Two of a Kind? Leader-Member Exchange and Organizational Citizenship Behaviors: The Moderating Role of Leader-Member Similarity

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1 See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: Two of a Kind? Leader-Member Exchange and Organizational Citizenship Behaviors: The Moderating Role of Leader-Member Similarity ARTICLE DECEMBER 00 READS AUTHOR: Ronit. Waismel-Manor Netanya Academic College PUBLICATIONS CITATIONS SEE PROFILE All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate, letting you access and read them immediately. Available from: Ronit. Waismel-Manor Retrieved on: 0 April 0

2 JOBNAME: No Job Name PAGE: SESS: 0 OUTPUT: Mon Nov :: 00 SUM: FFD /v0/blackwell/journals/jasp_v0_i/jasp_ 0 Two of a Kind? Leader Member Exchange and Organizational Citizenship Behaviors: The Moderating Role of Leader Member Similarity Ronit Waismel-Manor and Aharon Tziner Netanya Academic College Efrat Berger and Eli Dikstein Tel Hai Academic College This study investigates the role of similarity in ethnic origin between supervisor and employee as a potential moderator between subordinates leader member exchange (LMX) and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). The results support the interaction effect of supervisor subordinate ethnic differences with LMX and OCB. As hypothesized, OCB was positively related to LMX for both ethnically similar and dissimilar dyads, but the relationship was strongest for similar dyads.jasp_ Researchers have theorized that organizations often benefit when employees are willing to contribute to the organization above and beyond their formally defined job descriptions (Katz, ; Organ, ; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Paine, & Bachrach, 000). In the increasingly dynamic and competitive environment in which organizations operate, such contributions, referred to as organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs; Organ, ; Smith, Organ, & Near, ), have received considerable attention from scholars and practitioners alike (Podsakoff et al., 000). Leaders (i.e., supervisors) have an important influence on employees attitudes and behaviors. Within the broad area of organizational leadership, leader member exchange (LMX) theory has emerged as one of the most interesting and useful approaches for explaining the ways in which leaders influence subordinates (Gerstner & Day, ), differing from other leadership theories in its focus on the dyadic exchange relationship between leaders and each of their followers (Gerstner & Day, ). Drawing on social exchange theory (Blau, ), LMX maintains that leaders develop different types of exchange relationships with their followers, and the quality of these relationships affects important member attitudes and behaviors (Gerstner & Day, ; Ilies, Nahrgang, & Morgeson, 00). Specifically, with some subordinates, leaders develop high-quality exchanges that are characterized Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Ronit Waismel-Manor, Netanya Academic College, University Street, Kiryat Yitzhak Rabin, Netanya, Israel. ronitw@netanya.ac.il or Aharon Tziner, Netanya Academic College, University Street, Kiryat Yitzhak Rabin, Netanya, Israel. atziner@netanya.ac.il Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 00, 0,, pp.. 00 Copyright the Authors Journal compilation 00 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

