ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

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3 ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

5 ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY A SCIENTIST-PRACTITIONER APPROACH Third Edition Steve M. Jex and Thomas W. Britt

6 Cover image: istock.com/tntemerson Cover design: Wiley This book is printed on acid-free paper. Copyright 2014 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey. Published simultaneously in Canada. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) , fax (978) , or on the web at Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) , fax (201) Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If legal, accounting, medical, psychological or any other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. In all instances where John Wiley & Sons, Inc. is aware of a claim, the product names appear in initial capital or all capital letters. Readers, however, should contact the appropriate companies for more complete information regarding trademarks and registration. For general information on our other products and services please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at (800) , outside the United States at (317) or fax (317) Wiley publishes in a variety of print and electronic formats and by print-on-demand. Some material included with standard print versions of this book may not be included in e-books or in print-on-demand. If this book refers to media such as a CD or DVD that is not included in the version you purchased, you may download this material at For more information about Wiley products, visit Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Jex, Steve M. Organizational psychology : a scientist-practitioner approach / Steve M. Jex and Thomas W. Britt. Third edition. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN (cloth) ISBN (epub) ISBN (epdf) 1. Psychology, Industrial. I. Britt, Thomas W., II. Title. HF J dc Printed in the United States of America

7 Contents Preface xi CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 1 What Is Organizational Psychology? 2 Organizational Psychology in Context 4 The Scientist-Practitioner Approach 6 Historical Influences in Organizational Psychology 11 Recent Past and Beyond 22 The Chapter Sequence 23 Chapter Summary 24 Suggested Additional Readings 25 CHAPTER 2 RESEARCH METHODS AND STATISTICS 27 Methods of Data Collection 28 Special Issues in Data Collection 44 Ethics in Data Collection 53 Statistical Methods in Organizational Psychology 54 Special Issues in Statistical Analysis 59 Chapter Summary 67 Suggested Additional Readings 68 v

8 vi Contents CHAPTER 3 ATTRACTION AND SOCIALIZATION 69 The Recruitment Process: An Organizational Perspective 70 The Recruitment Process: The Applicant s Perspective 74 Organizational Socialization 77 The Impact of Diversity on Organizational Socialization 101 The Future of Organizational Socialization Research 102 Chapter Summary 103 Suggested Additional Readings 104 CHAPTER 4 THE WORK NONWORK INTERFACE 105 Kelsey-Jo Ritter and Steve M. Jex Some Basic Assumptions About the Work and NonWork Interface 106 The Transition Into Work: Youth Employment 107 Transition to a Career 112 Balancing Work and Nonwork Demands 113 Antecedents of Work-Family Conflict 115 Consequences of Work-Family Conflict 116 Reducing and Preventing Work-Family Conflict 117 The Positive Side of Work-Family Interface 119 Work-Family Balance 121 Transitioning Out of Work: Retirement 121 Chapter Summary 130 Suggested Additional Readings 131 CHAPTER 5 PRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS 133 Defining Productive Behavior 134 Job Performance 134 Measurement of Job Performance 143

9 Contents vii Determinants of Job Performance 150 Organizational Citizenship Behavior 160 Innovation and Adaptability in Organizations 166 Chapter Summary 174 Suggested Additional Readings 175 CHAPTER 6 COUNTERPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOR IN ORGANIZATIONS 177 Defining Counterproductive Work Behavior 178 The Structure of Counterproductive Work Behavior 178 Causes of Counterproductive Work Behavior 180 Common Forms of Counterproductive Work Behavior 186 Low Base Rate Counterproductive Work Behavior 194 Some Final Thoughts on Counterproductive Work Behavior 204 Chapter Summary 204 Suggested Additional Readings 206 CHAPTER 7 OCCUPATIONAL STRESS AND EMPLOYEE HEALTH AND WELL-BEING 207 A Brief History 208 Approaches and Terminology 209 Occupational Stress Terminology 211 Occupational Stress Models 213 Workplace Stressors 222 Employee Safety 235 Employee Health in Vulnerable Populations 236 Reducing the Impact of Workplace Stressors 237 Cross-Cultural Occupational Stress Research 242 Chapter Summary 244 Suggested Additional Readings 245

