AIR WALK PUBLICATIONS

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1 AIR WALK PUBLICATIONS (Near All India Radio) 80, Karneeshwarar Koil Street Mylapore, Chennai Ph.: , aishram2006@gmail.com, airwalk800@gmail.com

2 First Edition : December 2006 Second Edition : August 2008 Third Edition : November 2013 Fourth Edition : March 2016

3 Syllabus S.1 GE TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT UNIT I INTRODUCTION 9 Introduction - Need for quality - Evolution of quality - Definitions of quality - Dimensions of product and service quality - Basic concepts of TQM - TQM Framework - Contributions of Deming, Juran and Crosby - Barriers to TQM - Quality statements - Customer focus - Customer orientation, Customer satisfaction, Customer complaints, Customer retention - Costs of quality. UNIT II TQM PRINCIPLES 9 Leadership - Strategic quality planning, Quality Councils - Employee involvement - Motivation, Empowerment, Team and Teamwork, Quality circles - Recognition and Reward, Performance appraisal - Continuous process improvement - PDCA cycle, 5S, Kaizen - Supplier partnership - Partnering, Supplier selection, Supplier Rating. UNIT III TQM TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES I 9 The seven traditional tools of quality - New management tools - Six sigma: Concepts, Methodology, applications to manufacturing, service sector including IT - Bench marking - Reason to bench mark, Bench marking process - FMEA - Stages, Types. UNIT IV TQM TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES II 9 Control Charts - Process Capability - Concepts of Six Sigma - Quality Function Development (QFD) - Taguchi quality loss function - TPM - Concepts, improvement needs - Performance measures. UNIT V QUALITY SYSTEMS 9 Need for ISO ISO Quality System - Elements, Documentation, Quality Auditing - QS ISO Concepts, Requirements and Benefits - TQM Implementation in manufacturing and service sectors. Total: 45 Periods

4 S.2 Total Quality Management JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY HYDERABAD MBA I-Sem TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (Open Elective I) Course Aim: The objective of this course is to facilitate students appreciate the quality concepts and develop an understanding of tools and techniques relating to total quality management. UNIT-I: Principles and Practices-I: Introduction,- Gurus of TQM,- Historic Review, - Benefits of TQM Leadership, characteristics of Quality leaders. The Deming Philosophy-Quality councils - Strategic Planning - Customer Satisfaction-Customer perception of Quality - service Quality, - Customer Retention - Employee Involvement - Employee survey - Empowerment - Gain sharing - Performance Appraisal. UNIT-II: Principles and Practices-II: Continuous process Improvement,- the Juran trilogy, - The PDCA Cycle - Kaizen- Reengineering. Supplier Partnership - Partnering - Sourcing - Supplier Selection - Supplier rating - Performance Measures - Basic concept - Strategy - Quality cost - Bench marking - reasons for bench marking - Process - Understanding current performance-pitfalls and criticism of benchmarking. Unit-III: Tools and Techniques-I: Information Technology - Computers and the quality functions - Information quality Issues - Quality management System - Benefits of ISO registration - ISO 9000 series Standards - Internal Audits. Environmental Management System - ISO series - Benefits of EMS - Relation to Healthy and safety - Quality Function Deployment - The voice of the Customer - Building a House of Quality - QFD Process.

5 Syllabus S.3 UNIT-IV: Tools and Techniques-II: Quality by Design - Benefits - Communication Model - Failure Mode and Effective Analysis - Failure Rate, FMEA Documentation - The process of FMEA Documentation - Product liability - Proof and Expert Witness. Total Productive Maintenance - promoting the Philosophy and Training - Improvements and needs - Autonomous Work groups. UNIT-V: Management Tools: Management Tools, - Introduction - Forced field Analysis - Tree diagram - Process decision Program Chart - Statistical Process Control - Cause and Effect diagram - Histogram - state of control Process Capability - Experimental Design - Hypothesis - Orthogonal Design - Two factors and Full factors - Quality Strategy for Indian Industries-Quality Management in India.

6 S.4 Total Quality Management JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ANANTAPUR B.Tech. IV-II Sem (M.E) T 4 P 0 C 4 (9A03803) TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT (Elective III) UNIT - I TQM overview, concepts, elements History-Quality management philosophies-juran, Deming, Crosby, Feigenbaum, Ishikawa Stages of Evolution continuous improvement objectives internal and external customers. UNIT - II Quality standards Need of standardization - Institutions bodies of standardization, ISO 9000 series ISO series other contemporary standards ISO certification process-third party audit. UNIT - III Process management- Quality measurement systems (QMS) developing and implementing QMS nonconformance database- TQM tools & techniques- 7 QC tools- 7 New QC tools. UNIT - IV Problem Solving techniques - Problem Solving process corrective action order of precedence System failure analysis approach flow chart fault tree analysis failure mode assessment and assignment matrix organizing failure mode analysis pedigree analysis. UNIT - V Quality circles organization focus team approach statistical process control process chart Ishikawa diagram preparing and using control charts.