3 JOBNAME: No Job Name PAGE: SESS: 0 OUTPUT: Mon Nov :: 00 SUM: CA /v0/blackwell/journals/jasp_v0_i/jasp_ WAISMEL-MANOR ET AL by mutual trust, loyalty, respect, and obligation and, therefore, generate influence between the employee and the leader. With others, they conduct low-quality interactions that rely on the formal employment contract and result in distance between the parties (Dansereau, Graen, & Haga, ). Considerable research has shown that high-quality LMX relationships are related to citizenship behaviors (e.g., Hackett, Farh, Song, & Lapierre, 00; Podsakoff et al., 000) and that LMX predicts citizenship behaviors as strongly as it predicts task performance (Ilies et al., 00). These extra-role behaviors are voluntary, intentional, and positive. Yet, as OCBs are less often recognized by the formal rewards system (Organ, ), researchers have suggested that it is likely that subordinates engage in citizenship behaviors as a means of maintaining a well-balanced or equitable social exchange (Wayne, Shore, Bommer, & Tetrick, 00). Although interest in both LMX and OCB has increased considerably over the past two decades (e.g., Gerstner & Day, ; Podsakoff et al., 000), we still have relatively little understanding of why and when members reciprocate high LMX with more citizenship behaviors. Moreover, scholars have expressed concern that research has not adequately examined potential moderators or circumstances under which LMX has a stronger, rather than a weaker effect on employees (e.g., Erdogan & Liden, 00; Hackett et al., 00). The current study addresses this issue by investigating a particular demographic similarity between subordinate and supervisor namely, ethnic similarity as a moderator of the LMX/citizenship-behavior relationship in a high-tech company in Israel. The relational demography approach (Tsui, Egan, & O Reilly, ) is an avenue of research that examines the consequences of workforce diversity, relating to demography as a social relationship between an individual and a group or, as in the case of supervisor subordinate dyads, between two individuals (Tsui, Porter, & Egan, 00). Organizational demography predicts that differences in age, gender, race, and education between individuals have a negative impact on individual-level outcomes, such as supervisory affect and role ambiguity (Tsui & O Reilly, ). This assumption is based on the psychological theory that similarity leads to attraction. According to Tsui et al. (00), Demographically similar individuals invoke an attraction dynamic whereby demographically similar individuals accentuate the positive attributes of each other and derive a positive social identity. They tend to view and treat each other favorably, whereas demographically dissimilar individuals tend to view and treat each other less favorably. (p. 0)

4 JOBNAME: No Job Name PAGE: SESS: 0 OUTPUT: Mon Nov :: 00 SUM: C /v0/blackwell/journals/jasp_v0_i/jasp_ LEADER MEMBER SIMILARITY 0 0 Although research on race ethnicity similarity in the vertical dyad is sparse (Tsui & O Reilly, ; Tsui et al., 00), it suggests positive outcomes. Therefore, we expect that LMX will be positively related to OCBs for both ethnic similar and dissimilar vertical dyads, and that this relationship will be stronger for similar dyads than for dissimilar ones. Thus, the present study is one of the first to examine relational demographic characteristics as a moderator variable of LMX. Moreover, it contributes to the relational demography literature by focusing on OCB as the outcome. Despite the fact that scholars have examined a host of outcomes, the relational literature has typically overlooked extra-role behaviors (however, see Tsui et al., 00, on vertical dyads; Chattopadhyay,, on work-group relationships). Given the importance of extra-role behaviors to organizations, managers must be aware of how demographic similarities or differences between them and their subordinates facilitate or limit the extent of their subordinates extra-role behaviors. In addition, the present study investigates demographically similar supervisor subordinate dyads, whereas the vast majority of previous research has focused on employees working in groups in which they are dissimilar from their work-group peers on key demographic characteristics (e.g., gender, age, race). What is more, these studies have considered the resulting effect on work-related outcomes, but not on the most basic unit in organizational structure: supervisor subordinate (Tsui et al., 00). 0 0 Leader Member Exchange and Organizational Citizenship Behaviors As previously noted, the basic premise of LMX theory is that supervisors establish differential interpersonal relationships with their subordinates, ranging from high quality to low quality. High-quality social exchange relationships provide subordinates with both intangible and tangible benefits. Intangible benefits include a trust-based relationship (Bauer & Green, ), greater growth opportunities (Graen & Scandura, ), and higher levels of support (Kraimer, Wayne, & Jaworski, 00). Tangible benefits include decision latitude (Scandura, Graen, & Novak, ), promotability, and salary progress (Wayne, Liden, Kraimer, & Graf, ). According to social exchange theory (Blau, ), such supervisor benefits create obligations to reciprocate beyond that required of subordinates according to the formal employment contract. Thus, it is probable that We located one brief research note (Epitropaki & Martin, ) that investigated the role of differences in age, organizational tenure, and gender between manager and employee as potential moderators between employees LMX and work outcomes (i.e., work commitment, job satisfaction, well-being).

