Flexicurity- the new avenue to competitive labour market

Transcription

1 mgr Anna Kądzioła University of Szczecin Keywords Flexicurity- the new avenue to competitive labour market Flexicurity, employment security, social security, social policy, work, employment protection legislation, flexibility of labour market, competitiveness, labour market 1. Introduction For the time being, flexibility and security on the labour market has become one of the keywords both of political and scientific debate on the future of work. Recently, the main objective is to define tools, which would resolve the apparently irreconcilable strategies and goals of employers and employees, who are confronted by new, competitive international market imperatives. In the European debates on employment, it can be seen a classic type of dualism - workers seek security of employment in an age, and at the same time employers seek greater flexibility on the part of their employees (the maximum prospects to adapt their workforce to market obligations, including the ability to hire and fire, and set working hours, deployment and conditions of work freed from socalled red type (Nectoux, Laurent:2003). Furthermore, it has to be underlined that employees, too, seek forms of flexibility in their working lives, while the businesses seek the skills and deployment of a trained employees, which indicate that some form of employment security is required. Moreover, flexibility and diversity on the labour market comprise different dimensions. There is a trend towards increasingly differentiated patters of employment cros-country and what is more within individual countries as well as increase in the proportion of the workforce that is non standard, while at the same time the nature organization of work within the company has changed. When 215

2 taking under consideration instability and need for social protection, these new conditions and transition of work and life differ greatly, and are leading to new challenges in the area of social security. The labour low of European Union countries and their social security systems have so far adapted only partially to these new developments. Meanwhile, the regulation of atypical work is still unsuitable, as is protection of those performing non-standard work. The concept of flexicurity deals with mentioned challenges by providing the balance of social security systems, trends towards flexible labour markets and working biographies as well as pluralisation of life - style. The main focus is put on compromise between flexibility and security as an alternative to a policy of sheer deregulation. Implementation and analyze of flexicurity can be a worthy aim for employment policies when it is used as a tool for reducing unemployment risks and improving the quality of life of people at work, as well as contributing to the adaptability of labour within businesses. This issue studies how flexicurity may be a valuable method of exploring the present situation on the labour market in selected European Union countries and its tracing new avenues in policy-making in Europe. The article presents what influence on the labour market was done by reconciling flexibility with social security so by developing and implementing flexicurity policy in those countries. 2. Economical and social background of flexicurity The predominant conclusions of the Lisbon Strategy which was prepared in June 2000 as that the key objective of the European Union is for Europe to become the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world, capable of sustainable economic growth, with more and better jobs and greater social cohesion. The objectives and motives of the Strategy are undoubtedly very noble, whereas the reality looks differently. The labour market has been in deep crisis in Europe from the beginning of 1970s. Unemployment has been rising steadily and then stayed at very high levels. Although, the official unemployment rate is recently lower than in the mid of 1990s it still reached 8.8% in May 2003 and has 216

3 been rising again since the end of Enlargement of European Union in 2004 made that the EU average rate of unemployment raised even more as the conditions on the labour market of the new Member States are sometimes very poor. In addition, not only the general employment insecurity has significantly increased in Europe during the last 20 years but also the number of atypically employed has disproportionally grown since 1980s. The non- standard work like part time, fixed term or self employed is less secure and moreover, provides less career prospects and training chances. Furthermore, very often it disqualifies employees from social benefits. The increase of the number of atypical employment can be explained by several elements (Tangian:2005): - globalization worldwide competitiveness of firms in the background of exporting industries to countries with cheap labour, required the liberalization of national economies and deregulation of labour markets - rapid technological change short time projects are implemented by temporary teams with a limited longevity and by single individuals - long-term unemployment workers having experienced a long time unemployment are more likely to be offered shorter contracts than other workers - immigration - the temporary employment of foreign workers is becoming more widespread and introduces flexibility into the labour market - high welfare - a fraction of the population in some European countries turn to part time job as a result of high earnings and accumulated welfare. - position of the family - the place of women in society is rising, questions which in recent years appeared are about the equal access both men and women to the labor market and balance between working life and living conditions. The rise in the number of atypical employment and intensive labour market transitions result in a new social situation which should be effectively reflected in the public policy. The outcome of the Lisbon Summit may be seen as a logical invitation to confront new employment policies with social quality. The new concept have to concern the balance between flexibility and 217

