Leadership Models. University of Phoenix. From the SelectedWorks of Shawn Powell Joseph. Shawn Powell Joseph. June, 2007

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1 University of Phoenix From the SelectedWorks of Shawn Powell Joseph June, 2007 Leadership Models Shawn Powell Joseph Available at:

2 Leadership Models 1 Running Head: LEADERHIP MODELS Leadership Models Shawn Powell Joseph University of Phoenix LDR711 June 18, 2007

3 Leadership Models 2 Abstract Leadership refers to ones ability to effectively influence subordinates to achieve a chief end. The endeavor of this paper is to discuss the empirical foundation, methodologies and thought sequences that define specific models and how leaders use the key model components to achieve desired outcomes. This paper will demonstrate the existence of a continuum in leadership research, models and thought. Though seemingly dissimilar on the surface, each of the leadership models and theories presented in this paper share the objective of endeavoring to isolate the exact set of factors, that when combined will, rendered the highest quality leader.

4 Leadership Models 3 Leadership Theories In 500 BC Sun Tzu wrote The control of a large force is the same principle as the control of a few men: it is merely a question of dividing up their numbers. Leadership refers to ones ability to achieve a chief end. This paper is not designed to champion one specific definition of leadership, but rather to survey several leadership models and theories. The endeavor is to discuss the empirical foundation, methodologies and thought sequences that define specific models and how leaders utilize the key model components achieve desired outcomes. An overview of trait, behavioral, cognitive resources, contingency and transformational leadership theory will not only highlight the distinct differences of each school of thought, but will also illuminates the common thread that binds them one to another. This paper will demonstrate the existence of a continuum in leadership research, models and thought. The words of John Gardner are an excellent starting point to begin to develop an understanding of leadership. Gardner wrote, The first step is not action; the first step is understanding. (Gardner. 1990) Leadership is not a new, revolutionary concept. The study and construction of a body of leadership knowledge, however is still in its infancy. Pre-classical thinkers often focused on leadership as it related to a specific topic; military conquests or the politics of the republic, for instance. These early thinkers and strategists recognized the importance of organized, consistent efforts as a vehicle to the achievement of desired outcomes. Arguably, Machiavelli s Great Man theory could be considered to be the origin of what would become Trait Theory. Trait Theory

5 Leadership Models 4 Trait theory examines specific attributes that are common to all successful leaders. By taking an empirical research approach, early trait theorist hypothesized that leaders have a universal set of physical characteristics, personality types and aptitudes that combine to form the basis of their leadership success. Early trait research appeared to support the belief that distinct differences existed in the personalities and personas of leader when compared to followers. An extensive listing of preferred leadership traits can be found in the research of John Gardner studied leaders and organizations throughout North America. The results of his studies appeared to indicate although there similar traits could be found in these attributes did not that a successful leader in one situation could readily transfer that success in an unrelated situations. The common leadership attributes that Gardner identified include: 1. Physical vitality and stamina 2. Intelligence and action-oriented judgment 3. Eagerness to accept responsibility 4. Task competence 5. Understanding of followers and their needs 6. Skill in dealing with people 7. Need for achievement 8. Capacity to motivate people 9. Courage and resolution 10. Trustworthiness 11. Decisiveness 12. Self-confidence

6 Leadership Models Assertiveness 14. Adaptability/flexibility John Gardner (1989) On Leadership, New York: Free Press. Although the research conducted to formulate this list, and others like it, was exhaustive, it was inherently flawed due to the limitations of the scope of the research. By failing to consider other factors that contributed to leadership success or failure, this early theory failed to address the interdependency of leadership to situational dynamics and follower interactions. Further, this theory assumes that all personality traits will remain constant over on infinite time horizon. Behavioral Theory Behavioral Theory research marked a shift from an emphasis the leader to an endeavor to understand leadership itself. The behavior theories examined various types of behaviors that leaders engaged in. The objective of this line of research was to develop a leadership model that consider factors beyond the leader himself to include studies of the dynamics that exists from one situation to another and job satisfaction of followers. Behavior theorist hypothesized that leaders are made not born. Researchers suggested that individuals could become leaders by learning and following specific behavior guidelines. An example of behavior theory is the Blake and Mouton Managerial Grid. The consideration of the following four concepts forms the baseline commonalties of many behavioral theories: 1. Concern for people. 2. Concern for task. 3. Participative leadership.

7 Leadership Models 6 4. Directive leadership. The Managerial Grid theory hypothesizes that leadership effectiveness is based on two assumptions, concern for people and concern for production. The theory states that the optimal strategy for managers is to maximize attitudes and actions reinforcing both concerns. (Bernardin and Alvares. 1976) This model identifies five distinct leadership styles based on the aforementioned concerns. A brief overview of the leadership styles is presented below: 1. The impoverished style low concern for people and production. 2. The country club style high concern for people, low concern for production. 3. The produce or perish style high concern for production, low concern for people. 4. The middle-of-the-road style balance between concern for production and people. 5. The team style high concern for people and production. The Cognitive Resources Theory The cognitive abilities are the focus of this theory. The basis for the cognitive resources theory hypothesis is that the effectiveness of group performance is contingent upon the interaction between the two leader traits of intelligence and experience. Cognitive resource theory is an extension of trait theory and considers situational variables as key indicators for leadership effectiveness. Cognitive resource theory makes the following assertions: 1. When the leader s approach is directive, cognitive ability contributes to the performance of the team.

