Work engagement in nonprofit organizations

Transcription

1 AARHUS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF BUSINESS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Work engagement in nonprofit organizations GUSTE DANILEVICIUTE SUPERVISOR: JOSEFINE WEIGT-ROHRBECK CHARACTERS: ( EXCL. BLANKS)

2 Abstract The purpose of this bachelor thesis is to examine which of job characteristics affect work engagement in the nonprofit organization setting. In the last couple of decades employee and work engagement concepts have gained a wide recognition among the scholars and practitioners. However the research mostly covered the communities or business. A research gap between the work engagement and nonprofit organization was discovered. Given the benefits and advantages that engagement can bring to the organization, the findings of the analysis are meant to help identifying the aspects that affect the engagement in the organization. By using Job Demands-Resources model it became possible to systematically examine the job characteristics. The findings supported the idea of the model in cases with high demanding job tasks, job resources (e.g. social support) are the facilitators and help to maintain the work engagement level among the volunteers.

3 AARHUS UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF BUSINESS AND SOCIAL SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Table of Contents Abstract... 1 Introduction... 3 Structure... 4 Theoretical background... 4 Concept of engagement... 4 Non-profit organizations... 6 Not for profit or non-profit?... 6 Employee engagement and not-for-profit organizations... 8 Job and personal resources Job demands Performance Problem statement Methodology Theory of Science Choice of paradigm Research methodology Case study selection Data Collection Data Analysis Description of the organization Structure of the organization Analysis of data Job Resources Autonomy Performance feedback Social support Supervision and recognition Physical and emotional demands Turnover Discussion Conclusion Further research Research limitations Page 1 of 71

4 Reference list: Appendixes Appendix 1: Interview outline Appendix 2: Work and Well-being survey, the participants answers Appendix 3: Interview transcripts Page 2 of 71

5 Introduction We live in a world where employee motivation plays a crucial role in achieving company s goals. The motivation concept itself can be described in plenty of definitions, mainly describing the inner power that drives us to move forward. For some motivation is associated with the extrinsic means such as monetary rewards, whereas for some the financial rewards are the last on the motivation list. The management faces constant challenges developing new employee motivation systems, so that the job satisfaction and motivation could be monitored (Steers et al., 2004). Keeping in mind that motivation affects the employee performance on all levels, which eventually affects the organization outcomes. In the same fashion motivation issues are managed in the nonprofit organizations. Thing to remember is that nonprofit organizations are in certain aspects limited when compared to the forprofit organizations. Given this, the management faces another challenge of how to manage the motivation with the limited resources that given. Another issue that is discussed is the volunteer retention and turnover in the nonprofit organizations. As any other organization NPOs invest their time and effort to the volunteer training, hoping that people will stay for a longer period. In occurrences of leaving, organization not only loses the trained volunteer, but incurs extra costs by finding one instead. Important to remember that nonprofit organization mostly rely on the supply of free labor, indicating that there is no guarantee factors that people stay for a longer time. Recently both academics and practitioners agreed that employee motivation and engagement are the keys to organization s success. In particularly employee engagement is the key factor to the organization s success (Gruman, Saks, 2011). By fostering the engagement organizations are able to improve the job performance, which contributes to boosting the company s profits (Saks, 2006, Harter et al., 2002). This in essence illustrates the importance for supporting and developing the engagement practice in the company. Engaged and happy employees are more likely to deliver better outcomes and promote the positive environment (Wright, Cropanzano, 2000). Another important matter is that all types of organizations can benefit from fostering the employee engagement, whether they would profit maximization, governmental or non-profit institutions. Organizations with engaged employees are expected to perform better, which indirectly can contribute to building a competitive advantage of having engaged employees (MACEY, SCHNEIDER, 2008). Point often overlooked is that the research rarely examines the nonprofit organizations and engagement among the volunteers (Vecina et al., 2012). Nonprofit organization also face the volunteer motivational problem that are challenging the management. As NPOs are limited within Page 3 of 71

6 their resources management is searching to find alternative approaches to motivate volunteers, keep their job satisfaction and engagement levels maintained. Lastly, considering the concerns and challenges regarding the engagement and nonprofit organization, it would be interesting to analyze the engagement concept in the NPO environment. Structure The following bachelor paper is divided into several parts. First, the section will review the existing literature about the employee and work engagement. The literature review will explore what are the current trends and potential research gaps in the field. In this way allowing to explore the areas of possible directions of the thesis and it will be finished the research question formulation. After that, the methodology part will discuss and describes the scientific methods and approaches used throughout the paper. It will also explain the methods used to answer to research question. The following is the analysis part, where the analysis was conducted by using the chosen theoretical approach. The analysis is followed by the discussion part where the findings are summed up together with the existing research literature. After the conclusion generalizes the findings of this particular thesis and the further research part discussion the possible improvements of the topic and what can be taken from this research. Theoretical background Concept of engagement Both scholars and practitioners provide numerous definitions of employee and work engagement, however no commonly agreed theoretical framework exists (Schaufeli, 2014). There are some researchers that describe engagement as psychological state (Kahn, Maslach), where the engagement is a state of emotions and mind (Bakker, Demerouti, 2008). While others argue that engagement can be seen as behavioral outcome where if properly managed employees are engaged and enthusiastically occupied with their work, feeling committed to the organization (Saks, 2006). Other scholars discuss the engagement concept as a personal attitude towards the job and how work is perceived (MACEY, SCHNEIDER, 2008). Another way of looking at it is from B. Shuck s perspective where literature regarding engagement can be divided into two categories: the practical and academic approach. Where the latter one focuses on defining and validating the psychological concept, the first one pays more attention to the usability of the concepts and practical outcomes of engagement, such as commitment, performance, employee retention (Shuck, 2011). Page 4 of 71