4 security in the labour market, see the perspectives of employees and employers, contribute to competitiveness in the context of changing economic and social conditions. In order to deal with these new challenges at the same time, economic, social and employment policies should be related in a specific way. To handle the growing flexibility of employment relations with lower job security and decreasing eligibility to social benefits, the notion of flexicurity has been introduced. It has been defined as a shift from job security towards employment security, and suggested to compensate the decreasing job security due to fewer permanent jobs and easier dismissal by improving employment opportunities and social security. According to this, relaxation of the employment protection legislation was supposed to be counterbalanced by providing improvements to temporary and part-time workers, supporting lifelong professional training which facilitates changes of jobs, more favorable regulation of working time, and additional social benefits. 3. Flexibility versus security According to Wilhagen and Tros (Wilhagen, Tros:2004), flexicurity is a policy strategy that attempts, synchronically and in a deliberate way, to enhance the flexibility of labour markets, work organization and labour relations on the one hand, and to enhance security - employment security and social security - notably for weak groups in and outside the labour market on the other hand. The aim of flexicurity policies is to increase the competitiveness of European economies by their further liberalization. Nevertheless, as its pointed in the Lisbon Strategy the mission of EU is enhancing both flexibility and security. Therefore, the primary goal is to attain a compromise between employers, who seek for the deregulation of labour markets, and employees, who wants to protect their rights (Visser, Hemerijck: 1997). The trend towards flexibility seems to be crucial for the current development of European labour markets. While, describing flexibility and security we should take under consideration several issues. The flexibility stands for the multivariate aggregate which includes(tangian:2005): 218

5 - external numerical flexibility (employment flexibility) - defined as the employer s ability to adjust the number of employees to current needs, - internal numerical flexibility (work flexibility) - the employer s ability to modify the number and distribution of working hours with no change of the number of employees, - functional flexibility ( job structure flexibility) employers ability to move their employees from one task or department to another, or to change the content of their work, - wage flexibility (variable pay) - which enable employers to alter wages in response to changing labour market or competitive conditions, - externalization flexibility (external functional flexibility) - the employers ability to order some works from external workers or firms without employment contracts but with commercial contracts in such forms as distance working, teleworking, virtual organization, and self entrepreneurial activities. The notion of Security includes following four types of security (Tangian:2005) - job security it is the protection of employees against dismissals and against significant changes of working conditions, - employability security the availability of jobs for dismissed and unemployed, corresponding to their qualification and previous working conditions, it can be improved by life- long professional training which can be offered both by employers and by training programs within active labour market policies, - income security- the protection of income through minimum wage machinery, wage indexation, comprehensive social security, including progressive taxation, provision for old age, etc., - combination security- the ability to combine paid work with other social responsibilities and obligations such as work life balance, work-family balance, early flexible part-time retirement, flexible working hours, and leave facilities. 219

6 Therefore, a flexicurity is expected as raise in the five types of Flexibility composed by improvements in five types of Security. 4. Deregulation and flexibilitation of the labour market Flexicurity and diversity on the labour market comprise many different dimension. The central elements of a model of flexicurity and their combinations and at the same time, appropriate safeguards should be designed for specific social risks or forms of employment. According to these guidelines the following four concepts form the basis (Keller, Seifert:2000): 1. transitional labour markets 2. intensification of internal and external flexibility trough employment 3. intensification of functional flexibility through lifelong learning 4. pension systems reform Ad. 1. Transitional labour markets The concept of this function is to create smooth transitions between employment and non- employment, thus, it has spread rapidly in recent years in institutionally oriented contributions to labour market and employment policy. It emphasizes an emergency of a new, more flexible type of work which will enable transitions on the labour market in both directions, for instance between full- time and part time work or between phases of employment and non- employment. Moreover, such a productive interruption of employment by the way of smooth transitions between different forms of activity make possible the realization of individual options in terms of life plans/ What is more important it creates support bridges in the sense of temporary employment opportunities for outsiders. The mechanism of employment bridges can be supported by tools of employment policy, such as transitional allowances, short-time allowances, job creation shames, wage subsidies, job rotation. The aim of the concept is socially supported redistribution of the lack of available jobs in periods of high unemployment and improvement of the availability of employees, as well as adaptability of enterprises, in this manner enable to deal with structural changes. 220