10 viii Contents CHAPTER 8 BELIEFS AND ATTITUDES ABOUT WORK AND THE ORGANIZATION 247 Job Satisfaction 248 Organizational Commitment 269 Additional Job Beliefs 280 Chapter Summary 286 Suggested Additional Readings 288 CHAPTER 9 THEORIES OF MOTIVATION 289 Defining Motivation, Basic Assumptions, and Theoretical Approaches 290 Need-Based Theories of Motivation 292 Cognitive Process Theories of Motivation 296 The Behavioral Approach to Motivation 312 Self-Determination Theory 316 Job-Based Theories of Motivation 318 The Practical Value of Motivation Theories 327 Chapter Summary 329 Suggested Additional Readings 330 CHAPTER 10 ORGANIZATIONAL APPLICATIONS OF MOTIVATION THEORY 331 Some Basic Assumptions 331 Behaviors Organizations Attempt to Influence 332 Organizational Reward Systems 334 Motivation Through the Design of Work 350 Proactive Motivation and Job Crafting 364 Organizational Disciplinary Procedures 366 Chapter Summary 368 Suggested Additional Readings 369

11 Contents ix CHAPTER 11 LEADERSHIP AND INFLUENCE PROCESSES 371 Defining Leadership 371 General Approaches to Leadership 374 Modern Theories of Leadership 380 Power and Influence in Organizations 398 Chapter Summary 408 Suggested Additional Readings 409 CHAPTER 12 TEAM DYNAMICS AND PROCESSES WITHIN ORGANIZATIONS 411 Stages of Team Development 412 Defining Team Effectiveness 415 Models of Team Effectiveness 416 Determinants of Team Effectiveness 428 Within-Team Processes 436 Enhancing the Effectiveness of Teams 446 The Future of Teams in Organizations 450 Chapter Summary 451 Suggested Additional Readings 452 CHAPTER 13 ORGANIZATIONAL THEORY AND DESIGN 453 What Is an Organizational Theory? 454 Major Organizational Theories 456 Determinants of Organizational Design 463 Recent Innovations in Organizational Design 475 Research on Organizational Design 480 The Future of Organizational Design 481 Chapter Summary 483 Suggested Additional Readings 484

12 x Contents CHAPTER 14 ORGANIZATIONAL CULTURE AND CLIMATE 487 Defining Organizational Culture 488 Models of Organizational Culture 491 Manifestations of Organizational Culture 493 The Development of Organizational Culture 499 Measuring Organizational Culture 500 Changing Organizational Culture 502 The Impact of Organizational Culture 508 Organizational Climate: The Psychological Experience 512 Chapter Summary 514 Suggested Additional Readings 517 CHAPTER 15 ORGANIZATIONAL CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT 519 What Is Organizational Development and Why Is It Used? 519 A Brief History of Organizational Development 521 The Theory Base of Organizational Development 523 Organizational-Change Interventions 533 Conditions Necessary for Successful Organizational Change 544 Evaluation of Organizational-Development Programs 549 Special Issues in Client Consultant Relationships 555 Chapter Summary 558 Suggested Additional Readings 559 References 561 Author Index 663 Subject Index 685

13 Preface Organizations are complex social systems that sometimes perform well and sometimes fail miserably. Organizational psychology is a subfield within the larger domain of industrial/organizational psychology that seeks to facilitate a greater understanding of social processes in organizations. Organizational psychologists also seek to use these insights to enhance the effectiveness of organizations a goal that is potentially beneficial to all. This book is designed to provide students with a thorough overview of both the science and practice of organizational psychology. It was originally written to serve as the primary text for a course in organizational psychology (graduate, or upper-level undergraduate), but could also meet the needs of an organizational behavior course as well. Because this book will be used at the graduate level, we ve invested considerable effort to provide a solid research base in all of the chapters. At the same time, we have also tried to write the book in a style that students will find enjoyable, accessible, and perhaps, at times, even entertaining. NEW TO THE THIRD EDITION Given the positive feedback we have received over the past 8 years, we did not feel it was necessary to introduce drastic changes in the third edition of this book. We did, however, want to keep up with important changes in both the field of organizational psychology and important trends in organizations. To that end, we have created a completely new chapter in this edition titled The Work Nonwork Interface. In this chapter we examine how people initially transition into the work role, how they balance work with other aspects of their lives, and ultimately how they transition out of work through retirement. We felt this chapter was necessary for two reasons. First, the boundaries between work and other aspects of people s lives are growing more and more permeable due to technology, and this impacts the way people behave in organizations. Second, we believe that youth employment and retirement are increasingly important topics and wanted to be one of the first textbooks to cover them in depth. We have also made a conscious effort to incorporate cross-cultural findings in each chapter because organizations are growing increasingly global in nature, and therefore it is vital to examine the generalizability of our knowledge base beyond U.S. borders. In Chapters 1 through 5 we provide an introduction to the field of organizational psychology, examination of the most common research methods used to study behavior in organizations, the processes by which employees are socialized into organizations, how people balance work with other aspects xi

