegate presence is conducive to more stable union membership levels but that declines in union density impact negatively on the likelihood of a union delegate presence. The latter hypothesis follows almost by definition, since a reduction in union members will reduce both the supply of available delegates and the demand for delegate services. This does not, however, rule out the possibility of causal processes running in the opposite direction. Nevertheless, if a delegate presence does operate to maintain union membership at levels above that which would otherwise have resulted, the presence of a union delegate in 1989/90 could be expected to be associated with below average falls in union density. The second row of Table 2 appears to be inconsistent with this hypothesis. The figures presented in Table 2, however, are entirely consistent with the hypothesis that causation runs in the reverse direction, as evidenced by the marked fall in union density at those workplaces where a delegate presence disappeared between 1989/90 and Union Delegate Presence and the Decline in Union Density: Evidence from Regression Analysis Method Following Beaumont and Harris (1995), who used panel data from the 1984 and 1990 British Workplace Industrial Relations Surveys to examine the determinants of the decline in union density in Britain, change in union density can be specified as follows: UDi = ƒ( Xi, UD90i) (1) where UDi is the difference between union density in 1995 and union density in 1989/90 in the ith workplace, Xi is a vector of independent determinants of union density (including measures of union activity in the workplace), and UD90i is union density in 1989/90. Given UD90i will be a function of X90i (where X90i is a vector of independent determinants of union density in 1989/90), equation (1) can be re-expressed as follows: UDi = ƒ( Xi, X90i) (2) Equation (2) can then be estimated with either ordinary or weighted least squares. Ex ante, which is preferred is unclear. Use of sample weights is often justified as a consequence of the need to adjust for supposed bias caused by the stratified nature of the sampling scheme. On the other hand, it has been demonstrated (eg, DuMouchel and Duncan 1983) that weighted least squares estimators are typically inefficient. For the most part, weighting makes relatively little difference to the qualitative nature of the results and hence, with one exception, the specifications reported are not weighted. Selection of potential independent variables was informed by previous research, especially the analysis of British panel data by Beaumont and Harris (1995) and the cross-sectional analyses of union density using the earlier 1989/90 AWIRS data reported by both Harris (1993) and Wooden and Balchin (1993). In addition to the union activity measures, the types of variables that were considered for inclusion were: Current Research in Industrial Relations, Volume 1 230

7 Workplace/firm characteristics: Workplace size; firm size; single- or multi-establishment status; public ownership; workplace age; foreign ownership; the degree of autonomy workplace management has from higher organisational levels; labour intensity; and industry. Workforce/job characteristics: Occupational composition; female employment share; teenage employment share; casual employment share; the concentration of employees with long tenure (more than 10 years); the concentration of employees who have English as a second language; the extent of contractor employment; the incidence of rotating shift workers; the degree of employee participation in decision-making; and a measure of the average job s training requirements. Market characteristics: Nature of market (export, import-competing or domestic); degree of competition in product markets; and whether product demand rising or falling. For reasons of brevity, a detailed explanation justifying the inclusion of each of these variables is not provided here. Variables were typically measured at both their 1989/90 levels and as first differences (ie., the change between 1989/90 and 1995), though there were a number of variables where this was either not appropriate or not possible. Means and standard deviations for the main variables used in the analysis are reported in Table 4. The large number of potential control variables raises the problem of collinearity between variables, especially given that the sample for the panel is relatively small. Consequently, and again following Beaumont and Harris (1995), an initial group of at least marginally significant variables (or clusters of related variables) was determined through the use of stepwise regression methods. Variables (or clusters of related variables) were retained for inclusion if they were significant (or jointly significant) at the ten per cent level (in a twotailed test). As a further check to ensure that insignificant influences were not being overlooked, each of the discarded variables was added to the model separately and its significance tested. If the variable was even of marginal significance (at the ten per cent significance level), it was retained. This procedure defined the baseline specification. Variables identifying both the presence of a union delegate or an active union, as measured in 1989/90, were then added to this specification as test of the hypothesis that union activity impacts on union density. Because of the focus here on union activity, the sample used in the analysis reported in this paper was restricted to workplaces with at least some union members in 1989/90, providing a potential sample of 601 observations. As is conventional, observations were also omitted from the analysis if information was missing on any of the variables used in the final specifications. This reduced the effective sample size by a further 18 per cent to 492. Causation An important methodological issue is that of causation. In theory, the problem of identifying causation is easily resolved with panel data. Changes in union density between time 1 and time 2, for example, cannot possibly have any bearing on the level of any other variable at time 1. It thus seems sensible to specify changes in union density as a function of levels in union activity measured in 1989/90. Equation (1), however, implies that changes in union density might also be a function of changes in union activity. The Current Research in Industrial Relations, Volume 1 231