7 Syllabus S.5 UNIT - VI Quality Function Development (QFD) elements of QFD benchmarking-types- Advantages & limitations of benchmarking Taguchi Analysis loss function - Taguchi design of experiments. Poka-yoke, Kaizen, Deming cycle. UNIT - VII Value improvement elements value improvement assault supplier teaming. Business process reengineering & elements of Supply chain management. UNIT - VIII Six sigma approach application of six sigma approach to various industrial situations.

8 S.6 Total Quality Management Mahatma Gandhi University QUALITY MANAGEMENT Module I Quality Management Definition, Concept, Features, Dimensions of Quality, Quality Planning, Quality Costs, Evolution of Quality Management, Quality revolutions in US, Japan and India. Quality Gurus Deming s principles on Total Quality Management, Juran s Triology, Crosby s principles on Quality Management. Module II Statistical Quality Control (SQC) Concepts, Acceptance Sampling by variables and attributes Control Charts for variables, fraction defectives and defects. Seven Tools of Analysis Control Chart, Pareto Diagram, Ishikawa Diagram, Histogram, Flow Charts, Scatter Diagram, and Stratification New Seven Analysis tools. Six Sigma concepts of process quality. Module III Benchmarking Types, Reasons, Process.Quality Function Deployment (QFD) Benefits, QFD Process, House of Quality. Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA). Tauguchi Quality Loss Functions. Total Productive Maintenance (TPM) Concepts, Objectives, Fundamental Elements, Total Preventive Maintenance, Components. Module IV Quality education and training quality process, Quality system Quality measurement system Cost of Quality Quality planning Quality information feedback Internal customer concept - Auditing for TQM. TQM in India. Pitfalls in operationalising Total Quality Management. Module V Quality awards Rajiv Gandhi National Quality Award, Deming Application Prize, European Quality Award, and Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award. 66

9 Syllabus S.7 University of Calicut ME09 L22: Quality Engineering and Management Module I (14 hours) Concepts of quality: Quality Quality control Quality assurance Quality management- Quality costs Total Quality Management: Axioms Management commitment- Deming s approach Quality council Customer satisfaction and retention Employee involvement and empowerment Suggestion system Quality circle Continuous process improvement Juran s trilogy PDSA cycle Kaizen Six-sigma Crosby s quality treatment Module II (13 hours) Management tools and techniques: Benchmarking ISO quality management systems Quality function deployment Quality by design Failure mode and effect analysis Affinity diagram Block diagram Pareto chart Fish bone diagram Flow chart Run chart Scatter diagram Tree diagram Matrix diagram Module III (14 hours) Statistical tools 1-control charts: Basic concepts - Attributes and variables - Random and assignable causes of variations- Patterns of variation - Measures of central tendency and dispersion - Probability distributions: Binomial, Poisson and Normal Control charts for variables : X, R and sigma charts Details of construction and uses Control charts for attributes: p, np, c and u charts Details of construction and uses (Numerical problems included) Module IV (13 hours) Statistical tools 2- Acceptance sampling, Reliability and Life testing: Sampling Vs inspection - OC curve - Single and double sampling plans - ATI - AOQL - Life testing - Bathtub curve MTBF - OC curve for Life testing - System reliability (Numerical problems included)

10 S.8 Total Quality Management VTU Syllabus TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT Subject Code : 10ME758 IA Marks : 25 Hours/Week : 04 Exam Hours : 03 Total Hours : 52 Exam Marks : 100 PART A UNIT Hours Principles and Practice: Definition, basic approach, gurus of TQM, TQM Framework, awareness, defining quality, historical review, obstacles, benefits of TQM. UNIT Hours Leadership: Definition, characteristics of quality leaders, leadership concept, characteristics of effective people, ethics, the Deming philosophy, role of TQM leaders, implementation, core values, concepts and framework, strategic planning communication, decision making, UNIT Hours Customer Satisfaction and Customer Involvement: Customer Satisfaction : customer and customer perception of quality, feedback, using customer complaints, service quality, translating needs into requirements, customer retention, Case studies. Employee Involvement Motivation, employee surveys, empowerment, teams, suggestion system, recognition and reward, gain sharing, performance appraisal, unions and employee involvement, case studies. UNIT Hours Continuous Process Improvement: process, the Juran trilogy, improvement strategies, types of problems, the PDSA Cycle, problem-solving methods, Kaizen, reengineering, six sigma, case studies. Tools and Techniques: Benching marking, information technology, quality management systems, environmental management system, quality function