7 As one of the first pioneers to apply and utilize the concept, Kahn provided the academic definition of it as personal engagement as the harnessing of organization members selves to their work roles; in engagement, people employ and express themselves physically, cognitively, and emotionally during role performances (Kahn, 1990, p. 694). Thus meaning that in order to have engaged employees, people have to be psychically and emotionally present while they are performing their organizational roles. Along with this Kahn also discloses that meaningfulness, safety and availability are psychological conditions that have decisive effect on work engagement (Kahn, 1990). Accordingly in reality this means that in order to have engaged employees they have to experience their role and work as meaningful and valuable (meaningfulness) (Maslow, Kahn). At the same time the psychological safety captures the feeling of not being afraid taking risks in the roles they are performing or statuses they have. Lastly, availability is considered to be as a sense of having enough emotional, physical and psychological resources to engage in the work they are performing (Kahn, 1990). Researchers have identified that employees stressing and experiencing high demand jobs are the ones lacing the ability to cope with pressure and being fully engaged in their work. An alternative approach to engagement was introduced by Schaufeli (Schaufeli et al., 2002). The concept was characterized as a positive, fulfilling, work-related state of mind that is characterized with words vigour, dedication and absorption (Schaufeli, Bakker, 2004, p. 295). Despite the slight adjustment to rename it work engagement, the concept remains to be describing as state of mind that is a more persistent and pervasive affective-cognitive state (Schaufeli et al., 2002). Regarding the dimensions of work engagement to begin with, vigour is represented in a way that engaged employees are expected to have high levels of energy (Bakker, 2008, Schaufeli 2002), while being mentally ready and resilient when challenges appear (Schaufeli, 2002). Secondly, dedication is identified as being enthusiastic and inspired about work, the challenges work brings to the individual (Schaufeli 2002, Bakker, Leiter 2008). Lastly, the absorption dimension describes being fully concentrated and engrossed in one s work, to a point when working time passes quickly and in some cases people have difficulties detaching themselves from work (Schaufeli, 2012). This however does not imply that employees are enthusiastic and energetic the entire time while performing the work. Even though engaged employees are recognized as having high levels of energy and being enthusiastic about their work (Bakker, Demerouti, 2008). Yet the difference is that engaged employees are so interested and engrossed in their work, that they don t feel as time goes by (May et al., 2004, Schaufeli et al., 2002, 2004). Another key point in this approach is the scrutiny of burnout, where job engagement was considered to be an antipode of it (Schaufeli et al., 2002, Schaufeli, Bakker, 2004, Maslach, Leiter, 2008). Due to the fact that the main dimensions of Page 5 of 71

8 work engagement have strong negative correlations with the burnout, both concepts are considered as separate and distinct (Schaufeli et al., 2006, Maslach et al., 2001). Non-profit organizations The key theme of this paper is to explore the work engagement in non-profit organizations, due to the lack of research regarding the both of the concept. In order to have an overview of the nonprofit organization the next section is provided. A useful next point to look at is the not-for-profit organizations or so called non-profit organizations (NPOs). Institutions as such appear usually due to the gaps in the markets and economies, and mostly operate within fields such as environmental, public or social missions (Quarter, Richmond, 2001, Anheier, 2005). The name already signals and constitutes that the main goal of the institutions is not profit maximization (Morris, 2000). Principally it is accepted that NPOs does not share the profit with shareholders or any parties that have control over the organization (Hansmann, 1980). Furthermore, it should be noted that the earned profits are allocated to fund further development of the organization (Hansmann, 1980). Different theories and approaches exist of how to identify the NPO, depending on which definitions and questions scholars want to answer (Morris, 2000). Though a universal agreement of the description of non-profit organization was suggested by Salamon and Anheier (Morris, 2000). Defining the NPOs can be characterized by the following five aspects: organized (regulated to some degree the organizational form), private (separated from the government), non-profit-distributing (the earned profits are not meant to be shared with owners, but instead used to endow the organization s mission), self-governing (are managing the organization by themselves) and voluntary (includes to meaningful extent voluntary labour, either on the operational or management level) (Salamon, Anheier, 1992). Not for profit or non-profit? There is a variety of definitions of the non(-)profit (NPO) and not-for-profit (NFP) organizations and what are the differences between them. In short, it is explained that NPO and NFP are organizations where the main goal is not to make profit (Oxford). Looking from the practical perspective, the terms are used interchangeably, with more preferred nonprofit terms (Alvarado, 2000). According to Alvarado the distinction mainly depends on the context in which the organization is situated. Though, there is no agreed academic explanation for it, neither are there any difference between the terms (Alvarado, 2000). As mentioned above, Salamon established the more universal description of what an NPO consists of (Salamon, Anheier, 1992). Despite the similarities the NPOs and NFPs have, there is a lack of research regarding the NFPs (Cummings et al., 2010). However in order to create a common understanding of what an NFP actually is, five characteristics were established. An entity is considered as NFP if it is organized, private, non-profit Page 6 of 71

