TOP MANAGEMENT TEAM SHARED LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATIONAL AMBIDEXTERITY: A MODERATED MEDIATION FRAMEWORK

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1 bs_bs_banner Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal Strat. Entrepreneurship J., 8: (2014) Published online in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) TOP MANAGEMENT TEAM SHARED LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATIONAL AMBIDEXTERITY: A MODERATED MEDIATION FRAMEWORK OLI R. MIHALACHE 1,2 *, JUSTIN J. P. JANSEN 3, FRANS A. J. VAN DEN BOSCH 3 *, and HENK W. VOLBERDA 3 1 School of Business and Economics, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada 2 Faculty of Economics and Business Administration, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands 3 Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University, Rotterdam, The Netherlands This study proposes top management team (TMT) shared leadership as an important enabler of organizational ambidexterity. Moreover, we examine both how and when TMT shared leadership enhances organizational ambidexterity by considering two TMT processes as mediators (i.e., cooperative conflict management style and decision-making comprehensiveness) and two elements of organizational structure (i.e., connectedness and centralization of decision making) as important contingencies. We test our moderated mediation framework using time-lagged data from a cross-industry sample of 202 firms. We discuss how our findings extend strategic entrepreneurship, ambidexterity, and leadership research and provide implications for practice. Copyright 2013 Strategic Management Society. INTRODUCTION A central tenet of strategic entrepreneurship research is that firms need to simultaneously engage in opportunity-seeking and advantage-seeking activities to survive over time (Hitt et al., 2001; Ireland, Hitt, and Sirmon, 2003; Ireland and Webb, 2007; Ketchen, Ireland, and Snow, 2007; Snow, 2007). Supporting this idea, studies have indeed shown that the ability to engage in both exploratory and exploitative innovation, often referred to as organizational ambidexterity, is associated with higher levels of performance (He and Wong, 2004; Lubatkin et al., Keywords: ambidexterity; TMT shared leadership; cooperative conflict management style; decision-making comprehensiveness; connectedness; centralization *Correspondence to: Oli R. Mihalache, School of Business and Economics, Wilfrid Laurier University, 75 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON, N2L 3C5, Canada. oli.mihalache@gmail.com 2006; Sirén, Kohtamäki, and Kuckertz, 2012; Uotila et al., 2009). However, ambidexterity is difficult for most firms to achieve due to inherent tensions between exploratory and exploitative entrepreneurial processes. Both processes compete for scarce resources, have different time horizons, and may cannibalize on one another (March, 1991; Smith and Tushman, 2005). Given the importance of ambidexterity for sustained performance, research on strategic entrepreneurship and organizational ambidexterity has started to explore how firms may overcome these hurdles and to engage in both exploratory and exploitative innovation. Pioneering studies proposed structural solutions for ambidextrous organizations by suggesting to separate exploratory and exploitative processes in different units (e.g., Kleinbaum and Tushman, 2007; Tushman and O Reilly, 1996; O Reilly and Tushman, 2004). In this way, the top management team (TMT) is considered an important locus for Copyright 2013 Strategic Management Society

2 TMT Shared Leadership and Ambidexterity 129 resolving conflicting tensions within ambidextrous organizations and engaging in balanced resource allocation (Burgelman and Grove, 2007; Smith and Tushman, 2005; O Reilly and Tushman, 2004). Building on these insights, research so far has proposed that characteristics of TMTs can predispose TMT members to certain behaviors that may contribute to the ambidexterity of organizations (Beckman, 2006; Carmeli and Halevi, 2009; Lubatkin et al., 2006). Moving beyond TMT predispositions, recent studies on ambidexterity have also argued that the leadership style of senior executives is particularly important in understanding the effectiveness of TMT processes and the ability of organizations to pursue exploratory and exploitative activities (Jansen et al., 2008). Yet, research has merely adopted a top-down view on leadership, in which the CEO is mainly responsible for leadership effects that influence both TMT and organizational members. Emergent research, however, has identified an alternative perspective on the role of leadership and suggested that leadership behaviors may also flow laterally within TMTs by sharing leadership responsibilities among their members. Largely overlooked so far, we argue that this latter perspective on leadership holds great potential to better understand the ability of firms to achieve ambidexterity because usually the leader s style is not sufficiently effective to overcome the natural differentiation of interests in a multifunctional senior team (Beer et al., 2005: 452). Our study contributes to this discussion by proposing that TMT shared leadership can help overcome the tensions between exploratory and exploitative entrepreneurial processes. Shared leadership refers to the distribution of leadership influence across multiple team members (Carson, Tesluk, and Marrone, 2007: 1218). Applied at the TMT level, shared leadership is a practice in which the CEO and other TMT members share the responsibility for and fully participate in the tasks of leadership, such as setting goals and motivating task behaviors (Carson et al., 2007; Yukl, 1989). We propose that TMT shared leadership can stimulate organizational ambidexterity by prompting TMTs to engage in (1) cooperative conflict management and (2) comprehensive decision making. Thus, by explicitly considering the mediating mechanisms both theoretically and empirically, we further contribute to research on strategic entrepreneurship, organizational ambidexterity, and