11 Syllabus S.9 deployment, quality by design, failure mode and effect analysis, product liability, total productive maintenance. PART B UNIT hours Quality Management Tools: Why Why, forced filed analysis, nominal group technique, affinity diagram, interrelationship digraph, tree diagram, matrix diagram, prioritization matrices, process decision program chart, activity network diagram. UNIT Hours Statistical Process Control: Pareto diagram, process flow diagram, cause and-effect diagram, check sheets, histograms, statistical fundamentals, Control charts, state of control, out of control process, control charts for variables, control charts for attributes, scatter diagrams, case studies. UNIT Hours Building and Sustaining Performance Excellence in Organizations: Making the commitment to total quality, organizational culture and total quality, change management, sustaining the quality organization, self assessment processes, implementing ISO 9000, Bald ridge, and six sigma, a view toward the future. UNIT Hours Design for Six Sigma: Tools for concept development, tools for design development, tools for design optimization, tools for design verification, problems.

12 Contents C.1 Contents 1. INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction The Need for Quality Evolution of Quality Definition of Quality Dimensions of Product and Service Quality Basic Concepts of Total Quality Management Quality Gurus and their Philosophies Deming TQM principles (or) Deming Philosophy Juran Trilogy Philip B.Crosby Armand V.Feigenbaum Kaoru Ishikawa Genichi Taguchi Shigeo Shingo Principles of TQM Quality Statements Customer Focus Customer Orientation Customer Satisfaction Customer perception of Quality Customer Complaints Service Quality

13 C.2 Total Quality Management Service quality in various service sectors Customer Retention Costs of Quality Prevention costs Appraisal costs Internal Failure Cost External Failure Costs Hidden Quality cost Analysis Techniques of Quality Cost Index Numbers Trend Analysis of Quality costs for clocks Optimum Quality Costs TQM PRINCIPLES 2.1 Leadership Characteristics of quality leaders Role of Senior Management Strategic Quality Planning Quality Council Employee Involvement Employee Involvement Tools or Techniques Motivation The purpose of Motivation Extrinsic Motivation Intrinsic Motivation

14 Contents C Theories of motivation Employee wants Empowerment Benefits of Empowerment Barriers to Successful Empowerment Teams Team Building History of Teams Types of Teams Team member s Roles and Responsibilities Barriers to Team Success Recognition and Reward Effects of Recognition and Reward system Performance Appraisal Importance of Performance Appraisals Disadvantage of Traditional performance appraisal system: Continuous Process Improvement Juran Trilogy: Planning: Quality Control: Quality Improvement: PDSA cycle (Deming Cycle (or) Shewhart Cycle) Benefits of PDSA Cycle

15 C.4 Total Quality Management Problem Solving Method [Continuous Process Improvement Cycle] Japanese 5-S Practice Kaizen Kaizen Vs Innovation Process oriented management Vs Result-oriented management How can everyone be involved in improvement activities (Kaizen philosophy)? Kaizen Strategy Supplier Partnership Just-in-Time Continuous Process Improvement ISO Customer-Supplier Relations Partnering Supplier Selection Supplier Certification Supplier Rating Relationship Development Performance Measures Performance measure presentation TQM TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES - I 3.1 The Seven Tools of Quality Pareto diagram Process Flow diagram Cause and Effect Diagram

16 Contents C Check sheet Histogram Scatter diagram Control charts The New Seven TQM Tools Affinity Diagram (KJ method) Relations Diagram Tree Diagram (Systematic Diagram) Matrix Diagram Matrix Data Analysis Diagram Process Decision Programme Chart (PDPC) Arrow Diagram Six Sigma Concepts of six sigma Methodology DMAIC DMADV or DFSS Application of Six Sigma to Manufacturing Industries: Application of Six Sigma to Service Sector (Industry) Application of Six Sigma to IT (Information Technology) Benchmarking Benchmarking Concept Reasons to Benchmark Types of Benchmarking

17 C.6 Total Quality Management Benchmarking Process Deciding what to Benchmark Understanding current performance: Planning Learning from the Data Using the findings and taking action Benchmarking is a continuous process Benefits of Benchmarking Drawbacks of Benchmarking Failure Mode and Effect Analysis (FMEA) Categories of Failure: Techniques for Reliability Analysis Purpose of FMEA Benefits of FMEA Stages of FMEA Different types of FMEA Design FMEA document Process FMEA document TQM TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES - II 4.1 Statistical Fundamentals Population and Sample Normal Curve Control Charts for Variables and Attributes Steps required to develop Control charts Types of control charts Need for control charts for attributes: Selection of Control Chart:

18 Contents C Process Capability Concepts of Six Sigma Quality Function Deployment (QFD) House of Quality Description of House of Quality Building the House of Quality and QFD Process QFD Process Benefits of QFD Taguchi s Quality Loss Function Nominal - the - best Smaller - the - better Larger - the - better Benefits of Taguchi s loss function Total Productive Maintenance: (TPM) TPM Philosophy - Concept of TPM Benefits of TPM QUALITY SYSTEMS 5.1 Introduction Need for ISO 9000 and Other Quality Systems ISO 9000 Quality System ISO Series of Standards (old version) ISO 9000: 1986 (IS: 14000: 1987) ISO 9001: 1987 (IS 14001: 1988) ISO 9002: 1987 (IS 14002: 1988) ISO 9003: 1987 (IS 14003: 1988)

19 C.8 Total Quality Management ISO 9004: 1987 (IS 14004: 1991) ISO : 1990 to : 1990 (IS: part 1: 1990 to IS: part 3: 1990) ISO : Benefits of ISO Quality System Indian Standard on Quality Systems ISO Quality system Elements of ISO Quality System Scope Normative Reference Terms and Definitions Quality Management Systems (QMS) General requirements Documentation Management Responsibility Management Commitment Customer focus Quality policy Planning Responsibility, Authority and Communication Management Review Resource Management Provision of resources Human resources Infrastructure Work Environment

20 Contents C Product Realisation Planning of product realisation Customer - related processes Design and Development Purchasing Production and Service Provision Control of monitoring and measuring devices Measurement, Analysis and Improvement General Monitoring and Measurement Control of Non-conforming product Analysis of Data Improvement Implementation of Quality System Differences between ISO 9001:2000 & ISO 9001: Documentation of Quality System Benefits of Documentation Developing and Writing the Documents Quality Auditing Features of Quality Audit Objectives of Quality Audits Types of Quality Audit The Stages of an Audit QS 9000 Quality System Objectives of QS Clauses of QS

21 C.10 Total Quality Management Benefits of QS Steps to register for QS ISO The Environmental Management System Terminologies used in IS standards ISO series of standards Concept of ISO Requirements of ISO General Requirements Environmental Policy Planning Implementation and Operation Checking and Corrective Action Management Review Benefits of ISO TQM Implementation in Manufacturing and Service Sectors

22 Introduction 1.1 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION Introduction - Need for quality - Evolution of quality - Definitions of quality - Dimensions of product and service quality - Basic concepts of TQM - TQM Framework - Contributions of Deming, Juran and Crosby - Barriers to TQM - Quality statements - Customer focus - Customer orientation, Customer satisfaction, Customer complaints, Customer retention - Costs of quality. 1.1 INTRODUCTION The efficiency of a business is measured in terms of profit and its survival. Total Quality Management (TQM) is simply an improved way of doing business to overcome competitiveness and to deliver excellent performance. In 1985, an American behavioural scientist coined the term Total Quality Management. TQM consists of a set of quality and management tools and techniques using which organisations can be programmed for the high performance business. TQM, being a management approach, requires involvement of both management and employees of a company in the continuous improvement of the production of goods and services. The term TQM is composed of three words: total, quality, and management. For its clear understanding, the relevance and meaning of these three words in TQM is discussed below. Total means: (i) the entire organisation (ii) all products and processes

23 1.2 Total Quality Management (iii) all aspects of design, control, etc. It focuses on the need to involve all members of the organisation to satisfy customers. Quality means: Closeness to the target (meeting customer requirement). Lesser the deviation from the target, better the quality. Quality is defined by the customers and not by the suppliers. Management means: The continuous act of managing the organisation to build quality into every product/process. Therefore TQM can be stated as a continuous process for managing the whole to achieve quality in everything we do. TQM is difficult to define, but easy to explain. Quality is clearly at the core of TQM. One of the important issues that businesses have focused on in the last two decades is quality. The other issues are cost and delivery. Quality has been widely considered as a key element for success in business in the present competitive market. Quality refers to meeting the needs and expectations of customers. It is important to understand that quality is about more than a product simply working properly. Quality refers to certain standards and the ways and means by which those standards are achieved, maintained and improved. Quality is not just confined to products and services. It is a homogeneous element of any aspect of doing things with high degree of perfection. For example, business success depends on the quality decision making.

24 Introduction THE NEED FOR QUALITY Everyone has had an experience of poor quality when dealing with a business organization. These experiences might involve an airline that has lost a passenger s luggage, a dry cleaner that has left clothes wrinkled or stained, poor course offerings and scheduling at your college, a purchased product that is damaged or broken, or a pizza delivery service that is often late or delivers the wrong order. The experience of poor quality is exacerbated when employees of the company either are not empowered to correct quality inadequancies or do not seem willing to do so. We have all encountered service employees who do not seem to care. The consequences of such an attitude are lost customers and opportunities for competitors to take advantage of the market need. In any organization, the first thing that we need to consider is that, quality is the most important thing. The quality of product/service defines the organisation. Quality is the signature of an organisation as we can find the same products and services cheaper somewhere else but may differ in quality. Developing and delivering quality products and services indicates that the company is doing things correctly right from the initial stage. As a reward it reduces the need for additional services, from verification to warranty. Reducing the need for continuous verification and validation, fixing, tuning and correcting products/services before they are finalized will have an enormous impact on the cost of products/service and the time to market. Management believe that it is a good policy to save every

