[61] FROM INTERPRETIVISM TO POSITIVISM: A METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE RESEARCH IN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (HRM)

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1 [61] FROM INTERPRETIVISM TO POSITIVISM: A METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH TO THE RESEARCH IN HUMAN RESOURCE MANAGEMENT (HRM) Shantha Wijesinghe, M. A. ABSTRACT As the research in many other disciplines methodological aspects of the research in HRM are also under debate in the context of present development. Due to the complexity of an issue academicians and the professional practitioners in HRM attempt to view a problem in different angles by applying various methodologies associated with different philosophical paradigms in research. Among them positivism and the interpretivism are two different major paradigms, which have set the foundation for quantitative and qualitative dualism in turn. Positivism basically focuses on the objective reality of the issue while interpretivism emphasizes its subjective reality. Thus, there is no argument for the fact that the research in HRM should mainly follow the interpretive methodological approach, which mainly focuses on qualitative aspects of human resources. But in professional practice, researchers in HRM have confronted a great challenge particularly in analyzing subjective data with many disadvantages of the interpretive approach. Among them the difficulty of generalizing the issue and its causes and findings is one of the most important challenging aspects. In many instances, professionals in this field are worrying of its disadvantages, as they have not been able to show their results to the organization objectively. Sometime this may be due to their ignorance of the application of proper methodology in research and/or the lack of knowledge in quantitative analysis. However, due to different reasons professional practitioners in this field are so keen of finding a suitable methodology so that they would be able to show the productive results according to world-wide accepted norm of scientific method. Therefore, the objective of this paper is to discuss the ways and means of integrating two different methodologies, starting with interpretivism that is the most realistic in HRM and then combining with positivism, which is generally accepted scientific method by quantitative researchers. Methodologically this is a theoretical paper but some HR cases are cited to justify the points where necessary. The output of the paper discuses the ways and means of transferring from qualitative interpretivism to quantitative positivism by converting the HR variables into non-parametric and parametric data and output. It provides guidelines to the academicians, researchers and professional practitioners in this field for testing logical relationships between the problematic variable and its related causes. Key Words: Positivism, Interpretivism, Methodological Paradigms, Parametric and Non-parametric Data INTRODUCTION Research: a studious and systematic inquiry of a certain phenomenon can follow various methodological approaches in fulfilling its objectives. Sometime it may be based on quantitative or qualitative methodology or may be sometime practicing of both methodologies. Research studies either quantitative or qualitative have been rooted in philosophical traditions with different epistemological and ontological assumptions. Research philosophy is the world views of how to recognize things that are to be researched. These world views of doing research significantly vary from one philosophical tradition to another. Thus, there are methodological debates of how to recognize things and such arguments are also still controversial. Anyhow, due to complexity of an issue, either it relates to Human Resource Management (HRM) or some other discipline, it is viewed in different angles by applying different methodologies to maintain its quality and the reliability of findings. For example, data triangulation is used as one of the methods of collecting as well as analyzing data, as it refers to the use of more than one approach to the investigation in order to enhance the confidence of findings. Likewise positivism and interpretivism which have set the foundation for quantitative and qualitative dualism in turn are two different philosophical paradigms that can be used as methodological approaches for achieving whatever the objectives of HRM research. Positivism and Interpretivism: Positivism and interpretivism are two different philosophical paradigms of conducting research. Philosophical paradigms are the models that are derived from world views or systems of beliefs about the nature of knowledge and existence. Philosophical paradigms are shared by a scientific community and guide how a community of researchers acts with regard to an inquiry. Thus, a paradigm is essentially a world view, a whole framework of beliefs, values and methods within which research takes place. Positivism basically focuses on the objective reality of the issue while interpretivism emphasizes its subjective reality. Positivists paradigm, normally called scientific method of doing research, is directly related with quantitative research. According to positivists, social facts have an objective reality and the nature of reality is single, tangible and fragmental. Positivism generally concerns a single and concrete reality. According to their view, variables related to some kind of phenomenon can be identified and the relationships among variables can easily be measured. Positivism predominates in science and assumes that science quantitatively measures independent facts about a single apprehensible reality (Healy & Perry, 2000). Its data and the analysis are value-free and the data do not change because they are being observed. That is, researchers view the world through a 'one-way mirror' (Healy & Perry, 2000). Positivists emphasize that the relationship knower to the known is independent and there are real causes, temporally precedent to or simultaneous with their effects. It means that the world and the universe are deterministic 434