5 JOBNAME: No Job Name PAGE: SESS: 0 OUTPUT: Mon Nov :: 00 SUM: C /v0/blackwell/journals/jasp_v0_i/jasp_ 0 WAISMEL-MANOR ET AL subordinates maintaining a high-quality exchange relationship with their supervisor will engage in OCBs, such as working overtime and offering extra help to coworkers or supervisors. Research has shown that the quality of the LMX relationship is indeed positively related to OCB performed by subordinates (e.g., Hackett et al., 00; Podsakoff et al., 000). A recent meta-analysis of 0 samples (Ilies et al., 00) indicated a moderately strong correlation of. between LMX and citizenship behaviors. Moreover, as Hackett et al. (00) indicated, OCB figures prominently in the conceptualization and measurement of LMX theory. For example, researchers have argued that in high-quality LMX, subordinates contribute behavior above and beyond the job description (Cole, Schaninger, & Harris, 00, as cited in Hackett et al., 00, p. 0) in return for influence with the leader. In Liden and Maslyn s () conceptualization of LMX, two items used to measure contribution are (a) I do work for my supervisor that goes beyond what is specified in my job description (p. ); and (b) I am willing to apply extra efforts, beyond those normally required, to further the interests of my work group (p. ). Thus, OCB is essential to LMX theory, and the consistent positive relationship reported between them underscores the importance of leadership in influencing citizenship behaviors (Podsakoff et al., 000). Demographic Similarity as a Moderator of the LMX OCB Relationship Thus far, we have posited a main effect for LMX on OCB. However, researchers have consistently called for moderators of the LMX OCB link (e.g., Erdogan & Liden, 00; Hackett et al., 00; Ilies et al., 00), as we know little about the LMX OCB relationship. Tsui and O Reilly () suggested that the demographic attributes of a supervisor and a subordinate may affect their attitudes and behaviors. Therefore, we chose to consider demographic similarity as a potential moderator of the LMX OCB relationship, examining whether similarities or differences between supervisors and subordinates ethnicity could alter the direct relationship between the subordinates LMX and OCB. On the basis of the relational demography approach, we expect LMX to be more strongly related to OCB for similar dyads than for dissimilar ones. According to Tsui and O Reilly, the term relational demography refers to the comparative demographic characteristics of members of dyads or groups who are in a position to engage in regular interactions (p. 0). Underlying relational demographic effects is a combination of a high level of interpersonal attraction and better interpersonal communication. Indeed, the research literature on dyads indicates the validity of the commonsense notion that likes like likes.

6 JOBNAME: No Job Name PAGE: SESS: 0 OUTPUT: Mon Nov :: 00 SUM: BFACC /v0/blackwell/journals/jasp_v0_i/jasp_ LEADER MEMBER SIMILARITY Similarity on a variety of attributes has been found to facilitate liking and attraction (Nahemow & Lawton, ). Byrne () described the relationship between attraction and similarity as the similarity-attraction paradigm, whereby sharing common attributes evokes attraction because each individual receives reinforcement. Thus, sharing similar attributes and background is likely to generate mutual satisfaction because it is reassuring. In addition, because they often share attitudes, activities, and values, similar individuals may understand each other better, thus reducing the likelihood of misinterpreting job expectations and requirements; hence, increasing their confidence in each other (Pelled & Xin, 000). On the other hand, when the supervisor and the subordinate differ demographically, they may communicate relatively infrequently, which may increase role ambiguity and social distance (Green, Anderson, & Shivers, ; Tsui & O Reilly, ). A considerable body of research has indicated that attraction emanating from similarity facilitates desirable interpersonal dynamics, effective communication, a pleasant atmosphere, and effective performance (see Tziner, 00). For example, Tsui and O Reilly () found that differences in education, sex, and race between members of supervisor subordinate dyads were associated with subordinates heightened role ambiguity, unfavorable performance evaluations, and a lower level of personal attraction of the superiors to the subordinates. Looking at it from the opposite direction, Tsui et al. (00) found that demographic similarity in supervisor subordinate dyads is associated with extra-role behaviors, such as helping behaviors. Although several studies on LMX antecedents have employed a relational demography approach, most have examined gender or age similarity, with only a few relating to race similarity. Pelled and Xin (000), for example, hypothesized that race similarity would be positively related to LMX in both the United States and Mexico, but were able to examine and confirm this relationship only with the U.S. sample. A study by Basu and Green () examined race similarity in a manufacturing plant, but the weights were not significant. In popular and academic discourse alike, there is much confusion surrounding the concepts of ethnicity and race. Nonetheless, many researchers now agree that both concepts are primarily social, rather than biological phenomena. Some scholars indicate that ethnicity as synonymous with race, while others discard the latter term because of the wide disagreement as to its meaning (for a discussion of conceptualizing race and ethnicity, see The researchers were unable to examine the hypothesized relationship with the Mexican sample because few Mexican subordinates revealed their race on the questionnaire.