25 1.4 Total Quality Management penny during the initial creation and delivery of products and services, and accept the cost (financial, work hours and reputation) of fixing things when they go wrong - even though it is easy to demonstrate that the correction cost is several orders of magnitude larger than the cost of doing it correctly. If a product/service is delivered cheaper without performing quality-related activities, the product might not be defective, or the customer might never notice the issues, but the organisation must keep this in mind that a happy customer will tell someone, while an unhappy customer will complaint to many, which is not in favour of the organisation. In a world in which boundary and distances are being rapidly removed, product/service(s) need to deliver quality which is sufficient to remove any reason for your existing customers to go seek something better or cheaper elsewhere. World-class quality does not mean in this context that you are better than anyone else in the world, but that your customers and prospects will find you are good enough to not seek better elsewhere. Anything less than world-class quality is unacceptable. Quality is made by customers. While technology, tools, processes, procedures and documentation may help in some way, it is only the customers who really actively make the quality which represents an organisation. 1.3 EVOLUTION OF QUALITY The term Quality dates back to the time when human wanted to dublicate an object. Quality is an approach

26 Introduction 1.5 started ever since human s ability to produce things and a desire to make it better. Throughout the history, the society has demanded good products and services which meet their obligations. The history of quality is as old as industry. In olden days, The King Hamurabi of Babylon introduced the concept of building quality by declaring as follows. If the building falls into pieces and the owner is killed, then the builder should also be sentenced to death. If the owner s children are killed, then the builders children should also be sentenced to death. As time passed, human s developed the competence to replicate objects, so that they become indistinguishable from one another. The drawback for this was that the assembly with any alternation was not possible. In 1799, an american investor Eli Whitney produced and continued the idea of perfect parts interchangeability. He prominenced that if proper raw materials methods and equipment are used and labour exercise the right amount of course, identical items can be produced. Man began to realise the necessity of tolerance of parts by early 1800s. Many problem resulted in the industrial activitiy because of interchangeability. These problem were eliminated by Jo blocks developed by a Swedish Engineer named Johansson. Jo blocks were a hard metal block that could be machined and polished to exact dimension. During the same era, considerable progress were made in the field of sampling theory.

27 1.6 Total Quality Management In 1924, Walter.A.Shewart of AT & T s Bell Telephone Lab developed a statistical chart to control the product variables. This chart is the basis for the statistical quality control. Later, H.F. Dodge and H.G. Romig, developed acceptance sampling method as a substitute for 100% inspection. Then in 1946, the American Society for Quality Control (ASQ) was formed to promote the use of quality standards for all types of production and service. After World War II, the primary way of checking quality was by inspecting the item after process. Parts were produced and then the parts were checked to see if they were good enough to ship or not. If any fault was observed, the parts were reworked and problems were solved. Event thinking was another approach to check design. Event thinking occured in the physical domain. Many engineer simply threw a design together and then tested it expecting the design to fail. The failure of a design verification test is an event that the engineer answered with a sequence of build/test/fix cycles. Build/test/fix is actually a method used to inspect quality into the product and service. The design gets band-aided enough so it will function properly before the product on service reach to the customers. Six sigma was another tool developed to improve quality which was based on event thinking. Many companies today depend upon event thinking to assure quality to customers. In 1950, W.Edwards Deming, a Disciple of Shewart gave a series of lectures on statistical methods to Japanese

28 Introduction 1.7 engineers and stressed that quality management should be pervasive and the responsibility for quality should lie on the shoulders of everybody in an organisation. Deming is regarded as the father of Total Quality Management. Deming introduced some ideas like plan-do-study-act cycle of learning and statistical process control (SPC). SPC, a pattern level quality method in the process domain, focuses on patterns or trends in process data so that the process can be adjusted before an inspection event occurs. As a result, when Japanese companies began to implement SPC, quality improved dramatically. In 1954, Joseph M.Juran visited Japan like Deming, assisted Japanese leaders to adopt quality concepts and tools and emphasized management s responsibility to achieve quality. Using these concepts, the Japanese set the quality standards for the rest of the world to follow. Based on Juran s and Deming s ideas, Japanese began developing their own improvements. While Deming and Juran were engaged in the Japanese Quality Revolution in the 1950 s and 1960 s, Philip.B.Crosby was working his way to the quality department of American conglomerate, ITT. The other Japanese Guru Genichi Taguchi, in his theory of Robust Design, recommended identifying all factors. Another Japanese Guru well known is Kaoru Ishikawa who developed fish-bone diagram and quality circle. In 1960, the first quality control circles were formed for the purpose of quality improvement. During 1970s and early 1980s, U.S. managers were making frequent trips to