8 problem here is that these two phenomena are contemporaneous and hence it is difficult (if not impossible) to disentangle cause and effect. This is an issue which we shall return to below. Results Regressions for the panel data are reported in Table 4. Specifications (1) and (2) report the baseline specification after adding first a dummy variable indicating union delegate presence in 1989/90 and then the active union dummy. It can immediately be seen that identifying the sources of changing union density within the panel is no simple matter, with only around 22 per cent of the variance explained (though this does improve markedly to more than 30 per cent if the data are weighted). Nevertheless, significant associations were uncovered between changes in workplace-level union density and a number of control variables. Specifically, changes in union density are found to be inversely associated with firm size, public ownership, a measure of the degree of workplace management autonomy, downsizing (as reflected in a dummy variable indicating whether any part of the workplace had been closed down), changes in the type of workplace activity (which presumably is symptomatic of major organisational restructuring), casual employment (both its level and changes in its level), export market activity, and growth in the proportion of managerial employees in the workforce, and positively associated with average workforce tenure (both its level and changes in its level) and the incidence of shiftwork. Unfortunately, length constraints preclude any detailed consideration of these variables. Turning now to union activity, the estimated coefficients on the union activity variables reported in specifications (1) and (2) are both very small and a long way off achieving statistical significance. These results thus provide no support at all for the hypothesis that union activity within the workplace has had a bearing on changes in union membership levels between 1989/90 and Note that these results are not necessarily at odds with the results of Peetz (1997) who examined deunionisation rather than changes in union density. Indeed, in a simple probit model of the probability of deunionisation using the exact same set of variables as used in specification (1), union delegate presence was found to be negatively related to the probability of deunionisation, with the estimated coefficient highly significant. On the basis of the results reported in specifications (1) and (2), it might be tempting to conclude that a union delegate presence does not provide any protection against the forces acting to reduce union membership. Green (1997), however, would argue that it is important to account for change that occurred between the two surveys. Ignoring for the moment the potential problem of reverse causation, this hypothesis appears to be borne out in specification (3). Workplaces that acquired a delegate presence after 1989/90 saw less of a fall in their union membership than workplaces where union delegates were not present in 1989/90 or where a union delegate presence disappeared. Following the lead of Green (1997), the associations between changes in delegate presence and changes in union density are even more obvious if a series of dummies representing the state of union delegate presence at the two time periods are incorporated into the analysis. The results of such an exercise are reported in specification (4), with the control group being workplaces without union delegates at either period. It is now immediately apparent what is driving the insignificant coefficient on union delegate presence in specification (1): workplaces where union density has fallen least and, in many cases, has even risen are those without union delegates in 1989/90 but which acquired a union delegate presence between 1989/90 and Current Research in Industrial Relations, Volume 1 232

9 It cannot, however, be concluded from the foregoing that installing union delegates in workplaces where delegates do not exist will necessarily see a marked rise in union density levels. Instead, and as emphasised earlier, the large coefficient on this dummy may simply reflect causation in the reverse direction: increases in union density will increase the need for a delegate presence. The results of specification (4), however, do provide evidence that union delegate presence has the expected restraining effect on union membership. Most compelling here is the fact that after workplaces which acquired a union delegate presence are identified, a positive significant coefficient is now attached to the dummy variable identifying workplaces where delegates were present at both time periods. Specifically, compared with workplaces where union delegates did not exist at either time, the fall in union density at workplaces which maintained a union delegate presence throughout the period is estimated to have been 8.7 per centage points less. The final column in Table 4 reports an identical specification to that reported in column (4), but after weighting the data. For the most part, these weighted results are consistent with the broad thrust of the unweighted results, though there are quite large differences in the size of many coefficients. Of most interest here is the effect on the union delegate presence variables and especially the coefficient attached to the variable representing delegate presence in both years. This coefficient is smaller (and only weakly significant), indicating that the contribution of delegate presence to change in union density is only six per centage points, rather than the nine per centage points indicated in the unweighted results. Finally, though not reported in Table 4, it should be noted that specification (4) was reestimated after replacing the union delegate dummies with analogous variables representing the presence of active unions in the workplace. No evidence of any significant associations between these variables and change in union density was uncovered. On the face of it, this result suggests that workplace-based union activity has not had any effect on union membership. An alternative explanation, however, may lie in the weakness in the construction of the active union variable. This variable is dominated by structured activity such as regular meetings with members, other union delegates and management. Other unstructured activity, however, may be just as important, if not more important, in terms of recruiting and attracting new members. Further, presumably the type of union activity that matters most for union membership is recruitment and it is not obvious that recruitment activity will exhibit any systematic relationship with the presence of formal structures for conducting union business within the workplace. Conclusions Consistent with both expectations and previous research, analysis of the AWIRS panel data did eventually uncover evidence that the presence of union delegates has had a restraining effect on the slide in union membership. This effect, however, only became apparent once workplaces that acquired a union delegate presence were separately identified and isolated. The results, however, are far from comforting for the union movement, indicating that, while a delegate presence has reduced the extent of membership decline, it has not stopped it. Indeed, based on the results presented here, union density at workplaces with a union delegate presence at both time periods still fell by an average of anywhere between 13 and 16 per centage points, other things held constant. Current Research in Industrial Relations, Volume 1 233