leadership as we open the black box of how shared leadership affects ambidexterity. Furthermore, there is a paucity of studies analyzing important contingencies in understanding the effectiveness of leadership in ambidextrous organizations (cf. Raisch and Birkinshaw, 2008). While previous studies have shown the influence of the external environment (Jansen, Vera, and Crossan, 2009b), the role of the internal context remains less well explored. For instance, despite accumulating evidence that the effectiveness of leadership for stimulating firm-level innovation depends on the organizational structure (e.g., Jung, Wu, and Chow, 2008), our understanding of how leadership and organizational structure jointly determine the ability of organizations to engage in exploratory and exploitative activities remains limited. We contribute to prior research by considering when (i.e., under what conditions) shared leadership is most effective in stimulating ambidexterity. We make a distinction between formal and informal structural aspects (Ghoshal, Korine, and Szulanski, 1994; Tsai, 2002) and argue that centralization and connectedness affect the extent to which TMT shared leadership promotes a cooperative conflict management style and comprehensive decision making within the TMT. That is, through their role as first-stage moderators, centralization and connectedness qualify the indirect effects of TMT shared leadership on ambidexterity. By analyzing this contingency role of the organizational structure, our study answers a call for more research on the boundary conditions concerning the determinants of organizational ambidexterity (Raisch and Birkinshaw, 2008). Overall, we contribute to a novel understanding about the importance of shared leadership in ambidextrous organizations. Our resulting moderated mediation framework considers both how and when TMT shared leadership affects organizational ambidexterity (see Figure 1). We test the proposed relationships on time-lagged data from a cross-industry sample of 202 Dutch organizations. We find strong empirical support for our hypothesis that TMT shared leadership can stimulate organizational ambidexterity. Also, empirical results suggest that TMT cooperative conflict management style and TMT decision-making comprehensiveness mediate this relationship. Furthermore, we find that these indirect effects are stronger in organizations that have higher connectedness. However, we do not find empirical evidence for the moderating role of centralization of decision making. As such, we highlight the importance of simultaneously considering mediating and moderating effects to enhance

3 130 O. R. Mihalache et al. Organizational structural elements: Centralization TMT shared leadership TMT cooperative conflict management style TMT decision-making comprehensiveness Organizational ambidexterity Connectedness Figure 1. The conceptual model the understanding of how TMTs may enhance strategic entrepreneurship. THEORY AND HYPOTHESES DEVELOPMENT Strategic entrepreneurship, organizational ambidexterity, and leadership At the intersection of strategic management and entrepreneurship, literatures on strategic entrepreneurship have emphasized that firms need to create new opportunities and secure advantages from these opportunities in order to improve performance (Ireland et al., 2003; Hitt et al., 2001; Snow, 2007). As such, strategic entrepreneurship within organizations involves being able to form a balance between opportunity-seeking (i.e., exploration) and advantage-seeking (i.e., exploitation) behaviors (Ireland and Webb, 2007: 50). A growing body of research espouses the importance of excelling at both exploratory and exploitative innovation for long-term organizational success because it permits organizations to avoid traps associated with favoring one type of innovation over the other (e.g., Burgelman, 1983a; Gibson and Birkinshaw, 2004; He and Wong, 2004; Sirén, et al., 2012). Organizations focusing on exploratory efforts may not fully capture benefits associated with commercializing existing competencies (Gupta, Smith, and Shalley, 2006). Conversely, organizations focusing on exploitative innovation may enjoy short-term profits yet face the risk of not being able to respond adequately to environmental changes (Levinthal and March, 1993). As such, Ireland et al. (2003: 983) argued that the effective use of SE (strategic entrepreneurship) leads to a comprehensive and integrated commitment to both sustaining and disruptive innovations as drivers of wealth creation. The extent to which firms are able to pursue exploration and exploitation simultaneously within their boundaries 1 depends, to a large extent, on the ability of senior leadership to orchestrate the complex trade-offs that ambidexterity requires (O Reilly and Tushman, 2008: 200). As decisions regarding strategic directions and resource allocation are generally made in the upper echelons of the organization (Finkelstein and Hambrick, 1996), the TMT is a primary locus to resolve tensions between exploration and exploitation. However, since senior executives generally belong to different functional units that have different priorities, they are likely to perceive exploratory and exploitative innovation as conflicting activities (Floyd and Lane, 2000; Jansen et al., 2008). To support both exploratory and exploitative initiatives, TMT members must overcome personal biases and perceived conflicts of interest (Smith and Tushman, 2005). Additionally, TMTs are an important source for recognizing and implementing valuable synergies among exploratory 1 Research has identified various types of ambidexterity depending on whether exploration and exploitation are pursued at the same or different points in time and whether they are pursued within the boundaries of the firm or with the help of partners (cf. Raisch et al., 2009). While we consider all these types of ambidexterity valid and important, our study focuses on how exploration and exploitation are pursued simultaneously within the boundaries of the firm (e.g., O Reilly and Tushman, 2004; Jansen et al., 2008).