7 JOBNAME: No Job Name PAGE: SESS: 0 OUTPUT: Mon Nov :: 00 SUM: 0DABBF /v0/blackwell/journals/jasp_v0_i/jasp_ WAISMEL-MANOR ET AL Ratcliffe, ). Still, excluding it altogether would be to deny its presence in many societies. In some societies (e.g., the U.S.), the term race is used conventionally to distinguish among people; while in others (e.g., Israel, where the present study was conducted), the word is never used officially (e.g., in the Statistical Yearbook). This does not necessarily imply a denial of race as an issue; it is more likely to stem from the fact that the term race is intimately associated in the public mind with the Holocaust (Ratcliffe, ). Ethnic group generally refers to a particular group of people who share characteristic norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors that stem from a common culture of origin transmitted across generations (Phinney, ). Contemporary Jewish Israeli society evolved in the 0s as a result of the mass immigration of Jews from numerous countries. Despite significant heterogeneity among the immigrants, a bifurcated social structure emerged: Ashkenazi Jews, who are primarily from central and Eastern Europe, and Mizrahi (literally Eastern ) Jews, who are primarily from Arab and Asian countries (Khazzoom, 00). The Western Ashkenazi Jews, who are presumed to have arrived from modern societies, are the dominant group in Israel, enjoying a higher status than the Mizrahi Jews, who are associated with traditional countries. Thus, in the minds of the respondents, membership in one of these ethnic groups echoes having real, as well as putative common ancestry, memories of a shared past, and shared customs, beliefs, and dialect. Consequently, ethnic similarity resulting from membership in the same ethnic group may induce interpersonal liking, which, as we have seen, may impact on attitudes and behavior. In summary, based on relational demography ideas (e.g., Tsui & O Reilly, ), we predict that LMX will be more strongly related to OCB for similar dyads than for dissimilar ones by enhancing interpersonal attraction and communication. Since OCBs are considered voluntary activities that benefit the organization and the supervisor, it seems probable that the subordinate might be willing to go an extra mile when he or she likes the supervisor (Tsui et al., 00). Accordingly, the following hypotheses were formulated for the present study: Hypothesis. LMX will be positively related to citizenship behaviors. Hypothesis. Ethnic similarity will interact with LMX in predicting OCB. The nature of the interaction will be such that the relationship between LMX and OCB will be strongest when ethnic similarity exists.

8 JOBNAME: No Job Name PAGE: SESS: 0 OUTPUT: Mon Nov :: 00 SUM: EDDCB /v0/blackwell/journals/jasp_v0_i/jasp_ LEADER MEMBER SIMILARITY Sample Method The data used to test the hypotheses were drawn from a high-tech company in Israel. Study participants were subordinates and their supervisors, who responded to questions regarding personal demographics. The supervisors then responded to a questionnaire on their subordinates OCBs, while the subordinates completed a survey on their relationship with their supervisor. Respondents were asked to indicate whether they were Ashkenazi Jews (.% of supervisors, n = 0;.% of subordinates, n = 0), Mizrahi Jews (.% of supervisors,.% of subordinates), or others. Based on common ethnic divisions in Israel and the respondents answers, we were unable to code one small group of Ethiopian subordinates (n = ) as either Mizrahi or Ashkenazi. Thus, for a more lucid interpretation of any potential ethnic effect between Ashkenazi and Mizrahi Jews, who comprised the majority in this study, we decided to exclude the Ethiopian Jews from further analysis. Ethnic origin was coded as either 0 (designating Ashkenazi Jews) or (designating Mizrahi Jews). Of the subordinates in the final sample,.0% (n = 0) were male, and.% (n = ) were college graduates. Subordinate organizational tenure ranged from months to years (M =. years, SD = 0.), and respondents ranged in age from to years (M =. years, SD =.). Ashkenazi Jews were more likely to be college graduates than were Mizrahi Jews (.% and.0%, respectively), while Mizrahi Jews were likely to have more organizational tenure than Ashkenazi Jews (M =. years, SD = 0.; and M =. years, SD =., respectively). Measures To minimize within-respondent bias, separate respondents were used to measure dependent and independent variables. Organizational citizenship behavior. To assess OCB, we employed a nineitem scale based on the work of Podsakoff and Mackenzie (). One item on working extra hours without pay was not used because this practice did not apply to the company. Supervisors responded to items such as Employees should do above and beyond their job requirements, My subordinates should bring new ideas that can improve organizational performance, and My subordinates should engage in activities that require extra efforts. Responses were rated on a -point scale ranging from (strongly disagree)to (strongly agree). Alpha coefficient was..