10 Table 4: OLS Estimates of the Determinants of Change in Union Density (figures in parentheses are heteroscedastic consistent t-ratios) Variable Mean Unweighted Weighted (Std dev) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Firm / workplace characteristics Firm size: < (0.294) * (2.93) * (2.91) * (3.18) * (3.19) * (5.99) Firm size: (0.398) 7.467^ (1.90) 7.344^ (1.87) 8.388^ (2.15) 8.608# (2.23) * (2.72) Firm size: (0.294) (0.71) (0.70) (0.91) (0.85) (1.42) Firm size: (0.385) (0.20) (0.22) (0.17) (0.12) (0.19) Firm size: (0.318) (0.41) (0.40) (0.66) (0.48) (1.23) Firm size: (0.217) (0.72) (0.73) (0.75) (1.00) (1.60) Single workplace firm (0.286) (1.37) (1.38) (1.53) (1.49) * (5.81) Public sector workplace (0.499) # (1.98) ^ (1.96) # (2.23) # (2.13) ^ (1.72) Management autonomy (27.580) * (3.73) * (3.64) * (3.71) * (3.57) # (2.28) Partial workplace closure (0.064) * (7.49) * (7.39) * (6.53) * (6.84) * (7.79) Main activity changed (0.328) # (2.27) # (2.30) # (2.02) # (2.00) * (2.70) Workforce / job characteristics % casual (21.190) * (2.90) * (2.90) * (2.93) * (2.90) * (3.68) % casual (12.809) * (2.65) * (2.64) * (2.71) * (2.64) * (4.51) Long tenure (0.481) 7.000* (2.58) 7.158* (2.60) 6.553# (2.42) 6.812# (2.53) 7.118# (2.44) long tenure (0.541) 6.646* (3.07) 6.746* (3.07) 6.729* (3.14) 6.496* (3.07) 8.969* (4.10) Shift work (0.356) 7.445# (2.39) 7.456# (2.39) 6.864# (2.22) 6.496# (2.10) * (3.45) % managers (7.413) * (3.42) * (3.41) * (3.09) * (3.12) ^ (1.65) % professionals (9.186) ^ (1.75) ^ (1.74) (1.55) (1.61) (0.73) % para-professionals (13.663) (0.34) (0.35) (0.46) (0.37) (1.19) % tradespersons (13.227) (0.60) (0.60) (0.59) (0.46) (1.35) Current Research in Industrial Relations, Volume 1 234

11 Table 4 (cont d) Variable Mean Unweighted Weighted (Std. dev) (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) % clerks (17.482) (0.42) (0.40) (0.29) (0.08) (1.09) % sales and personal service (18.425) (1.22) (1.22) (1.22) (1.01) 0.216* (3.06) % machine operators (18.908) (1.03) (1.03) (1.07) (1.13) 0.135^ (1.85) Market characteristics Exporter (0.141) ^ (1.95) ^ (1.94) # (2.03) # (2.07) # (2.45) Union activity Union delegate presence (0.395) (0.08) (1.41) Active union (0.486) (0.29) union delegate presence (0.441) 7.518* (2.45) Union delegate dummies: Present in both years (0.462) 8.677* (2.19) 6.092^ (1.83) Present in 1989/90 only (0.318) (1.29) 1.71 (0.40) Present in 1995 only (0.274) * (3.72) * (4.64) Constant (0.45) (0.50) (0.08) (0.69) (1.05) R-squared Adjusted R-squared F test 3.38* 3.38* 3.49* 3.60* 5.57* Breusch-Pagan (χ 2 k) 84.11* 83.86* 74.85* 78.29* * RESET (F3, n-k) Notes: *, # and ^ indicate significance at the 1, 5 and 10 per cent levels, respectively, in a two-tailed test. Mean value of dependent variable is (SD = ) when not unweighted and (SD = ) after weighting. Though not reported, all specifications also include 14 industry dummies. Current Research in Industrial Relations, Volume 1 235

12 References Beaumont, P B and Harris, R I D (1995) Union De-Recognition and Declining Union Density in Britain, Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 48(3): Callus, R, Morehead, A, Cully, M and Buchanan, J (1991) Industrial Relations at Work: The Australian Workplace Industrial Relations Survey, AGPS, Canberra. DuMouchel, W H and Duncan, G J (1983) Using Sample Survey Weights in Multiple Regression Analyses of Stratified Samples, Journal of the American Statistical Association, 78(383): Green, R. (1997) Delegate Structures and Strategic Unionism, Paper presented to the Conference on Economics and Industrial Relations: Reappraising the Relationship, ANU, December 4-5. Griffin, G and Svensen, S (1996) The Decline of Australian Union Density A Survey of the Literature, Journal of Industrial Relations, 38(4): Morehead, A, Steele, M, Alexander, M, Stephen, K and Duffin, L (1997) Changes at Work: The 1995 Australian Workplace Industrial Relations Survey, Addison Wesley Longman, South Melbourne. Peetz, D (1997) Deunionisation and Union Establishment: The Impact of Workplace Change, HRM Strategies and Workplace Unionism, Labour and Industry, 8(1): Current Research in Industrial Relations, Volume 1 236

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