4 TMT Shared Leadership and Ambidexterity 131 and exploitative actions (O Reilly and Tushman, 2004). To enable such a salient role in achieving organizational ambidexterity, TMT members must develop appropriate mental schemas that allow them to consider exploratory and exploitative innovation as complementary rather than competing activities (Carmeli and Halevi, 2009; Smith and Tushman, 2005). We propose that by influencing TMT functioning, shared leadership holds great potential for stimulating ambidexterity. The concept of shared leadership refers to the practice in which group members share the responsibility for and fully participate in the task of leadership (Ensley, Pearson, and Pearce, 2003). The task of leadership involves deciding on the objectives, motivating behavior to achieve goals, and influencing group maintenance (Yukl, 1989). While shared leadership has initially been analyzed within groups at lower hierarchical levels (Carson et al., 2007; Pearce and Sims, 2002; Perry, Pearce, and Sims, 1999), emergent research proposes that the TMT is a promising setting for shared leadership (Denis, Lamothe, and Langley, 2001; Ensley, Hmieleski, and Pearce, 2006). In this study, we consider the TMT as comprising the CEO and senior executives who are responsible for important decisions about the firm (Carmeli and Halevi, 2009). In a TMT setting, shared leadership means that the leadership task is distributed among the TMT members instead of being the duty of solely one person, i.e., the CEO. It is a team process where leadership is carried out by the team as a whole, rather than solely by a single designated individual (Ensley et al., 2006: 220). That is, shared leadership implies that TMT members share the tasks of deciding on the organizational goals and priorities, motivating each other, and influencing group maintenance (Ensley et al., 2003; Perry et al., 1999). Whereas the traditional view of leadership vertical leadership involves the downward projection of influence from the chief executive to the rest of the TMT members, shared leadership entails the exertion of lateral influence among members of the TMT (Cox, Pearce, and Perry, 2003; Ensley et al., 2006; Pearce and Sims, 2000). Put differently, whereas vertical leadership can be considered as an influence on TMT processes, shared leadership is a TMT process (Ensley et al., 2006). Following recent research (e.g., Avolio, Walumbwa, and Weber, 2009; Carson et al., 2007; Gronn, 2002), we conceptualize shared leadership as a degree, with the minimum extreme when the CEO is solely responsible for the leadership tasks and the maximum level when the entire TMT fully shares the responsibility for leadership. We propose that TMT shared leadership holds great potential to help TMT members overcome tensions between exploratory and exploitative entrepreneurial processes. Tushman and O Reilly (1997: 23) argue that ambidexterity depends on TMTs internal processes that enable them to handle large amounts of information and decision alternatives and deal with conflict and ambiguity. Building on these ideas, we posit, that TMT shared leadership can stimulate ambidexterity by improving TMTs ability to resolve conflicts and to process information and strategic alternatives. Shared leadership, management processes, and organizational ambidexterity TMT shared leadership can enhance organizational ambidexterity because it promotes the emergence of a cooperative conflict management style within TMTs. The cooperative conflict management style involves a high level of concern for the self as well as for the other party (Somech, Desivilya, and Lidogoster, 2009: 362), and it implies accommodating the wishes of others and a win-win rather than win-lose attitude (Rahim, 1983). The way team members handle conflict depends on perceptions of goal structure as distinct or collective goals (Tjosvold, Poon, and Yu, 2005). Shared leadership encourages cooperation during conflicts, as it can shift the frame of reference from self-interest to the priorities of the entire organization. As it requires team members to engage in ongoing negotiation and role sharing, shared leadership supports the development of shared perceptions and aspirations for team success (Manz and Sims, 1993). It makes TMT members experience shared emotions and a sense of team membership that lead to the realization that both the success and failure of organizational actions is due to their collaborative effort (Gronn, 2002). Accordingly, prior studies find that sharing leadership is associated with greater collaboration and cooperation among team members (Katz and Kahn, 1978; Manz and Sims, 1993). In other words, TMT members engaged in shared leadership experience higher commitment to the overall firm s success and, as such, are more likely to approach conflicts as joint problems that need commonly beneficial solutions.

5 132 O. R. Mihalache et al. In turn, because of its integrative nature, cooperative conflict management style can stimulate organizational ambidexterity. The cooperative conflict management style encourages team members to acutely listen to each other s perspectives and to integrate opposing positions to develop integrated solutions (Tjosvold, 1998). As such, TMT members can gain deeper understandings of the needs in other parts of the organization and, as a result, try to find ways to incorporate disparate demands in resource allocation decisions, supporting both exploratory and exploitative entrepreneurial initiatives. The integrative efforts of the cooperative conflict management style may allow for the development of paradoxical cognitions that are associated with ambidexterity (Smith and Tushman, 2005). That is, by adopting cognitive models that recognize and embrace strategic contradictions, TMTs engaged in cooperative conflict management style can select complex strategic options, such as supporting the development of new competencies as well as deepening existing ones. Supporting these ideas, Chen, Liu, and Tjosvold (2005) find empirical evidence suggesting that a cooperative management style of TMT members is positively related with a measure of innovation that includes both exploratory and exploitative elements. Therefore, shared leadership can stimulate ambidexterity by promoting a cooperative conflict management style that overcomes the tensions between exploration and exploitation. Hypothesis 1: TMT cooperative conflict management style mediates the positive relationship between TMT shared leadership and organizational ambidexterity. Furthermore, shared leadership can stimulate ambidexterity by encouraging TMTs to engage in comprehensive decision making. Decision-making comprehensiveness is a measure of rationality and is defined as the extent to which organizations attempt to be exhaustive or inclusive in making and