2 as they operate by the law of cause and effect. Positivists separate themselves from the world they study and they use deductive reasoning to postulate theories that can be tested. Even though the positivism is not a fully developed and accepted form of contemporary research it is abundantly used with quantitative research. Interpretivism has developed as a critique to the positivism. As emphasized by the interpretivism, knowledge is derived from the meanings attached to the concerned phenomenon. Thus, researchers interact with the subjects of study to obtain data and are aware of inquiry changes of both researcher and the subjects. The whole needs to be examined in order to understand a phenomenon and thus interpretive approach explores the richness, depth and the complexity of the concerned phenomenon. Not like positivists approach it suggests multiple realities of the phenomenon. According to them realities are multiple, constructed and holistic and thus the relationships of knower to the known are interacted and inseparable. They emphasize that the realities are socially constructed and can differ across time and space and thus the knowledge is context and time dependent. Therefore, the variables relating to the concerned phenomenon are complex, interwoven and difficult to measure. Interpretivists highlight that all entities are in a state of mutual simultaneous shaping and it is impossible to distinguish causes from effects. Unlike quantitative research, there is no single accepted outline for how qualitative research should be conducted. However, primacy of qualitative research is given to the subject matters and the concerned phenomenon is understood in actors own perspectives. Where is HRM mainly? In organizational and managerial perspective the term human resource refers to an organization s most valuable and greatest asset: the people handling and working in the organization. They are the persons who drive the organization with their capacity, strength and the potential they possess. Human Resource Management is a strategic and comprehensive approach to managing people and the workplace culture and its environment. Its characteristics include line responsibility for people management; business based approach to human resource processes; individualism rather than collectivism; and proactive people strategies aiming to develop employee commitment and morale. It is the organizational function that deals with various issues related to people such as compensation, hiring, performance, organizational development, safety, wellness, motivation, relations, communication, administration, training etc. It enables employees to contribute effectively and productively to the overall company direction and the accomplishment of the organizational objectives and goals. In order to target organizational goals and to maximize effectiveness of the individuals capabilities, their talents, working time, their functions, qualities etc. must be managed systematically by ensuring that the employees are capable to meet organizational goals well. Thus, human resource management is the act of running and controlling the organization so that it is responsible for how people are treated well within the organizational environment. According to above illustration it is obvious that HRM mainly deals with quality functions than the quantity functions. Thus, there is no argument for the fact that the research in HRM should mainly follow the interpretive methodological approach, which mainly focuses on qualitative aspects of human resources. Interpretivists are always ready to listen and allow participants to express their own needs, interests and expectations. For understanding human behavior its subjects combined with their thoughts, feelings and actions are clearly touched in qualitative research. Human behavior should be studied and understood within a setting in which it occurs. It researches lives, lived experiences, behaviours, emotions and feelings as well as about organizational functioning, social movements, cultural phenomena, and interaction among employees. It is multi method in focus involving an interpretive naturalistic approach to its subject matter. In understanding human behavior in-depth particularly the contextual variables such as organizational culture, traditions, beliefs, norms, roles etc. are important to address within the setting in which they operate. Therefore, the results of interpretive methodology are more meaningful and useful in human resource planning. What challenges faced by HR researchers in applying interpretive methodology? In professional practice, researchers in HRM have confronted a great challenge particularly in analyzing subjective data with many disadvantages of the interpretive approach. Among them the difficulty of generalizing the issue and its causes and findings is one of the most important challenging aspects. According to interpretivism reality is understood subjectively and thus there are multiple realities in any given situation. Such multiple realities are not easy to generalize. It is interpretive based on symbolic interactions like leadership styles, images, the roles, relationships and behaviors of different employers and employees. It is dynamic and changes according to employers or employees perception. As its focus is on quality