9 JOBNAME: No Job Name PAGE: SESS: 0 OUTPUT: Mon Nov :: 00 SUM: ECDE /v0/blackwell/journals/jasp_v0_i/jasp_ WAISMEL-MANOR ET AL. 0 Leader member exchange. Subordinates completed an -item scale based on the work of Liden and Maslyn (). Sample items include I like my supervisor as a person, I admire my supervisor s professional skills, and My supervisor defends my work actions to a superior, even without complete knowledge of the issue in question. Responses were rated on a -point scale ranging from (strongly disagree) to (strongly agree). A coefficient was.. Ethnic similarity. Ethnic similarity was categorized as indicating that the supervisor and the subordinate were of the same ethnic origin () or different ethnic origins (0). Control variables. Control variables that have shown a relationship with OCB in past research were used in the analysis, including subordinates gender, tenure, and education (i.e., whether or not they were college graduates). Gender was coded as 0 for men, and for women. Tenure was measured in years. Education was coded as 0 to designate high school graduates and respondents with some college education, or for college graduates. A control was also used for subordinates ethnic origin, since origin might be a proxy of human capital, which might affect OCB performance (Tsui et al., 00) Results In order to test for moderation effects of ethnic similarity on the LMX OCB relationship, hierarchical multiple regressions were conducted. The control variables were entered first, followed by LMX in the second step, and ethnic similarity in the third step. In the final step, the interaction term between LMX and ethnic similarity was entered. Table shows the means, standard deviations, and a correlation matrix of study variables for the sample. An examination of this matrix reveals no correlations high enough to indicate multicollinearity in the regression models, with the possible exception of the correlation between subordinate origin and ethnic similarity (r =.). Note that, on average, supervisors reported very high levels of OCB (M =.), and that subordinates reported high-quality relationships with their supervisors (M =.). The correlation between OCB and LMX was.. Table presents the results of the hierarchical regression for OCB. As can be seen in the table, after controlling for subordinates gender, tenure, education, and ethnic origin, a significant positive relationship was found between LMX and OCB, thus confirming Hypothesis. Hypothesis predicted that the nature of the interaction between LMX and ethnic similarity would be such that the relationship between LMX and OCB would be

10 JOBNAME: No Job Name PAGE: SESS: 0 OUTPUT: Mon Nov :: 00 SUM: 0B /v0/blackwell/journals/jasp_v0_i/jasp_ LEADER MEMBER SIMILARITY 0 Table Correlations of Study Variables Variable M SD. Subordinate s gender Subordinate s organizational tenure (log) Subordinate s college degree Subordinate s ethnic origin Organizational citizenship behavior Leader member exchange Ethnic similarity Note. N =. Gender: 0 = male; = female. Ethnic origin: 0 = Ashkenazi; = Mizrahi. Correlations. significant at p <.0.