integrating strategic decisions (Fredrickson and Mitchell, 1984: 399). It implies that TMTs gather extensive information, consider many alternatives, and apply multiple criteria for evaluating strategic options (Forbes, 2007; Simons, Pelled, and Smith, 1999). Research indicates that shared leadership can improve groups information processing capacity and is associated with increased team problem solving (Carson et al., 2007; Pearce and Sims, 2002; Perry et al., 1999). As it implies negotiating and sharing of responsibilities, shared leadership stimulates information sharing between team members (Katz and Kahn, 1978). Research shows that teams engaged in shared leadership communicate more information and also information of higher quality than teams with vertical leadership (Netemeyer et al., 1997). In addition to increased communication, shared leadership provides a wider pool of resources for the decision-making process as it brings together the skills and perspectives of a diverse set of TMT members rather than drawing solely on CEO s expertise (Waldersee and Eagleson, 2002). Building on this idea, extant research suggests that TMTs that engage in shared leadership exhibit superior performance in complex situations such as strategic change (Denis et al., 2001). In addition to providing the information processing capacity necessary for comprehensive decision making, shared leadership enhances the willingness of TMT members to engage in such a demanding process because, as previous research indicates, it is associated with heightened selfefficacy perceptions (Lovelace, Manz, and Alves, 2007: 380). Procedurally, the role sharing involved in shared leadership helps the integration of disparate alternatives in the decision-making process as it diminishes TMT members selective attention (Gronn, 2002). Therefore, we propose that shared leadership is associated with higher levels of TMT decision comprehensiveness. TMT decision-making comprehensiveness, in turn, is associated with increased organizational ambidexterity. As decisions pertaining to which entrepreneurial actions receive the support of the senior team underlie the tensions between exploration and exploitation, the way in which TMTs approach decision making affects the extent to which organizations act ambidextrously. The extensive search involved in comprehensive decision making allows the identification of the perspectives and needs of various stakeholders, thus facilitating the ability of TMTs to integrate different points of view and accept trade-offs (Wong, Ormiston, and Tetlock, 2011). Due to extensive information search, decision comprehensiveness can reduce groupthink and escalation of commitment to a particular course of action, whether that is a focus on exploratory or exploitative innovation (Simons et al., 1999). By comparing various alternatives against multiple criteria, comprehensiveness can guard the decisionmaking process against opportunism and selfinterests of individual TMT members (Forbes,

6 TMT Shared Leadership and Ambidexterity ), leading to a more merit-driven and balanced allocation of resources between exploratory and exploitative entrepreneurial processes. In line with these ideas, Gedajlovic, Cao, and Zhang (2010) find empirical evidence in a sample of Chinese high-tech SMEs indicating that decision comprehensiveness is associated with higher levels of exploration and exploitation. Thus, TMT shared leadership can stimulate organizational ambidexterity by encouraging comprehensiveness in the strategic decisionmaking process. These arguments lead to the following hypothesis: Hypothesis 2: TMT decision-making comprehensiveness mediates the positive relationship between TMT shared leadership and organizational ambidexterity. The moderating role of the organizational structure To this point, we argued that TMT shared leadership stimulates organizational ambidexterity by encouraging TMT members to adopt a cooperative conflict management style and to engage in comprehensive decision making. However, extant research indicates the organizational structure as an important contingency for the effectiveness of leaders actions (e.g., Jung et al., 2008; Shamir and Howell, 1999), as it determines the location and flow of information and competencies (Wolf and Egelhoff, 2002) and the interaction patterns among organizational members (Ethiraj and Levinthal, 2004). Miller (1987: 7), for example, argues that organizational structures and strategy-making processes are highly interdependent and must be complementary in many ways to ensure good performance. Although organizational design literature identifies a multitude of characteristics that describe the organizational structure (cf. Pugh et al., 1968), in this study, we consider two elements: centralization of decision making and connectedness. These two structural elements are particularly important, as they affect the information flows within the organization (Ghoshal et al., 1994; Tsai, 2002). In focusing on these particular two elements, we follow previous research arguing that centralization and social interaction provide a parsimonious representation of the organizational structure with the former representative of formal hierarchical structure and the latter representative of informal social relations (Ghoshal et al., 1994; Tsai, 2002). Next, we argue that, as they determine information use by TMT members due to their effect on information flows in the organization, centralization and connectedness affect the extent to which TMT shared leadership promotes a cooperative conflict management style and decision-making comprehensiveness. That is, by acting as first-stage moderators in our moderated mediation framework (as presented in Figure 1), centralization and connectedness shape the effectiveness of TMT shared leadership in enhancing organizational ambidexterity. The moderating role of centralization of decision making Centralization of decision making refers to the locus of authority to make decisions (Pugh et al., 1968: 76). Centralization occurs when decisionmaking power resides in the hands of a selected few at the upper levels of an organization, whereas decentralization occurs when decision-making power involves individuals at various organizational levels (Wong et al., 2011: 1210). We argue, therefore, that centralization enables the effectiveness of TMT shared leadership to stimulate the adoption of a cooperative conflict management style because it directs decision-making authority to the top of the organization (Lin and Germain, 2003). Centralization gives TMT members the opportunity to engage in conflict resolution regarding exploratory and exploitative entrepreneurial processes rather than pushing such decisions down the hierarchy. Sheremata (2000) argues that organizational centralization is important for facilitating trade-off decisions, such as those required in cooperative conflict resolution, because it puts decision-making power in the hands of senior executives who are generalists rather than employees at low levels who are specialists. That is, while shared leadership shifts the focus of TMT members to the interests of the overall organization, centralization helps realize this potential for cooperative conflict management by raising the locus of the tensions between exploration and exploitation to the TMT. Conversely, centralization of decision making may hinder the effectiveness of TMT shared leadership in encouraging the emergence of comprehensive decision making in ambidextrous organizations. O Reilly (1982) finds that information use by decision makers depends on the perceived quality of information as well as the ease of access. Despite having higher information processing capacity and