7 Ad. 2.Intensification of internal and external flexibility trough employment- It is well known that a company must have at its disposal a certain degree of flexibility in order to react to external market changes quickly and at reasonable cost. The way of flexibility, if its external or internal depends of company s experience. Internal numerical adjustment means on the one side the flexibility or reduction in working time in order to save jobs and on the other side it combines with transfers within firms or partly even between firms which presuppose appropriate skills. Furthermore, internal flexibility in contrast with external flexibility, provides returns to both employers and employees. This function enables companies to avoid dismissal and reemployment costs, keep team productivity, and ensures the amortization of investment in human capital. Additionally, employees not only avoid fluctuation costs but what is more can keep their jobs in the case of cyclical or seasonal fluctuations demand. Moreover, employees improve their chances of participation in companies specific trainings, technical and organizational development. Ad. 3. Intensification of functional flexibility through lifelong learning Recently, one of the main and current topic of European Commission s debate and one of the four pillars of the coordinated European Employment Strategy is improving the employability on the labour market. The idea of lifelong learning offers ways of safeguarding and improving the adaptability of workers. The trend towards this conception seems to be crucial for the current development of European labour market, since it relies less on the protection of a given workplace than on individual employment capabilities both internal and external labour market. The initial considerations propose the establishment of learning- time accounts, which would provide a minimum level of leave for vocational training for all workers. Learning time accounts not only would reduce the risk of unstable employment but what is more would promote mobility and flexibility on the labour market. Moreover, in recent times atypically employed workers have been mostly excluded from many types of company s trainings. Strengthening of functional flexibility through lifelong learning would give an opportunity to groups of employees such as part time employees, 221

8 fixed - term employees, the poorly qualified to take part in these specific trainings and in this way prepare themselves for new jobs and positions on the external market. Ad. 4 Pension systems reform This conception brings up the social problems in the postemployment phase which in the nearest future can arise as a result of the flexibilitation of employment. At this moment in most of European Union countries standard employment contracts and social security systems are still closely connected and as a consequence it can lead in a long term to poverty in old age or to claims for assistance due to the changes in form of employment. Atypical employment will create problems with pension provision when no other incomes can be obtained or no combinations with other pensions. One of the solution for this problem can be the idea of flexible entitlements which are currently developed. According to this proposal each insured person can be credited with up to five years as flexible entitlements periods, with which he or she can close up gaps in their individual career of employment. Regardless of the reason for the gap the flexible entitlement period will be assessed as if the insured person has had average earnings (Langeluddeke 1999: 10). This concept mostly encourage individual incentives for the required flexibility through the addition pension credits for periods with low or missing income. The four components of comprehensive idea of flexicurity which were so far mentioned represent a general approach to the social protection of employees and their should be related to different forms of atypical employment as these are in particular need of social protection. Nevertheless, it has to be emphasizes that atypical type of employment should not be understood as precarious employment. The aim of these form of employment is to take away the precariousness from atypical employment relations and build bridges between unemployment and employment. Variants of atypical employment form which urgently need solution are following (Keller, Seifert:2000): - part time work - marginal part time employment - temporary work agencies - fixed term employment - self employment 222

9 5. Part time work The importance of this form of atypical employment has raised simultaneously with the integration of women in the labour market. Recently this is the most widespread form of atypical employment. From the workers point of view it has two opposite dimensions, on one side it can be a bridge to the labour market, but on the other side it can be a trap in terms of income. In the case if voluntary part time job, which lasts over long period, in the post employment phase problems can arise with general pension claims. Regulations which can improve the socio economic situation of part time employees are following: - employees should have an entitlements rights to part- time work and a return to full time work in order to have options in changing their life and income situation - employees should have a right to take part in enterprisespecific trainings - it has to be implemented the concept of flexible entitlements which will remodel and eliminate the threat of old- age poverty as a consequence of low income. 6. Marginal part time employment This form of atypical employment, is a specific variant of part time work. Marginal part- time employment is a short- time employment with working time and income below a certain level. The primary goal of this form is to raise internal flexibility. During the last few years there has been a sharp increase in this kind of employment as a result of employees who has regular jobs and doing second job, but also from students and pensioners. Marginal part time employees pay relatively low social securely contributions( employers pay normal contributions), and it can lead to so- called low- wage trap. To avoid this, it must be created: - the model of baric provision - transitions to subsistence which will enable regular part time or full time work - further training measures outside the company 223