the reality is understood comprehensively in a holistic view. Such views cannot easily be quantified and thus how to analyze and generalize such comprehensive holistic information is one of the challenges faced by the researchers in HRM field. Due to this reason in many instances professionals in this field are worrying, as they have not been able to show their results to the organization objectively. Sometime particularly in professional field this may be due to their ignorance of the application of proper methodology in research and the lack of knowledge in quantitative analysis. On the other hand such holistic studies cannot be handled within a large scale sampling frame. As the phenomenon is studied in-depth its sample size must be very small. But if there are hundred or thousand employees of a certain organization it is impossible to practice the interpretive approach. Thus, less representative capability of interpretive approach is another issue faced by the researchers in HRM. What is suitable methodology? Under this background the objective of this paper is to discuss the ways and means of integrating two different methodologies starting with interpretivism that is the most realistic in HRM and then combining with positivism which is generally accepted method in quantitative research. Thus, whatever the methodology is suggested 435

3 that should be capable of minimizing the limitations of both positivism and interpretivism. Particularly in HRM, suggested approach should particularly be capable of maintaining the quality of HR data by minimizing the disadvantages and limitations. To meet these requirements this paper suggests giving priority for the quality of data while handling representative samples for generalization so that the results can be shown quantitatively and objectively. In support of the suggestion it is important to note here that the scientific method followed by the positivists is still world widely accepted and practiced due to its comparative advantages even though whatever the controversial arguments have been among research philosophers. The identification of the problem, designing variables, constructing hypothesis, testing the hypothesis and relationships and reaching to logical conclusions are the main steps followed in the scientific process. But in many instances of the interpretive approach research conclusions are not rational and logical, as it finds difficulties in relating the variables with cause-effect relationship. Therefore, whatever the methodology adopted in the research process needs to take into account of all these aspects and that is why this paper emphasizes firstly to start from interpretivism to maintain the quality and then go back to the positivism to be scientific and logical by maintaining the standards of HRM research. For this purpose as an initial step this paper recommends to start from the content analysis, one of the important qualitative interpretive techniques, and then after apply data labeling or coding based on levels of measurement to quantify the qualitative data analyzed through the content analysis. Content Analysis: An instrument from interpretivism to positivism Content analysis is commonly used in analyzing qualitative data. It is defined as a systematic, replicable technique for compressing many words of text into fewer content categories based on explicit rules of coding (Berelson, 1952, Krippendorff, 1980). Content analysis is mainly focused on data coding technique. It uses standardized techniques to code, characterize and compare the text. The focus of content analysis is on two major aspects. One is to analyze the explicit or manifest content of a text and the other focuses on interpretation of the latent content of text. Thus, this technique can be used as an approach to quantify the interpretive qualitative data. For example assume that a researcher in HRM is conducting a study on performance of the employees. In many instances, level of performance of the employees cannot easily be quantified and for this purpose qualitative research techniques of the interpretive approach such as observation, participatory observation, discussions with immediate supervisors have to be applied. But such qualitative research techniques only describe the performance of each employee and with such descriptive data researcher finds great difficulties in generalizing the entire level of performance of the employees of the organization by analyzing case by case. In such situation researcher can use the technique of content analysis by compressing many descriptive words of discussions into fewer content categories by labeling the employees with higher performance, average performance and low performance or by applying whatever the labels and categories that the researcher uses according to his purpose. If the researcher wants to maintain the quality of the qualitative data he can broaden the labeling process with many categories. Referring to the same example if the researcher further wants to examine the extent to which line managers role has been a case in determining the levels of performance of each employee particularly he has to use qualitative research methodology to understand the line managers behaviour. But simultaneously researcher faces different methodological problems in gathering data. Can line managers role and behavior be compressed into a questionnaire to follow the positivists path? Even though it is done so will the employees be ready to state the real behavior of line managers to a questionnaire, as it should be given in writing? With these different methodological issues the best way to start from in-depth interviews, which is considered as one of the interpretive methodological techniques