7 134 O. R. Mihalache et al. increased willingness to pursue cognitively demanding tasks, TMTs engaged in shared leadership that operate in more centralized organizations may be less able to pursue comprehensive decision making because it is more difficult for them to access information, and the information they do access is of lower quality. As it restricts communication patterns (Pierce and Delbecq, 1977), centralization dampens TMT members ability to draw on lower-level expertise. Also, previous research indicates that centralization is inversely related to information use in tasks that require generation of ideas (Jaworski and Kohli, 1993; Lin and Germain, 2003) because it increases the cost of communication (Atuahene-Gima, 2003). In addition, in centralized organizations, the information goes through a lengthy filtering process as it travels up the organization s hierarchy to reach decision makers (Sheremata, 2000). As such, TMT members may not be able to act on their inclination for comprehensiveness, as the quality of information available to them may be of low quality or biased. Considering that centralization affects the extent to which TMT shared leadership stimulates cooperative conflict management style and reduces comprehensive decision making (i.e., first-stage moderation), we propose the following indirect relationships: Hypothesis 3: Centralization moderates the indirect relationships between TMT shared leadership and organizational ambidexterity in such a way that: (a) the indirect effect through TMT cooperative conflict management style is stronger and (b) the indirect effect through TMT decisionmaking comprehensiveness is weaker for higher levels of centralization. The moderating role of connectedness An important informal aspect of the organizational structure is connectedness, which refers to the relational density of social networks within organizations (Sheremata, 2000). It involves direct contact among organizational members, irrespective of hierarchical or functional positions (Atuahene-Gima, 2003; Jaworski and Kohli, 1993). Connectedness can enhance the influence of shared leadership on TMTs propensity to engage in cooperative conflict management because it increases the amount and quality of information available to TMT members. Connectedness creates a context of trust and open sharing of information within the organization (Weingart, Bennet, and Brett, 1993) and increases TMT members awareness of different skills and competencies from various parts of the organization (Gruenfeld et al., 1996). As such, it may complement the predispositions of TMTs who engage in shared leadership for cooperative conflict management by facilitating the identification of synergies between strategic alternatives. As it allows for informal interaction and direct communication across hierarchical levels and departmental boundaries (Jaworski and Kohli, 1993), connectedness may enhance TMT members ability to identify needs in other parts of the organization and ways to recombine existing knowledge and resources. In this way, informal social relations can ease a TMT s adoption of a frame of mind that values both exploration and exploitation, which, as previously argued, is an important mechanism through which shared leadership promotes a cooperative conflict management style. In addition, connectedness also stands to enhance the influence of TMT shared leadership on decision-making comprehensiveness by providing access to alternative strategic options and to a crossorganizational network of information sources. Burgelman (1983b) finds that employees at lower organizational levels play important roles in providing options to extend firm competencies, but these opportunities need to overcome the selective forces within organizations. Connectedness allows for informal interaction that can sidestep formal selection processes and inform senior managers of new initiatives. Consequently, by reducing the effort exerted by TMT members to identify strategic alternatives, it enables the predisposition for comprehensiveness ignited by shared leadership. In addition, informal interaction with domain experts from various parts of the organization can provide objective information and feedback on potential initiatives considered by TMTs, enhancing the quality of the outcomes of the comprehensive decisionmaking process associated with shared leadership (Atuahene-Gima, 2003; Menon and Pfeffer, 2003). Considering these arguments, we suggest a firststage moderating role of connectedness in the indirect relationship between TMT shared leadership and organizational ambidexterity as follows: Hypothesis 4: Connectedness moderates the indirect relationships between TMT shared leadership and organizational ambidexterity in such a way that the indirect effects through (a) TMT cooperative conflict management style and (b) TMT

8 TMT Shared Leadership and Ambidexterity 135 decision-making comprehensiveness are stronger for higher levels of connectedness. terms of demographics and model variables. These analyses indicate that nonresponse bias is not a likely issue in our study. METHODS Data collection In order to subject our moderated mediation framework to empirical testing, we identified a random sample of 4,000 firms using the Orbis database. This database provides the most comprehensive listing of Dutch companies and contact information. Our sample covers a broad range of industries and includes private firms with more than 25 employees. In order to reduce the potential issues of single informant bias and common method bias (Podsakoff et al., 2003) and to alleviate concerns of reverse causality (e.g., Delgado-Garcia and Fuente-Sabate, 2010; Simsek and Heavey, 2011), we temporally separated the measurement of the TMT shared leadership, our main independent variable of interest, from the measurement of the mediating and dependent variables by about one year. In 2008, we sent a survey