29 1.8 Total Quality Management Japan to learn about Japanese miracle. They were surprised and asked, If Japanese can do it, why can t we? Ishikwa also introduced the tree diagram to create a map that moves from the world of customer to the world of designer and named the reap as Quality tables. The Kobe shipyard of Mitsubishi Heavy industries created the first Quality tables in During the same time about 120 different Quality tools and methods had been created at the pattern level for designers to manage product development process trends, making inspection a non event. Some of the most popular and powerful methods in addition to SPC are 1. QFD - Quality function deployment 2. FMEA - Failure mode and effects analysis 3. DFA - Design for assembly 4. DFM - Design for manufacturing 5. VA - Value analysis 6. VE - Value Engineering and 7. TRIZ directed evolution By the middle of 1980, a quality renaissance started occurring in US and the concepts of TQM were being published. India is not far behind. The quality improvement has also started in India. Companies have realised that with liberalisation and market opening up, quality has become an imperative for survival. Although a long road has still

30 Introduction 1.9 to be travelled, many organisations in India are successfully treading on the road to Total Quality. Structures Customer Domain Functional Physical Domain Domain Axiomatic Axiomatic Design Design TRIZ TRIZ Process Domain Patterns QFD VA / VE FMEA Parameter And Systems Tolera nce Engineering Design DFA SPC Events Verification Tests Fig. 1.1 Quality Solution The evolution of the concepts and practices of TQM has taken several years of trails and tribulations in many organisations all over the world. According to Feigenbaum (1990) in the increasingly competitive world, the quality is no longer an optional extra, but it is essentially a business strategy. Without quality, an organisation cannot survive. The following table gives the bird s eye view for the evolution of TQM.

31 1.10 Total Quality Management Evolution of TQM (Quality movement from Inspection to TQM) Criterion Inspection Statistical Quality Control (SQC) Quality Assurance (QA) Total Quality Management (TQM) Objective Measurement of specifications Control of processes Distribution of quality responsibility to functional areas Continuous quality improvement at every level, at every place and at every stage Focus Uniform product quality Reduction in inspection work Evaluation at all stages Customer (internal and external) satisfaction Tools Gauges and measurement techniques Statistical quality control tools and techniques Quality planning documentation and quality systems Commitment, participation, motivation, education and training organisational development. Responsibil ity for quality Inspection department Production department All departments Top management leadership with everyone in organisation

32 Introduction 1.11 Criterion Inspection Statistical Quality Control (SQC) Quality Assurance (QA) Total Quality Management (TQM) Approach Inspection, sorting, grading Trouble shooting and controlling the quality Assuring to build quality by planning programme design and programme control Strategic management, team involvement, and action research 1.4 DEFINITION OF QUALITY Quality is a desirable characteristic that a product or service must have. For example, products must be reliable, usable, and repairable. These are some of the characteristics that a good quality product must have. Similarly, service should be courteous, efficient, and effective. These are some of the characteristics that a good quality service must have. However, not all qualities are equal. Some are more important than others. The most important qualities are the ones that customers want. These are the qualities that products and services must have. So providing quality products and services is all about meeting customer requirements. Therefore, a quality product or service is one that meets the needs and expectations of customers. Whatever the customer sees as quality is quality. Customers are not alike and the term quality means different things to different people. Quality has been expressed by many ways.

33 1.12 Total Quality Management Quality is defined as the degree of excellence provided by a product (or) service. Quality is customer satisfaction. Juran defined Quality as the fitness for purpose (or) fitness for use. Edwards Deming explained that Quality should be aimed at the needs of the customer - present and future. Philip Crosby defined Quality as the conformity to the requirements. Quality can be explained as follows. Q P E where Q Quality; P Performance; E Expectations. If Q 1, then the customer is satisfied by the product (or) the service ie., it is a good quality product (or) service. According to ISO 9000 : 2000, quality is defined as the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfills requirements. Degree is meant for poor quality, good quality (or) excellent quality. Inherent characteristics means existing permanent characteristic in a product (or) service. The distinguishing features (or) grades of the product in appearance, performance, life, reliability, taste, odour and maintainability etc. are called as quality characteristics. Requirement means need (or) expectation. 1.5 DIMENSIONS OF PRODUCT AND SERVICE QUALITY Quality characteristic is the window through which quality of the products and services can be observed. Quality is characterised by multiple dimensions. Using

34 Introduction 1.13 these quality dimensions, quality can be measured or quantified. For example, durability is a quality characteristic of a battery. It is considered as the quality dimension through which quality of the battery is measured. According to Garvin (1987) the nine different dimensions of quality are given here 1. Performance: It is a primary product characteristics like clarity of the picture, brightness of the crystals, fuel consuming power of an engine. 2. Features: Secondary characteristics, added features like remote control given along with A/c unit (or) TV. 3. Conformance: Meeting specifications (or) industry standards (or) workmanship. 4. Reliability: Consistency of performance over a period of time. 5. Durability: Useful life - more endurance limit including repair. 6. Service: Solving problems, attending complaints making easy for repair. 7. Response: Responding quickly to the customer s complaints. 8. Aesthetics: Sensory characteristics like surface finish, external beauty, fashion etc. 9. Reputation: It can be gained by the past performance of the product (or) service and other tangibles like being first rank and pioneer.