8 Leadership Models 7 2. The relationship between intelligence and decision quality is affected by stress. 3. Under high stress, experience is related to decision quality. 4. Leader experience is irrelevant for simple tasks. A key limitation of Cognitive resource theory is the inability to quantify intelligence. Further the relative newness of theory could indicate that it has not been subjected to the requisite academic rigor to validate its assertions. Cultural factors are not considered in this theory. Transformational Leadership Theory Transformational leadership centers on the leader s vision. Transformational leadership endeavors to engage followers and encourage buy-in to the vision and the achievement of long term goals. Idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualized consideration are the four primary aspects of transformational leadership. Key assumptions of this theory are that people are motivated when made aware of the importance of tasks and teams produce more effectively. The moral aspects of this theory include: 1. The moral character of the leader. 2. The ethical values embedded in the leader s vision, articulation, and program (which followers either embrace or reject). 3. The morality of the processes of social ethical choice and action that leaders and followers engage in and collectively pursue. (Bass. 1990) Transformational leaders endeavor to engage followers and encourage buy-in to the vision and the achievement of long term goals. The focus of this model is to increase

9 Leadership Models 8 the level of motivation and morality of the group to achieve the leaders desired end state. Transformational leaders endeavor to assist each follower realize his or her fullest potential. According to Bass, the transformational leader heightens the motivation of followers by making them aware of the importance of each task outcome. In so doing, Bass asserts that individuals will transcend their own self interest for the benefit of the team or organization. Unlike trait or behavior theories viewed independently, transformational leadership is concerned with the behavior of the leaders as well as the development and performance of the follower. The primary factors associated with transformational leadership are: 1. Idealized influence 2. Inspirational motivation 3. Intellectual stimulation 4. Individual consideration Individualized influence references to those behaviors and attributes that engender loyalty because of the perceived strength of character of the leader. Followers believe the transformational leader to have a very high standard of ethical and moral conduct and a vision worthy of their commitment to see to fruition. Inspirational motivation is an assessment of the degree to which the transformational leader can inspire follower to commit to the vision. Through emotional appeals, the leader can motivate followers to do the best work they have ever done for the sake of the mission and the team.

10 Leadership Models 9 Intellectual stimulation refers to the transformational leader who appeals to the intellect of his or her followers. By creating an environment that encourages innovation, the leader encourages followers to take a proactive approach to mission achievement. Individualized consideration is evidence by the supportive environment that a transformational leader creates for his or her followers. Active listening assists followers through the process of self-actualization. In so doing, the caliber of work produced is increased and the achievement of the mission more probably.

11 Leadership Models 10 Conclusion The body of leadership knowledge is continually growing and changing. Each new theory or model builds on the success or shortcomings of its predecessor. Practitioner-scholar-leaders must endeavor to uncover the dyadic relationship that exists among the existing theories and thought. Although it is true that the progression of thinking tends to follow a sequential path, it is quite possible for elements of one generation to crop up much later in the writings of someone who would not normally think of himself or herself as being of that school. Consequently, it is fair to say that each generation has added something to the overall debate on leadership and that the debate continues. (van Maurik 2001: 3) Though seemingly dissimilar on the surface, each of the leadership models and theories presented in this paper share the objective of endeavoring to isolate the exact set of factors that when combined will rendered the highest quality leader. Further, it is clear that each theory share aspects of behavioral, trait or situational elements gleaned through the research of its predecessor.

12 Leadership Models 11 References Bass, B. M. (1990). Handbook of leadership: Theory, research, & managerial applications (3 rd ed.). New York: The Free Press Bennis, W. (1999). The leadership advantage. Leader to Leader Online. Retrieved on June 10, 2007 from Bernardin, J.H. and lvares, K. M. (1976). The managerial grid as predictor of conflict resolution. Administrative Science Quarterly. Retrieved on June 12, 2007 from College of St. Scholastica Faculty Website. (2007). Cognitive resource theory: A summary. Retrieved on June 14, 2007 from Doyle, M. E. and Smith, M. K. (2001) Classical leadership, the encyclopedia of informal education. Retrieved June 11, 2007 from Gardener, J. (1989). On leadership. New York Press. Sun Tzu. The art of war. Tichy, N.M. and Devenna, M.A. (1990). The transformational leader. NewYork: John Wiley & Sons. van Maurik, J. (2001) Writers on Leadership, London: Penguin. 248+vii pages. Retrieved on June 11, 2007 from Wren, D. (2004). The history of management thought. 5 th ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

13 Leadership Models 12 Yukl, G. (2006). Leadership in organizations. 6 th ed. Upper Saddle River: Pearson.