14 xii Preface of their lives, and finally become productive members of organizations. Chapters 6 through 8 offer an exploration of counterproductive behaviors that employees exhibit, how employees might come to view the workplace as stressful, but also how work may also evoke positive feelings such as satisfaction and commitment. Chapters 9 and 10 examine motivation in the workplace; in Chapter 9 we examine motivational theories, and in Chapter 10 we describe how those theories are applied in organizations to influence employees behavior. Chapters 11 and 12 deal with leadership processes in organizations and team dynamics and effectiveness, respectively. Those who have used previous editions of the book will note that we have eliminated the general chapter on group behavior, which drew more from the social psychological literature. This was a tough choice because we did have some positive feedback on that chapter over the years, but we ultimately felt that there were other good sources available on basic group processes. We note, however, that some of the material from that general groups chapter was retained and incorporated into the teams chapter. Chapters 13 through 15 are focused on macro or organization-level processes. These include the design of organizations, organizational culture and climate, and organizational change and development. In terms of content, the major changes involved updating the substantive material in the chapters. Since the second edition many new developments have occurred in the field of organizational psychology, and a great deal of new research has been conducted. We have worked hard to convey these new developments and summarize important new research findings. We have also continued the feature People Behind the Research in the third edition where we feature prominent researchers to describe how they became interested in a particular topic. We introduced this feature in the second edition because we felt it would be interesting to students, and more importantly, put a human face on some of the names that are cited in the text. Because we received a great deal of positive feedback about this feature in the second edition we have continued it in the third edition, although most of the individuals featured have changed. CONTINUED UNIQUE FEATURES OF THE BOOK In this third edition we ve been careful to retain the features of previous editions of the book that we felt made it unique. For example, we still have a full chapter on research methodology and statistics. Furthermore, because the first edition came out, there have been even more methodological developments in the field this further validates the decision to include such a chapter in previous editions. The third edition also continues to cover many topics that are not traditionally part of organizational psychology such as recruitment, job performance, and compensation. This was and continues to be done largely because of the belief that there is considerable interrelationship between the I and the O sides of the broader field of industrial/organizational psychology. A third and final unique feature that has not changed is the use of Comment boxes throughout the book. Although the content of many of these boxes has changed, the motivation behind them has stayed the same to encourage students to think about and discuss the chapter material. We both strongly believe that students learn much more when they are highly engaged in the

15 Preface xiii material, and do not feel that reading is a chore. Some of the comments relate current events, some provide extended commentary on chapter material, and others are simply designed to help the reader get to know the authors a little better. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would first like to thank the reviewers who provided feedback on our initial proposal for the third edition of this book. We incorporated many of their suggestions and we appreciate their insights. We also wish to thank the many colleagues and students who have provided feedback on the second edition since it came out in Many of you have stopped by to chat about the book at conferences, and this feedback has been extremely valuable. Although we cannot guarantee that we ve addressed every criticism of the second edition, we ve certainly listened and made an effort to do so. We would also like to thank Tisha Rossi, our editor at Wiley, for her help during the revision process. Tisha provided us with some very valuable editorial feedback, yet also allowed us a considerable amount of discretion on the content of the book. We also greatly appreciate Tisha s flexibility on deadlines. We also thank Tisha s assistant Amanda Orenstein for her help providing us with tables and figures from previous editions of the book. The authors also thank especially Alison Bayne and Kelsey-Jo Ritter from Bowling Green State University, and Kristen Jennings, Janelle Cheung, and Kandice Goguen from Clemson University for all of their help during the revision process. Alison thoroughly went through every chapter and actually developed some of the new comment boxes in the chapters. She also did a tremendous job organizing the many new citations that were added to this edition, and basically just helping to keep this whole process organized. Kelsey-Jo was the first author on the new work nonwork chapter, and did a tremendous job developing new material for the instructor and student websites. On the Clemson University front, Kristen Jennings and Janelle Cheung conducted extensive annotated bibliographies for many of the chapters in the book, and Kandice Goguen hunted down most of the new references for many of the chapters. In addition, all three students read over final versions of the chapters. They helped us complete the revision with their usual blend of a positive attitude and conscientiousness, two attributes I hope they know I do not take for granted. ANOTEFROMTOMBRITT I would first like to thank Steve for giving me the opportunity to jump on board and work with him on the second revision to the textbook, and to continue to work on this third revision. I have enjoyed collaborating with Steve on multiple projects, and working together definitely comes easy. I am blessed to have my wonderful wife Renea to spend my life with, and could not have completed the revision without her unconditional love and support. I would also like to thank my twin sons, Noah and Jordan, now 14, for their love and support. They are two incredible blessings in my life. I would also like to thank them for playing so well with each other when dad was on the computer working on the revision. ANOTEFROMSTEVEJEX I would first like to thank Tom for initially agreeing to join me on the second edition and continuing into the third edition. Tom is a very talented researcher and writer, and