assessing TMT shared leadership, centralization, and connectedness to the executive director of each of the companies in our sample. We received responses from 889 companies, representing a response rate of 22 percent. In 2009, we mailed a second questionnaire to these executive directors to assess the extent to which their TMTs engage in cooperative conflict management and comprehensive decision making, as well as to evaluate their organizations levels of exploratory and exploitative innovation. We received 202 surveys with complete information for the variables of interest, or 23 percent of the original response. Our final sample contains organizations with a mean age of (s.d. = 32.38) years, a mean size of 204 (s.d. = ) full-time employees, TMT size of 4.91 (s.d. 2.54), that operate in various industries covering food and forestry (10%), manufacturing (25%), professional services (28%), transportation (12%), construction (12%), and other industries (13%). In order to assess the nonresponse bias, we compared the respondents with nonrespondents for the final sample. Results of t-tests show that the respondents do not differ significantly (p < 0.05) from nonrespondents in terms of organizational age and size. Furthermore, we find no significant differences (p < 0.05) between early and late respondents in Measurement and construct validation We measured the constructs of this study using multi-item scales that we adapted from existing literatures and verified their reliability and validity through various analyses. All items were measured on a seven-point scale where 1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree. The Appendix presents all the measurement items used in this study. Dependent variable Organizational ambidexterity refers to the simultaneous pursuit of exploratory and exploitative innovation (e.g., Lubatkin et al., 2006). We follow extant research that considers exploratory and exploitative innovation as orthogonal and measure organizational ambidexterity as the multiplicative score of exploration and exploitation 2 (e.g., Gibson and Birkinshaw, 2004). To assess the levels of exploratory and exploitative innovation, we used existing scales from Jansen, Van den Bosch, and Volberda (2006). Exploratory innovation (α = 0.85) is measured by a six-item scale that captures the extent to which organizations depart from existing knowledge and develop radical innovations aimed at emerging customers or markets. Exploitative innovation (α = 82) refers to the extent to which organizations pursue incremental innovations that address the demands of existing customers and markets, and we measure it using a six-item scale. In order to ensure the validity of our measure of organizational ambidexterity, we performed two analyses. First, exploratory factor analysis replicated the expected two-factor structure (i.e., exploration and exploitation), with all items loading on the appropriate factor (all factor loadings were above 0.60 and cross-loadings were below 0.39). Second, we compared the scores for exploratory and exploitative innovation with a three-item scale of innovativeness assessing the extent to which organizations: (1) introduce many new products and services; (2) place emphasis on product and service 2 Also in line with our conceptualization of ambidexterity, previous studies use a measure of ambidexterity calculated as the sum of exploration and exploitation (e.g., Lubatkin et al., 2006). We use this alternative measure of ambidexterity in a post hoc analysis in which we rerun our analyses.

9 136 O. R. Mihalache et al. innovation; and (3) experiment in the market with new products and services (Covin and Slevin, 1989; α = 0.83). The finding that both exploratory and exploitative innovation measures were positively correlated with the scale for innovativeness (r = 0.65, p < and r = 0.39, p < 0.001, respectively) provides further evidence for the validity of our ambidexterity measure. Independent variables TMT shared leadership refers to the degree to which TMT members (i.e., the CEO and the rest of the TMT) jointly engage in decision making, motivating, and encouraging group maintenance and culture (Ensley et al., 2003; Yukl, 1989). To assess TMT shared leadership, we developed an eight-item scale (α = 0.87) based on Manz and Sims (1987) widely used scale of self-managing work teams. As the original questionnaire items have been predominantly used for lower-level teams, we assessed their relevance at the TMT level by conducting interviews with TMT members from 14 firms. In addition to obtaining qualitative insights supporting the applicability of shared leadership at the TMT level, we asked the interviewees to assess the relevance of the items used to measure TMT shared leadership in order to calculate the content validity index (CVI). The CVI assesses the extent to which a scale has an appropriate sample of items to represent the construct it intends to measure (Davis, 1992; Polit, Beck, and Owen, 2007; Sirén et al., 2012). To calculate the CVI for our TMT shared leadership measure, we asked the respondents to assess each questionnaire item on a scale from 1 to 4 (1 = not relevant, 2 = somewhat relevant, 3 = quite relevant, and 4 = highly relevant). As the CVI is a measure of agreement among raters, we calculated, for each questionnaire item, the percentage of respondents who assessed the item as quite relevant or highly relevant. Then we calculated the agreement among raters regarding the items relevance for the entire TMT shared leadership scale by averaging the itemlevel CVIs. Since the average CVI for the TMT shared leadership scale (CVI = 0.88) is above the recommended value of 0.8, we are confident that our scale adequately captures the extent to which TMTs engage in the practice of shared leadership. TMT cooperative conflict management style measures the willingness of team members to collaborate during conflict resolution and to reach commonly beneficial goals (Somech et al., 2009). We measure TMT cooperative conflict management style with a four-item scale (α = 0.88) initially adapted from Rahim (1983) and widely used in previous literature (Alper, Tjosvold, and Law, 2000; Chen et al., 2005; Somech et al., 2009). TMT decision-making comprehensiveness captures the degree to which TMT members engage in an extensive decision-making process that involves considering multiple alternative solutions based on analyses using objective information (Miller, Burke, and Glick, 1998; Fredrickson and Mitchell, 1984). We measure TMT decision-making comprehensiveness (α = 0.84) using an existing six-item scale (Atuahene-Gima and Li, 2004; Miller et al., 1998). The six-item scale we use to measure centralization of decision making (α = 0.70) is adapted from Breaugh (1985) and captures the degree to which decision making is concentrated in