11 JOBNAME: No Job Name PAGE: 0 SESS: 0 OUTPUT: Mon Nov :: 00 SUM: CBD /v0/blackwell/journals/jasp_v0_i/jasp_ WAISMEL-MANOR ET AL. 0 0 Table Hierarchical Regression Analysis of Organizational Citizenship Behaviors Step Step Step Step b SE b SE b SE b SE Step Constant.***..***..***..***. Gender -0.**.0-0.***.0-0.***.0-0.***.0 Organizational tenure (log) 0.0*.0 0.0*.0 0.0*.0 0.0*.0 Education -0.*.0-0.* Subordinate s ethnic origin Step LMX 0.***.0 0.***.0 0.*.0 Step Ethnic similarity -0.*.0 -.** 0.0 Step LMX Ethnic Similarity 0.*.0 R..0.. Adjusted R...0. R D.0***.0*.0* Note. N =. Unstandardized regression coefficients. Gender: 0 = male; = female. Education: 0 = does not have college degree; = has college degree. LMX = leader member exchange. +p <.0. *p <.0. **p <.0. ***p <.00.

12 JOBNAME: No Job Name PAGE: SESS: 0 OUTPUT: Mon Nov :: 00 SUM: B0 /v0/blackwell/journals/jasp_v0_i/jasp_ LEADER MEMBER SIMILARITY.0.00 Dissimilar dyads.0 OCB.0 Similar dyads LMX..0 Figure. Moderation of ethnic similarity. OCB = organizational citizenship behavior; LMX = leader member exchange. 0 0 strongest when there is ethnic similarity. An examination of the interaction coefficient in Step reveals that ethnicity was indeed related to OCB. In order to understand the form of the interaction, we plotted the interaction at three levels of LMX (i.e., + SD, M, and - SD; see Figure ). OCB was found to be positively related to LMX for both ethnically similar and dissimilar dyads, but as Figure shows, the slope for similar dyads was greater than the slope for the dissimilar dyads, thus confirming Hypothesis. Interestingly, however, the findings indicate that subordinates in similar dyads performed fewer OCBs than did those in dissimilar dyads. Discussion The present study sought to extend the research on the relationship between LMX and various outcomes by examining the moderating effect of supervisor subordinate demographic similarity on the relationship between LMX and OCB. Based on the similarity-attraction paradigm one of the major conceptual foundations of relational demography we hypothesized that ethnic similarity would lead to more positive outcomes than would dissimilarity. The results support the interaction effect of supervisor

13 JOBNAME: No Job Name PAGE: SESS: 0 OUTPUT: Mon Nov :: 00 SUM: AA /v0/blackwell/journals/jasp_v0_i/jasp_ WAISMEL-MANOR ET AL subordinate ethnic differences with LMX and OCB, demonstrating that demographic similarity engenders attraction, as the relationship between OCBs and LMX was greater for similar dyads than for dissimilar dyads. However, although the relationship between OCB and LMX was stronger for similar dyads, the dyads evidenced fewer OCBs under LMX. This relationship may indicate resentment. In other words, subordinates that are similar to their supervisors may expect the supervisor to evidence higher LMX toward them (i.e., the in-group), so they resent it when they experience low LMX. Conversely, dissimilar subordinates do not expect much from their supervisor, so low LMX does not lead to a resentment effect. Another possible explanation for this finding is that dissimilar-dyad employees may feel they have to try harder to compensate for the social distance between them and their supervisors. Hence, it is possible that there are different work norms for OCBs when supervisor subordinate dyads do or do not have shared ethnicity. Both of these explanations assume that there is a real difference between subordinates in OCB performance. However, as we measured supervisors evaluations of subordinates OCB, it may well be that bosses tend to overrate OCBs performed by dissimilar subordinates, regardless of their actual performance, in order to ensure that they are not allowing bias (e.g., preference for demographically similar employees) to affect their assessments. Moreover, they may wish to avoid even the appearance of bias. Another possibility is that supervisors have higher OCB expectations from similar subordinates than from dissimilar employees, which might lead to a lower evaluation of the similar subordinate for equal OCBs. Future research should attempt to use both objective and subjective OCB measures to determine whether the higher ratings were a result of actual performance by subordinates or an evaluation bias of the supervisors (also see Tsui et al., 00). Several possible limitations of the present study should be considered. First, as with other studies on dyads, one supervisor often rated more than one subordinate. The lack of interdependence in the OCB ratings of the subordinates may have introduced some bias into the results (Tsui et al., 00). Second, the fact that we used cross-sectional, correlational data constrains our ability to make inferences regarding the causal status of the findings. The determination of the causal relationship requires additional research with a longitudinal design. Third, the respondents in this sample have a strong common link (i.e., they are all Jews in Israel), which may actually make them more similar than different. This might have masked ethnic differences that may be more dominant in other counties (e.g., South Africa, U.S.). Thus, future research is needed to enhance the generalizability We thank Blake Ashforth for suggesting this explanation.