10 7. Temporary work agencies Temporary work agencies are the bridges to the labour market alike the part time job, but in contrast to all others forms of atypical employment they represent a three- dimension relation: - employee - temporary work agency - company. Accordingly, company here is a borrower and have their employees from the temporary agency. Temporary agencies work as a kind of job centers and have regular employment contracts with the employees. However, there is no particular social or employment risks, substantial mistreatment of this form of employment has caused employment unsteadiness. Instability of the prohibition on restraining the duration of the employment relationship with the temporary employee to the firs temporary hire to the company have been common. The focus has to be put on creating appropriate strategy which will enable to treat equally the employees from temporary agencies and the regular workforce of the hiring company (income working conditions). what is more important external flexibility has to be substitute by internal flexibility within the structure of employment-protection working time reduction. 8. Fixed term employment Fixed term- term employment as a form of atypical employment do not apply to usual legal regulations on protection against dismissal. Employees contracts with the companies automatically expire after a certain period. The concept of fixed term employment have two functions. First, they function as a form of trial period and in this meaning they are a bridge to permanent employment. On other point of view they can direct to dead ends. According to this, frequent and longer periods of fixed-term employment can lead to problems with entitlements to pension. Furthermore, this form of employment excludes employees from enterprise- specific training measures. Thus, alike in the case of temporary work agencies the efforts are made to substitute external flexibility by internal flexibility. 224

11 9. Self- employment From the beginning of 1990 this type of atypical employment has raised significantly. New self employment is an alternative between having dependent or independent activity. For the time being, the main attempts are made to legislate illicit labour through transfer to normal employment, the promotion of self- employment, and to create regulations, which are more operational and straightforward. 10. The model of flexicurity the Danish example of good practice The popularity of the flexicurity concepts shows the growing interest in combining work and family life, as well as other aspects (e.g. lifelong learning). In this context, some predict that in the near future passive welfare state will be replaced by an active welfare state, In researches presented in the literature, flexicurity has been used as a linchpin to analyze different employment and welfare policies in Northern European countries, such as the Netherlands, Denmark and more recently, Germany. Especially, the employment policies in Denmark, based on a flexicurity framework, have been subject of much attention in the last five years. The successful development of the Danish economy and labour market in recent years has stimulated ideas about the existence of a particular Danish model of the employment system characterized by (Madsen:2004): - high level of external numerical flexibility indicated by high levels of worker flows in and out of employment and unemployment - low level of employment protection - generous system of economic support for the unemployment - active labour market policies The Danish model is often introduced as a golden triangle of flexicurity (figure 1). It combines the three poles: flexible labour market, highly protective and generous welfare and social security system and an active labour market policy programme. Thus, it is a mixture of North European Welfare State on one hand, with Anglo- Saxon liberal, deregulated labour markets ( Madsen, 2002) on the 225

12 hand. In this meaning, Danish model is a kind of a hybrid model and make possible to trade off between a very flexible employment relation and a social protection system associated with active labour market programmes, which defends individuals from the potential costs of a low level of employment security. ( Auer&Casez, 2003). The model is pointing out flows of persons between different positions within work, welfare and active labour market programmes. Flexible labour market and the generous welfare system are linked by arrows which are depicting that, although, the majority of the unemployed returns to employment within short period of time but at the same time, nearly one forth of the workforce is affected by unemployment every year. Those who do not quickly go back into employment, are supported by active labour market programmes before re-entering the job. Moreover, the model is presenting with dotted eclipse the basic flexibility mixed with security, its combining a high level of numerical external flexibility and a generous system of economic support for the unemployed. The predominant role of active labour market policy is upgrading the skills of the unemployed and in this way supporting the flows from unemployment back to employment. In this terms the model present a genuine alternative to the common idea of making the individual employers responsible for income and employment security by having a high level of individual employment protection for the employees at the company level. ( Madsen, 2004) 226

13 Figure 1. The Danish model of flexicurity The basic flexibility security nexus Generous welfare system The qualification effect of ALMP Active LMP The motivation effect of ALMP Sources: Madsen, K. (2004), The Danish road to flexicurity. Where are we? And how did we get there?, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, p.3 For the time being, there are several countries in European Union which have balanced stability, flexibility, and security in a way that has allowed them to achieve a large quantity of jobs without sacrificing job quality. These countries have the highest employment rates (see Table 1), low unemployment, high rates of participation by women in the labour market, a good record in relation to the transformation of temporary into permanent jobs and among the best records of job quality and perceived security. 227