the upper hierarchical levels of the organization. Connectedness (α = 0.70) is measured with a four-item scale adapted from Jaworski and Kohli (1993) and refers to the degree to which organizational members are networked to various hierarchical levels or parts of the organization. Control variables We account for exogenous influences on organizational ambidexterity by including relevant control variables: firm size, age, TMT size, structural differentiation, and industry. Firm size may influence the achievement of ambidexterity, as larger organizations may have more resources available yet may lack flexibility. We control for organizational size by including the natural logarithm of the number of employees. As older organizations tend to exploit more than younger ones (Gilbert, 2005), we control for firm age by including the natural logarithm of the number of years since the firm was founded. In line with previous studies that considered the importance of team size for shared leadership (e.g., Carson et al., 2007), we control for TMT size by including the natural logarithm of the number of TMT members. As previous studies have emphasized the importance of structural differentiation for achieving ambidexterity (e.g., Gilbert 2005; Tushman and O Reilly 1996), we also control for the degree of structural differentiation. Structural differentiation (α = 0.72) refers to the extent to which organizations segment their operations in specialized units and we measure it with a five-item scale from Jansen et al. (2009a). Lastly, in order to account for industry differences in the level of ambidexterity (e.g., He and Wong,

10 TMT Shared Leadership and Ambidexterity ), we created six dummy variables based on the Standard Industry Classification codes: food and forestry, manufacturing, professional services, transportation, construction (used as the base group), and other industries. Method validation In order to test for single respondent bias and to analyze reliability issues, we surveyed additional TMT members during each round of data collection in 2008 and We received completed questionnaires from at least a second TMT member for 11 percent of our final sample for exploratory and exploitative innovation and for 10 percent of the firms in the final sample for the independent variables. The average interrater agreement indexes (James, Demaree, and Wolf, 1993) for exploratory innovation (0.80), exploitative innovation (0.92), TMT shared leadership (0.92), centralization (0.84), and connectedness (0.88) indicate adequate agreement among the TMT members (LeBreton and Senter, 2008). In order to minimize the danger of potential common method bias, we employed procedural methods in our data collection. Following Podsakoff et al. s (2003) advice, we temporally separated the collection of the independent and the dependent variables by approximately one year. The temporal separation of measurement can reduce potential common method bias, as it decreases biases in the respondents retrieval processes, lessens the respondents ability to use previous answers to fill in recollection gaps, and makes previous answers less salient. In addition, the model we propose is less likely to suffer from common method bias, as it incorporates interaction effects. Hypotheses about interaction effects are less subject to common method bias because it is less likely that the respondents have a certain theory about such moderating relationships that would systematically bias their responses (Aiken and West, 1991; Harrison, McLaughlin, and Coalter, 1996). To verify the extent to which our data is likely to suffer from common method bias, we performed Harman s single factor test (Podsakoff and Organ, 1986) and we followed Podsakoff et al. s (2003) approach of controlling for an unmeasured latent factor. Both these tests indicate that common method bias is not a serious problem. In sum, we used ex ante procedural methods in the study design to reduce potential common method bias, and ex post statistical analyses indicate that common method bias is not likely in this study. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS We test the proposed moderated mediation framework in several ways. We first use the classical causal steps strategy proposed by Baron and Kenny (1986) and then we use a bootstrapping technique to quantify and build confidence intervals for the indirect effects themselves (Preacher and Hayes, 2008). Pre-regression analyses of the plots of standardized residuals versus predicted values and the normal probability plot of standardized residuals indicate that there are no serious violations of the major regression assumptions. Before performing the analyses, we mean centered the continuous variables in order to prevent the potential multicollinearity issue associated with testing moderating hypotheses (Aiken and West, 1991). Post-regression statistics show that there is no indication of multicollinearity as the highest variance inflation factor (i.e., 2.7) is well below the commonly used cutoff value of 10 (Neter, Wasserman, and Kutner, 1990). In Table 1, we present the descriptive statistics for the model variables. We first perform multiple ordinary least squares (OLS) regressions to check if our framework complies with Baron and Kenny s (1986) requirements for mediation. According to this approach, establishing mediation requires that: (1) the independent variable significantly affects the dependent variable; (2) the independent variable significantly affects the proposed mediating variable; and (3) when the independent is introduced simultaneously with the mediating variable, the proposed mediating variable significantly accounts for variability in the dependent variable and the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable is significantly reduced. The results of the empirical tests following these three steps are presented in Table 2. Model 1 presents the effects of the control variables and Model 2 adds the main effects of the moderating variables. Model 3 further adds the main effect of TMT shared leadership on organizational ambidexterity. The results of Model 3 are in line with the main proposition of our article, as the effect of TMT shared leadership on organizational ambidexterity is positive and statistically significant (β = 0.17, p < 0.05). These results also satisfy the

11 138 O. R. Mihalache et al. Table 1. Descriptive statistics and correlations Mean s.d Ambidexterity TMT shared leadership TMT cooperative conflict management style 4. TMT decision-making comprehensiveness Centralization Connectedness Firm size a Firm age a TMT size a Structural differentiation Food and forestry Manufacturing Transportation Professional services Construction Other industry Note: Correlation coefficients above 0.14 are significant at p < a Natural logarithm.