14 JOBNAME: No Job Name PAGE: SESS: 0 OUTPUT: Mon Nov :: 00 SUM: ECE /v0/blackwell/journals/jasp_v0_i/jasp_ LEADER MEMBER SIMILARITY of our findings to a more representative population with multiple ethnic groups. Finally, differences between individuals strength of identification with their ethnic group that is, their ethnic identity may also explain some of our results. For example, in a similar dyad, the supervisor and the subordinate could vary in the strength of their ethnic identity, and that might influence the degree to which subordinates perform OCBs. Relying on the relational demography approach, we examined sense of belonging to an ethnic group by simply asking respondents to indicate their ethnicity. Future studies could employ a more complex measure of ethnic identity (e.g., attitudes and feelings associated with membership in the group) in order to examine the effect of ethnicity on OCBs and other performance variables (for further discussion, see Phinney, ). Despite these limitations, we believe that examining the moderating effect of relational demography is of increasing importance, given that the workforce in the Western world is becoming more diverse (Mitra, 00). Future studies would do well to continue this avenue of research, investigating multiple relational demography variables (e.g., age, gender, education) and their effects on the relationship between LMX and OCB. The findings may have significant implications for management. Our results underscore the complexities confronting supervisors in a diverse workforce, indicating gaps in subordinates performance under different dyad relationships. It is important to address this issue in a variety of circumstances to identify appropriate means of influencing subordinate behaviors. References Basu, R., & Green, S. G. (). Subordinate performance, leader subordinate compatibility, and exchange quality in leader member dyads: A field study. Journal of Applied Social Psychology,,. Bauer, T. N., & Green, S. G. (). Development of leader member exchange: A longitudinal test. Academy of Management Journal,,. Blau, P. (). Exchange and power in social life. New York: Wiley. Byrne, D. (). Interpersonal attraction as a function of affiliate need and attitude similarity. Human Relations,,. Chattopadhyay, P. (). Beyond direct and symmetrical effects: The influence of demographic dissimilarity on organizational citizenship behavior. Academy of Management Review,,. Dansereau, F., Graen, G., & Haga, W. J. (). A vertical dyad approach to leadership within formal organizations. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance,,.

15 JOBNAME: No Job Name PAGE: SESS: 0 OUTPUT: Mon Nov :: 00 SUM: CA0F /v0/blackwell/journals/jasp_v0_i/jasp_ 0 WAISMEL-MANOR ET AL Epitropaki, O., & Martin, R. (). The impact of relational demography on the quality of leader member exchanges and employees work attitudes and well-being. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology,, 0. Erdogan, B., & Liden, R. C. (00). Social exchanges in the workplace. In L. L. Neider & C. A. Schriesheim (Eds.), Leadership: Research in Management Series (pp. ). Greenwich, CT: Information Age. Gerstner, C. R., & Day, D. V. (). Meta-analytic review of leader member exchange theory: Correlates and construct issues. Journal of Applied Psychology,,. Graen, G. B., & Scandura, T. A. (). Toward a psychology of dyadic organizing. Research on Organizational Behavior,, 0. Green, S. G., Anderson, S. E., & Shivers, S. L. (). Demographic and organizational influence on leader member exchange and related work attitudes. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,, 0. Hackett, R. D., Farh, J., Song, L. J., & Lapierre, L. M. (00). LMX and organizational citizenship behavior: Examining the links within and across Western and Chinese samples. In G. B. Graen (Ed.), LMX leadership: Dealing with diversity (pp. ). Greenwich, CT: Information Age. Ilies, R., Nahrgang, J. D., & Morgeson, F. D. (00). Leader member exchange and citizenship behaviors: A meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Psychology,,. Katz, D. (). The motivational basis of organizational behavior. Behavioral Science,,. Khazzoom, A. (00). The great chain of Orientalism: Jewish identity, stigma management, and ethnic exclusion in Israel. American Sociological Review,, 0. Kraimer, M. L., Wayne, S. J., & Jaworski, R. A. (00). Sources of support and expatriate performance: The mediating role of expatriate adjustment. Personnel Psychology,,. Liden, R. C., & Maslyn, J. M. (). Multidimensionality of leader member exchange: An empirical assessment through scale development. Journal of Management,,. Mitra, T. (00). A new look at long-term labor force projections to 00. Monthly Labor Review,, 0. Nahemow, L., & Lawton, N. P. (). Similarity and propinquity: Making friends with different people. In H. H. Blumberg, A. P. Hare, V. Kent, & M. P. Davies (Eds.), Small groups and social interactions (Vol., pp. ). New York: Wiley. Organ, D. W. (). Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.