14 Table 1. Employment/population ratios, persons aged years (percentages) Employment/population ratio of people of working age Denmark 76,4 75,9 76,4 75,1 76 Netherlands 72,9 74,1 74,5 73,6 73,1 Finland 67 67,7 67,7 67,4 67,2 Germany 65,6 65,8 65,3 64,6 65,5 France 61,7 62,7 62,9 63,2 62,8 Spain 57,4 58,8 59,5 60,7 62 Greece 55,9 55,6 57,7 58,9 59,6 Italy 53,9 54,9 55,6 56,2 57,4 Poland 55 53,5 51,7 51,4 51,9 Sources: OECD Employment Outlook 2005, p. 238 Furthermore, it has to be emphasized, that countries like Germany and Italy in last few years have experienced a growth in more flexible forms of employment, at the same time in France, Spain or United Kingdom, the growth of flexibility has been replaced by the growth of standard forms of employment. Table 2. Employment/population ratio, persons aged 15 to 24 years (percentages) Employment/population ratio, persons aged 15 to Denmark 67,1 61, ,4 61,3 Netherlands 68,4 70,4 70,5 68,4 66,2 Finland 39,8 40,3 39,4 38,5 38,1 Germany 47, ,8 42,4 41,9 France 23,2 29,3 29,9 30,0 29,5 Spain 36,3 37,1 36,6 36,8 38,4 Greece 26, ,8 26,2 27,4 Italy 27,8 27,4 26, ,2 Poland 24,5 22, ,6 20 Sources: OECD Employment Outlook 2005 p

15 When analyzing flexicurity in a context of being a tool for reducing unemployment it can be seen that, countries with more flexible labour market like Denmark, Finland and Netherlands appear to have higher employment rate in comparing to countries where flexibility is lower such as Germany, France, Spain, or Italy (Table 1). Table 3. Employment/population ratio, women aged years (percentages) Employment/population ratios, women aged years (percentages) Denmark 72,1 71,4 72,6 70,5 72 Netherlands 63,4 65,3 65,9 65,8 65,7 Finland 64,5 65,4 66,1 65,7 65,5 Germany 58,1 58,7 58,8 58,7 59,9 France 54,8 55,7 56,4 57,3 56,9 Spain 42 43,8 44,9 46,8 49 Greece 41,3 41,2 43,1 44,5 45,5 Italy 39,6 41, ,7 45,2 Poland 48,9 47,8 46,4 46,2 46,4 Source: OECD Employment Outlook 2005, p.240 Indeed, flexible countries not only have high rate of women s employment, and high employment rates for youth (Table 1), but also a high rate of transformation of temporary jobs into permanent jobs. Therefore, according to the ratios shown in the Tables in comparing to other countries Poland seems to be the country where the concept of standard employment is more popular. In the last few years, the employment rate in Poland is much lower than in the countries where the labour market is more flexible. The same situation, can be observed when comparing ratios of employment persons aged 15 to 24 in Poland and countries which implemented flexicurity system (Table 2). In Poland in year 2004 only 20% of the youth were employed while at the same time in Denmark 61,3% of young people had a job. Evaluating indicators of employment of women in Poland and Western countries, allow to ascertain that in all countries with the low flexibility of the labour 229

16 market the level of women s employment is much lover then in countries which have already implemented the concept of flexicurity. Although, since 1945 women s participation in the labour market highly raised, their position in society is still lower than men, women still face many of disadvantages when accessing to the labour market. 11. Conclusions Summing up, we should try to answer if that which was pointed out at the beginning of this paper is true, so if implementation of flexicurity concept can be a tool for reducing unemployment risks and improving people s life at work, as well as contributing to the adaptability of labour within businesses. The analyses of the situation on the labour markets in selected countries which were made in this issue allow to formulate the general conclusion, that the balanced mixture of flexibility with social security can have a positive impact on the labour market. Examples like Denmark or Netherlanders with their higher employment rates, and higher participation of women, and youth in labour markets, prove that flexicurity as a combination of flexible labour market, the generous welfare system and active labour programs can serve as a new avenue in policy- making in Europe. References 1. Auer, P. (1998), Employability and Transitional Labour Markets, Paper prepared for the 3 rd TSER Meeting at the WZB, January. 2. Auer, P. (2000), Employment revival in Europe. Labour market success in Austria, Denmark, Ireland and the Netherlands, Geneva: International Labour Organization 3. Auer. P and Cazes, S. (eds.) (2003): Employment stability in an age of flexibility. Evidence from industrialized countries, Geneva: International Labour Organization Dublin Institute (1999), n Employment options of the future, Dublin. 4. Bernat, T. (2005), Strategia Lizbońska, fakty, mity, rzeczywistoś ć, Szczecin. 230