35 1.14 Total Quality Management A product may be excellent in one dimension and average (or) poor in another. Some cars may be regarded as high quality cars based on the dimensions of reliability, conformance and aesthetics. Hence, the quality products are determined by using dimensions of quality. The marketing people should identify the relative importance of each dimension of quality. Then, these dimensions should be translated into the requirements for the development of a new product (or) improvement of an existing one. 1.6 BASIC CONCEPTS OF TOTAL QUALITY MANAGEMENT There are six basic concepts of Total Quality management which are given here. 1. A committed and involved management: A management should be committed and involved to provide long term - top to bottom organisational support. The management should participate in the quality improvement program. A quality council should be established to develop a clear vision, set long term goals and direct the program. Quality goals should be included in the business plan. Managers should participate on quality improvement teams and also act on coaches to other team. 2. Focus on customer: The customers should be saisfied. One should listen to the voice of the customer. The design quality should be emphasized and defects should be prevented. 3. Effective involvement and utilization of the entire work force: TQM is everyone s responsibility. All staff

36 Introduction 1.15 including management staff internal customers and internal suppliers, should be trained TQM to effectively participate on project teams. The people who are affected by the quality plan should be involved in its development and implementation. They should understand the process better than others. 4. Continuous Improvement: TQM should be a continual activity to be entrenched in the culture. It is not a just one time short program. There must be a continuous endeavour to improve all business and production processes. Quality improvement projects like on-time delivery, order entry efficiency, billing error rate, customer satisfaction, cycle time, scrap reduction, and supplier management should be implemented continuously and monitored. Techniques like Statistical Process Control (SPC), Bench Marking, Quality Function Deployment (QFD), ISO 9000 and designed experiments, should be continuously updated for excellent problem solving. The term continuous improvement is derived from the Japanese term KAIZEN which means small but continuous improvement. 5. Treating suppliers as partners: Suppliers and vendors play important role in the TQM process. Organization have realized that the suppliers are no more external entities but a part of their business process. In a TQM company, the suppliers are treated as partners to create quality. This sort of partnership relationship cannot be developed overnight and requires considerable changes in behaviour and attitude of the organisation and suppliers. All TQM companies should have very few suppliers developed through vendor quality programmes designed to

37 1.16 Total Quality Management foster quality concepts and practices. The true partnership will occur when the suppliers are few in number. 6. Performance Measure: Performance Measure is an integral part of TQM. If an organisation cannot measure its progress, it is useless for it to go on a quality journey. To keep improving, people need to know where they are and where they want to tread. Without measurement, improvement fades away. Performance measures such as uptime, percent nonconforming, absenteeism and customer satisfaction should be determined to measure the continuous quality improvement activity. TQM provides a quality product and/or service to customers leading to higher productivity and lower costs. This gives competitive position in the market and fetches more profit. This performance should be measured and posted for everyone to see. By this, the work force will have job security and job satisfaction Comparison between traditional approach and TQM TQM requires cultural change. This cultural change is substantial and cannot be accomplished in a short period of time. The following table compares the traditional approach with the TQM approach.

38 Introduction 1.17 Comparison between traditional approach and TQM Sl. No. Dimensions/ Attributes/ Characteristics/ Categories Traditional Approach Total Quality Management Approach 1. Definition Product oriented Customer - oriented 2. Decisions Short-term Long-term 3. Emphasis Detection Prevention 4. Management understanding & attitude No compensation for quality. Tend to blame Considers Quality Management as essential part of company system quality department for quality problems. 5. Quality organisation status Considers quality is hidden in manufacturing. Quality is not Quality is through the leader. Quality managers are Board of Directors. considered as integral part of organisation. 6. Problem handling Problems are handled with fire fighting approach. Emphasis on prevention of problems. A structure or team approach to identifying & solving the problem.

39 1.18 Total Quality Management Sl. No. Dimensions/ Attributes/ Characteristics/ Categories Traditional Approach Total Quality Management Approach 7. Quality improvement action No organisational activity. 8. Priority The first priority is to profit. 9. Focus Focus on management s requirements. 10. Organisation Hierarchical - vertically 11. Span of control Short span of control and many layers of authority. 12. Production Schedule Long production runs for low cost and high efficiency. 13. Communication Conveyed by slogan. 14. Responsibility for Delegated to quality quality control. Quality improvement is a continuous activity. Quality is top most priority Focus on customer satisfaction. Networking across and among the functions Large span of control with authority almost pushed down to the lowest level. Economy to time, just-in-time production, quick customer Conveyed with action With everyone including top management.