16 JOBNAME: No Job Name PAGE: SESS: 0 OUTPUT: Mon Nov :: 00 SUM: BF0EAD /v0/blackwell/journals/jasp_v0_i/jasp_ LEADER MEMBER SIMILARITY Pelled, L. S., & Xin, K. R. (000). Relational demography and relationship quality in two cultures. Organization Studies,, 0 0. Phinney, J. (). When we talk about American ethnic groups, what do we mean? American Psychologist,,. Podsakoff, P. M., & Mackenzie, S. B. (). A second-generation measure of organizational citizenship behavior. Working paper, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN. Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Paine, J. B., & Bachrach, D. G. (000). Organizational citizenship behavior: A critical review of the theoretical and empirical literature and suggestions for future research. Journal of Management,,. Ratcliffe, P. (). Conceptualizing race, ethnicity, and nation: Towards a comparative perspective. In P. Ratcliffe (Ed.), Race, ethnicity, and nation (pp. ). London: University of London Press. Scandura, T. A., Graen, G. B., & Novak, M. A. (). When managers decide not to decide autocratically: An investigation of leader member exchange and decision influence. Journal of Applied Psychology,,. Smith, A. C., Organ D. W., & Near, J. P. (). Organizational citizenship behavior: Its nature and antecedents. Journal of Applied Psychology,,. Tsui, A. S., Egan, T. D., & O Reilly, C. A. (). Being different: Relational demography and organizational attachment. Administrative Science Quarterly,, 0. Tsui, A. S., & O Reilly, C. A. (). Beyond simple demographic effects: The importance of relational demography in superior subordinate dyads. Academy of Management Journal,, 0. Tsui, A. S., Porter, L. W., & Egan, T. D. (00). When both similarities and dissimilarities matter: Extending the concept of relational demography. Human Relations,,. Tziner, A. (00). Human resource management and organization behavior: Selected perspectives. Aldershot, UK: Ashgate. Wayne, S. J., Liden, R. C., Kraimer, M. L., & Graf, I. K. (). The role of human capital, motivation, and supervisor sponsorship in predicting career success. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 0,. Wayne, S. J., Shore, L. M., Bommer, W. H., & Tetrick, L. E. (00). The role of fair treatment and rewards in perceptions of organizational support and leader member exchange. Journal of Applied Psychology,, 0.

17 JOBNAME: No Job Name PAGE: SESS: 0 OUTPUT: Mon Nov :: 00 SUM: BCC /v0/blackwell/journals/jasp_v0_i/jasp_ Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited Journal Code: JASP Proofreader: Emily Article No: Delivery date: November 00 Page Extent: AUTHOR QUERY FORM Dear Author, During the preparation of your manuscript for publication, the questions listed below have arisen. Please attend to these matters and return this form with your proof. Many thanks for your assistance. Query References Query AUTHOR: Cole, Schaninger, & Harris, 00 has not been included in the Reference List, please supply full publication details. Remark