to understand the individual employee s perception of the role of line managers. But even within this approach the researcher faces problems of analyzing data. How could he generalize the overall perception of the employees about line managers by describing individual perception? As a solution once again the researcher can use the instrument of content analysis by converting the employees perception into categorical data, which sets the foundation to nominal or ordinal levels of measurement. Thus, the variables constructed by data labeling in the research process may be parametric or non-parametric belonging to different levels of measurement which also set the foundation to various quantitative statistical analysis of positivism. Levels of measurement: parametric or non-parametric HRM data Levels of measurement set the foundation particularly for the analysis of quantitative or qualitative data. Basically there are four levels of measurement such as nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales. For nominal scale, classification puts the foundation and thus the researcher attempts to sort elements of the issue with respect to some characteristics. Nominal items are usually categorical and they have no numerical meaning. They provide labels or names for certain characteristics. For example employees may agree or disagree of the current performance evaluation system of their organization. They may be happy or unhappy with the existing recruitment and selection procedure. Within ordinal scale researcher attempts to distinguish the categories according to the degree to which they possess a certain characteristic but he is not a position say exactly how much they possess that characteristic. For example, a researcher can indicate the performance or efficiency levels of the employees as high, average and low but he may not be in a position to say the exact levels of performance or efficiency in values. Therefore, these two levels of measurement are non-parametric. The interval and ratio scales are parametric, as the data belonging to these two categories can be measured by using physical units of measurements. For example salary, incentives, age, overtime hours, number of leave days taken by the employees etc. can be measured. Why such parametric and non-parametric concepts are important in researching from interpretivism to positivism? 436

4 Parametric and non-parametric concepts associated with different levels of measurement set the foundation for different quantitative analysis of positivism. Particularly qualitative researcher mainly deals with nominal and/or ordinal level data and such levels of measurements are associated with non-parametric statistical techniques that are used to quantify and analyze mainly qualitative data. Referring to the same example, if it is assumed that the behaviour of line managers has been a case for the level of performance of the employees the association between these two variables can be tested by converting the qualitative data into the tabular format No. 1 as indicated below. Tabular Format No.1 The Relationship between Behaviour of Line Managers and the Performance of Employees Level of Performance Low Average High Behaviour of line manager Aggressive XX Nonaggressive XX The above tabular format may be nominal to nominal, nominal to ordinal or sometime interval to nominal/ordinal and it depends on the way of converting qualitative data into quantitative forms. Based on such tabular formats constructed through different levels of measurements the type of statistical technique that is used to analyze data is determined in quantitative analysis. As an example, for the above tabular format No. 1 Chisquared technique as a non-parametric method can be used to analyze such categorical data by constructing and testing a null-hypothesis: There is no relationship between the levels of performance of the employees and the behaviour of line managers at a specified significant level. According to the above example, tabular format No. 1 was constructed based on qualitative data so that the quantitative techniques can be practiced according to positivism. Then the output can be shown objectively and it is rational and scientific not like practicing interpretive methodology directly. As another example assume that a researcher wants to evaluate a certain training programme according to Kirkpatric Model. Accordingly he needs to examine the extent to which training has made an impact on skills, attitudes, behaviour and overall organizational goal of the organization. Thus, how could he show his results in objective forms if he completely depends on interpretive methodology? Through the interpretive methodology he can examine individual skills, attitudinal and behavioural changes but how could he reach to rational conclusions only through such methodology by accepting or rejecting whether training made an impact or not. In such methodological issues it is advisable to transform from interpretivism to positivism as indicated in Tabular Format 2 so that rational conclusions with causeeffect could be reached. Tabular Format 2 Change in Training Parameters before and after Training Training Before After Parameters Skills Nil Some level Attitudes Negative Positive Behaviour Bad Best If it is needed the responses of each cell can be weighted so that the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) can be practiced by constructing and testing the null-hypothesis on There is no change in training parameters before and after training at a specified significant level. Sometime all the data and information in HRM may not be in qualitative form and some of them may be at parametric levels belonging to interval and ratio scales. For example, performance