12 TMT Shared Leadership and Ambidexterity 139 Table 2. Results of direct, indirect, and moderating effects a Model 1: Ambidexterity Model 2: Ambidexterity Model 3: Ambidexterity Model 4: Cooperative conflict mgt. Model 5: Decision comprehens. Model 6: Ambidexterity Model 7: Ambidexterity Model 8: Cooperative conflict mgt. Model 9: Decision comprehens. Model 10: Cooperative conflict mgt. Model 11: Decision comprehens. Firm size b Firm age b TMT size b Structural differentiation 0.23** 0.22** 0.20** ** 0.19** Food and forestry 0.25** 0.26** 0.25** *** 0.19* Manufacturing * * * Transportation Professional services * * * Other industry Connectedness Centralization 0.25*** 0.23*** ** 0.21** Main effect TMT shared leadership 0.17* 0.24** 0.34*** ** 0.34*** 0.28*** 0.38*** Mediating effects TMT cooperative conflict management TMT decision comprehensiveness Moderating effects TMT shared leadership X Centralization TMT shared leadership X Connectedness 0.23*** 0.38*** ** 0.23** R Adj. R F a Standardized coefficients are reported. b Natural logarithm; p < 0.10; *p < 0.05; **p < 0.01;***p <

13 140 O. R. Mihalache et al. first condition of Baron and Kenny s (1986) causal steps approach for mediation. Models 4 and 5 represent the second step of the mediation analysis, as they show the effect of TMT shared leadership on the proposed mediators, i.e., cooperative conflict management style and decisionmaking comprehensiveness, respectively. The positive and statistically significant influence of TMT shared leadership on TMT cooperative conflict management style (β = 0.24, p < 0.01) and on TMT decision-making comprehensiveness (β = 0.34, p < 0.001) satisfy the second condition for mediation. Next, we consider the influence of the mediators on organizational ambidexterity. Methodological advice (Kenny, 2009) and previous studies (e.g., Anderson, Covin, and Slevin, 2009; Simsek and Heavey, 2011) suggest to enter the proposed mediators in separate regressions when these have high correlations. Considering the significant correlation between our mediators (r = 0.39, p < 0.001), we analyze the mediating effects separately. In Model 6, we observe that the influence of TMT cooperative conflict management style on ambidexterity (β = 0.23, p < 0.001) is positive and statistically significant and that the effect of TMT shared leadership is not significant (p > 0.10) any longer. Model 7 indicates that TMT decision comprehensiveness is positively associated with organizational ambidexterity (β = 0.38, p < 0.001) and that the influence of TMT shared leadership is not statistically significant (p > 0.10). These findings in Models 6 and 7 represent confirmation of the third condition required for mediation. Therefore, our empirical analysis suggests that TMT shared leadership influences organizational ambidexterity and that this effect is mediated by TMT cooperative conflict management style and TMT decision-making comprehensiveness, as proposed in Hypotheses 1 and 2. Next, we test the moderation hypotheses. We first test the moderating role of centralization. The results of Model 8 suggest that Hypothesis 3a is rejected, as the coefficient of the interaction between TMT shared leadership and centralization does not have a statistically significant influence on TMT cooperative conflict management style (β = 0.01, p > 0.10). The empirical results in Model 9 indicate that Hypothesis 3b is also rejected since the interaction between TMT shared leadership and centralization does not significantly affect TMT decision-making comprehensiveness (β = -0.06, p > 0.10). In Hypotheses 4a and 4b, we proposed that connectedness moderates the indirect effects of TMT shared leadership on ambidexterity. Specifically, we argued that connectedness enhances the effect of TMT shared leadership on the two mediators, i.e., first-stage moderation. Model 10 shows that the interaction term between TMT shared leadership and connectedness has a positive and significant effect on TMT cooperative management style (β = 0.23, p < 0.01) and Model 11 also shows a positive and significant effect of the interaction between TMT shared leadership and connectedness on TMT decision comprehensiveness (β = 0.23, p < 0.01). These findings are supportive of the moderating role of connectedness for the indirect effects through both conflict resolution and decision-making comprehensiveness as proposed in Hypotheses 4a and 4b. To gain further insight into how the indirect effects differ depending on connectedness, we employed a bootstrapping procedure to quantify the indirect effects at low (-1SD), mean, and high (+1SD) levels of connectedness (Preacher, Rucker, and Hayes, 2007). Table 3 presents the indirect effects at values of connectedness and provides 99 percent confidence level intervals for these effects. Table 3. Conditional indirect effect(s) of TMT shared leadership on organizational ambidexterity at values of connectedness Conditional indirect effects of TMT shared leadership Connectedness Effect LLCI99% a ULCI99% a TMT cooperative conflict mgt ( 1SD) 0.39 (0.25) TMT cooperative conflict mgt. 0 (Mean) 0.66 (0.29) TMT cooperative conflict mgt (+1SD) 0.92 (0.36) TMT decision comprehensiveness 0.88 ( 1SD) 1.03 (0.44) TMT decision comprehensiveness 0 (Mean) 1.48 (0.47) TMT decision comprehensiveness 0.88 (+1SD) 1.93 (0.59) *Bootstrapping standard errors in parentheses. a 99% confidence intervals presented.

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