40 Introduction 1.19 Sl. No. Dimensions/ Attributes/ Characteristics/ Categories Traditional Approach Total Quality Management Approach 15. Perception of quality Quality is defined in terms of single dimension, that is conformance to specifications. 16. Employee Emphasizes on monolithic work pattern. Opportunities for participation does not exist. 17. Work force Emphasis on division of labour. 18. Quality-productivity Contribution of relationship quality in improving productivity not recognised. 19. Ways of improving Improvement in inspection and gauging. Quality is considered multidimensional and the dimensions are customer oriented. Employees are motivated and are given significant role regardless of level to find better ways to work. Multiskilled work force with job rotation. Considers high correlation between the two forces. Changing corporate culture, increasing employee education, use of process control.

41 1.20 Total Quality Management Sl. No. Dimensions/ Attributes/ Characteristics/ Categories Traditional Approach Total Quality Management Approach 20. Keys to firms success Growth in sales, profits and Return on investments. Customer satisfaction & Production of high quality goods and services. 1.7 QUALITY GURUS AND THEIR PHILOSOPHIES There have been quite a few number of Gurus who have made immense contribution to quality science. Their common thrust is towards concept of continuous improvement of every output - product (or) service. Some philosophies have been mentioned below Deming TQM principles (or) Deming Philosophy Deming s 14 points serve as the basis of his quality philosophy. 1. Create and Publish the aims and purposes of the Organisation Create and publish to all employees a statement of the aims and purposes of the company (or) other organisation. The management must demonstrate constantly their commitment to this statement. The statement is a forever-changing document that requires input from every one. 2. Learn the New Philosophy The top management and everyone in the organisation should learn the new philosophy. Customer satisfaction must be the number one priority, because

42 Introduction 1.21 dissatisfied customers will not continue to purchase nonconforming products and services. The organisation must concentrate on defect prevention rather than defect detection. Everyone in the organisation, including union, must be involved in the quality journey. 3. Understand the purpose of inspection The purpose of inspection is to improve the process and reduce its cost. It should be understood by the management. Most of the time mass inspection is costly and unreliable. Wherever possible, it should be replaced by statistical methods. Every effort should be made to reduce and then eliminate acceptance sampling. Mass inspection is managing for failure and defect prevention is managing for success. 4. Stop awarding business based on Price alone The organisation must stop awarding business based on the low price, because price has no meaning without quality. The goal is to have single suppliers for each item to develop loyalty and trust and hence to provide improved products and service. Purchasing agents and suppliers should be trained in Statistical Process Control. They must follow the materials throughout their life cycle in order to examine how customer expectations are affected.

43 1.22 Total Quality Management Supplier should be given feed back regarding the quality. 5. Improve constantly and forever the system of production and service. Management must take more responsibility to improve the quality and productivity continually and permanently and to reduce the cost. The focus should be on preventing errors before they happen. Variation is expected, but it should be reduced by a continual striving using control charts. Responsibilities should be assigned to teams to remove the causes of problems and continually improve the process. 6. Institute Training Management must allocate resources to train employees to perform their jobs in the best manner possible. Each employee must be trained in statistical methods and these methods should be used to monitor the need for further training. 7. Teach and Institute leadership Supervisory skills should be improved by giving training in statistical methods and these 14 points should be insisted. Instead of having negative and fault finding attitude, supervisors should create a positive and supportive atmosphere. It is the management s responsibility to teach and institute leadership quality in supervisors.

44 Introduction Drive out fear, Create Trust and Create a Climate for Innovation. Fear is caused by a lack of job security, possible physical dangers, performance appraisals, ignorance of organisational goals, poor supervision and not knowing job. Driving fear out of the workplace leads to success. Management should provide adequate training, good supervision, and proper tools to do the job as well as to remove physical harms. When people are working without fear, trust is created and they will work for the general good of the organisation. Hence, in this Climate, people will create new ideas for improvement. 9. Optimize the efforts of teams, groups and Staff areas. The efforts of teams, groups and staff areas should be optimized by the management to achieve the aims and purposes of the organisation. Barriers exist internally among the levels of management, among departments, within departments and among shifts. Externally, barriers exist between the organisations and its customers and suppliers. These barriers are existing because of poor communication, ignorance of the organisations mission, competition, fear and personal grudges (or) jealousies. To break down this barriers, the management should have a long-term perspective. The attitudes should be changed. The communication channels should be opened. The project teams should be organised. The training in team work should be implemented. Multifunctional teams which are used in concurrent engineering should be formed.

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