17 5. European Commission (2003), The European Commission Staff Working Paper (2003), Choosing to grow: knowledge, innovation and jobs in cohesive society, Luxemburg 21 March European Foundation (2001) 3rd European Survey on Working Conditions 2000, by P. Paoli and D. Merllie. Dublin, European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, 7. Keller, B. and H. Seifert (2000) Flexicurity Das Konzept für mehr soziale Sicherheit flexibler Beschäftigung, WSI- Mitteilungen, 53 (5), Flexicurity: the German trajectory TRANSFER 2/ Flexicurity Arbeitsmarkt und Sozialpolitik in Zeiten der Flexibilisierung, Düsseldorf. Zukunftskommission der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung (1998) WirtschaftlicheLeistungsfähigkeit, sozialer Zusammenhalt, ökologische Nachhaltigkeit. Drei Ziele ein Weg, Bonn. Translation from the German by James Patterson. 8. Klammer U. (2004) On the path towards a concept of flexicurity in Europe. 9. Kutscha G. (2000), General education and Initial Vocational training in Germany, The Flexicurity Route of modernization under aspects of flexibility, transferability and mobility, International Conference on teaching and Learning within Vocational and Occupational Education and Training Georg-August- University Gottingen. 10. Madsen, K. (2004), The Danish road to flexicurity. Where are we? And how did we get there?, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences. 11. Madsen, P. Kongshøj (2002): The Danish model of flexicurity: A paradise - with some snakes, in Hedva Sarfati & Giuliano Bonoli (Eds.): Labour market and social protections reforms in international perspective: Parallel or converging tracks?, Aldershot: Ashgate. 12. Madsen, P. Kongshøj (2003): Flexicurity through labour market policies and institutions in Denmark, in Peter Auer & Sandrine Cazes (eds.): Employment stability in an age of flexibility. Evidence from industrialize countries, Geneva: International Labour Organization. 231

18 Nectoux F. and Maesden L., (2003), From unemployment to flexicurity- opportunities and issues for social quality in the world of work in Europe, European Journal of Social Quality, vol. 4, issue ½. 14. OECD (1999). Employment outlook Paris, OECD. 15. OECD (2000). Employment outlook Paris, OECD. 16. Rubery, Jill et. al. (1995): Changing Patterns of Work and Working time in the European Union and the Impact on Gender Divisions, Report for the Equal Opportunities Unit, DG V, Brussels. 17. Tangian A. (2005), Monitoring flexicurity policies in the EU with dedicated composite indicators, presentation at the European Commission DG Employment, Social Affairs, and Equal Opportunities. 18. Wilthagen T. (1998), Flexicurity: A new paradigm for labour market policy reform?, discussion paper for the project Social Integration by Transitional Labour Market, Social Science Research Centre Berlin. 19. Wilthagen, T. (1998), Flexicurity: A new paradigm for labour market policy reform?, Discussion Paper FS I , Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin für Sozialforschung. WSI (2000) Schwerpunktheft der WSI-Mitteilungen. 20. Wilthagen T. (1998), Flexicurity: a new paradigm for labor market policy reform? 21. Wilthagen T., Tros F. (2004) The concept of: Flexicurity : a new approach to regulating employment and labour markets, Transfer, 10 (2), von Oorschot W. (2001), Work, welfare and citizenship, Activation and Flexicurity Policies in the Netherlands, Paper presented at COST Action, Tilburg University. 23. von Oorschot W. (2004), Balancing work and welfare: activation and flexicurity policies in The Netherland, , International Journal of Science, vol van Oorschot W (1999). Work, work, work: labour market participation policies in the Netherlands Paper presented at the annual ISA-RC19-Conference, Charles University, Prague, September 1999.

19 25. van Oorschot W, Boos C (2001). The battle against numbers: Dutch disability policies European Journal of Social Security 2(4). 26. van Oorschot W, Engelfriet R, Rademaker L (2001). The evolution of social protection in The Netherlands , report for the European Commission. Tilburg, Tilburg University. 27. Visser, J. and Hemerijck, A. (1997) The Dutch miracle: job growth, welfare reform and corporatism in the Netherlands. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press. 28. Vielle, P., and Walthery, P. (2003) Flexibility and Social Protection, European Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions, Dublin. 233