levels of the employees may vary according to their age or perception of the employees about the behaviour of line managers may vary according to the age of employees, as sometime young employees may like their behaviour than the old employees or vice versa. In such situations both parametric and nonparametric concepts are applied and the data converted into the tabular format No. 3. In order to reach to the logical conclusions by testing the relationship between these variables ANOVA can be practiced according to positivism by constructing and testing the hypothesis as Perception of the employees about the behavior of line managers does not vary according to their age at a certain probability level. Tabular Format No. 3 Age of the Employees by their Perception on the Behaviour of Line Managers Aggressive Nonaggressive Mean age Mean age If all the data gathered in HRM research are at parametric level belonging to interval and ratio scales the researcher does not want to bother about the interpretive approach and he can directly start the research from the positivism. But this is very rare in HRM research, as many aspects of HRM cannot easily be quantified with the use of physical units of measurements. However, there may be some variables that can be quantified directly. For example if the researcher attempts to examine the relationship between age and absenteeism (calculated based on the number of leave days taken monthly or annually) or age and productivity/efficiency of the employees (calculated based on the number of pieces produced or some other technique) the data converted into the tabular format No. 4 as indicated below. All the data in such tabular format are parametric belonging to interval or ratio scales and the parametric statistical method like regression and correlation can be run to test the association of such variables. Sometime it is also possible to convert qualitative data into parametric data by coding the data based on likert scale or some other scale. In such 437

5 situations parametric advanced statistical tools used in positivism can be practiced to reach to the logical and scientific conclusions by testing the hypothesis at a determined significant level. Tabular Format 4 Absenteeism of Employee by Age Absenteeism Age (X) (Y) X XX X XX CONCLUSION This paper attempted to emphasize some methodological approach to the research in HRM based on two philosophical research paradigms: positivism and interpretivism. Normally research traditions start from positivism and then go to the interpretivism but this paper suggested the other way around particularly by taking into consideration of the nature of data and information of HRM research. The paper attempted to justify various reasons for such an approach. Among them possibility of showing objective and logical results according to worldwide accepted norm of scientific method is the strong point in favour of the suggested approach. Certainly the positivists approach is scientific and logical as it has the capability of measuring the relationship among HR variables and it can show the productive results quantitatively. That is why this paper particularly emphasizes the need of researching from interpretivism to positivism to maintain the quality as well as the scientific quantitative standards of conducting research. But we should not forget here another philosophical paradigm called Critical Social Theorists eliminate subject-object dualism and instead they explore social world critically and empower the individual to overcome problems in the social world by practicing mix methodology. Anyhow, is there any art behind science? In answering to this question it is advisable to question Who generated the concepts to this world to practice by science? The answer is science behind arts or the arts behind science? In another terms quantity behind quality or quality behind quantity? Positivism behind interpretivism or interpretivism behind positivism? Which is more powerful? Or both are unbeatable to each other? Addressing this matter is open to the other researchers. REFERENCES [1.] Berelson, B. (1952), Content Analysis in Communication Research, Glencoe, III: Free Press. [2.] Bernard, H. (1994), Research Methods in Anthropology: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, 2 nd Edition, Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press. [3.] Creswell, J. W. (1998), Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Traditions, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. [4.] Creswell, J. W. (1994), Research Design: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, Thousand Oaks, CA:Sage. [5.] Denzin, N. K. and Lincoln, Y. S. (Eds.), (1994), Handbook of Qualitative Research, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. [6.] Healy, M. and Perry, C. (2000), Comprehensive Criteria to Judge the Validity and Reliability of Qualitative Research within the Realism Paradigm, Qualitative Market Research, An International Journal, 3(3), pp [7.] Hubert, M. and Blalock, Jr. (1972), Social Statistics, McGraw-Hill Book Company, USA. [8.] Krippendorff, K. (1980), Content Analysis: An Introduction to its Methodology, The Sage Commtext Series, London: Sage Publications. [9.] Neuman, W. L. (1997), Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches, Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. [10.] Silverman, D. (2004), Doing Qualitative Research, 2 nd Edition, Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA. [11.] Valerie, A. (2009), Research Methods in Human Resource Management, Mc Grow Hill, Europe. Shantha Wijesinghe, M. A. Senior Lecturer Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, University of Sri Jayewardenepura Sri Lanka shanthawi@gmail.com 438