9 distributing, self-governing and voluntary (Cummings et al., 2010). The criterias are moderately similar to the NPOs. As a consequence of similar characteristics and description, in the following the terms will be used as synonyms with fairly equal definitions. NPOs are based mainly on labour input where it is crucial for the management properly take care of the volunteers, as they are the ones that devote their time and effort for the organization without getting any monetary payment (Anheier, 2005). Even though there are certain individuals who are engaged in non-profit organizations, the external and monetary motivation is not a first priority (Narcy, 2011), there is still a risk that they eventually decide to leave the organization. No contractual agreements among the parties, enables people to have an easy exit which occasionally happens because of dissatisfaction of the work environment or simply unmet expectations that brought them to the organization in the first place (Jamison, 2003). Due to the financial limitations, these organizations cannot afford to motivate their members (volunteers) with monetary rewards or incentives. The challenge for the management of NPO s appears to be finding ways how to keep volunteers satisfied and motivated, so they will stay in the organization rather than leaving (Brudney, 2011). Not to mention, that when joining an NPO-organization every new volunteer bears training and education costs that are necessary for the newcomer become integrated into the organization (Jamison, 2003). As there is no contractual agreement of responsibilities, organizations cannot rely on the volunteer presence and loyalty (Brudney, 2011). In addition, researchers have found that a large amount of volunteers are rarely satisfied with their volunteer experience, which accordingly affects the risks of leaving the organization as well as volunteer turnover rate. Having high turnover rates in both for-profit and not-for-profit organizations can have destructive results such as reduced performance, a damaged public image or lower customer welfare (Jamison, 2003, Kang et al., 2015). The not-for-profit organizations are lacking research and empirical studies regarding employee engagement and the benefits of considering the management approaches (Speckbacher, 2003). Looking from a more personal angle, one of the main reasons why volunteers leave NPO-organizations is due to a mismatch of the expectations of the organization, processes and deficient relationships (Black, DiNitto, 1995, Jamison, 2003). Apparently there is a gap between the actual actions of organization s management and the expectations of the volunteers. Not to mention that NPOs have limited financial and social resources to manage and develop systems for employee engagement. Nevertheless, seeing how much employee engagement can actually impact the overall financial performance and productivity, the need to investigate the potential ways of enhancing engagement among volunteers is evident (Vecina et al., 2012). Page 7 of 71

10 Employee engagement and not-for-profit organizations As mentioned above the work- and employee engagement topic has been quite prevailing among researchers in the field these last few decades (Bakker et al., 2011a). The empirical papers explore the work engagement and motivational aspects. However rarely researchers analyze the volunteer engagement and motivation in the organizations (Vecina et al., 2012, Lewig et al., 2007). People in both types of organizations (for-profit and not-for-profit) devote their time and effort, the difference is that NPOs do not provide the financial rewards for that. And as any paid-job, working in NPOs can still be demanding and stressful. Volunteers are employees that also need supervision and motivation to stay in the organization (Lewig et al., 2007). As researchers already identified, people volunteer for altruistic reasons, however there is no such thing as pure altruism and they will not volunteer infinitely (Jamison, 2003, Gidron, 1983). In light of that the academic world hasn t researched the volunteer engagement thoroughly and the extent the engagement can impact the organization, it is compelling to look a bit deeper and examine the employee engagement concept in a nonprofit organization context (Jamison, 2003). Especially, when the factors risks discouraging them to stay in the organization. The lack of co-worker support, high demands and absent administration s contribution to support are important issues to address and can be moderately adjusted by the organization (Lewig et al., 2007). After discussing the employee engagement and not-for-profit organizations, it can be observed that there is a gap missing to incorporate those two concepts. As the demand for volunteer work have been increasing with a no money-reward system (Drucker, 1989), organizations need to identify what could they possibly do in order to improve the volunteer work engagement. In the meantime remembering that job demands, resources and volunteer work engagement are correlative aspects and necessary for job and motivational development (Bakker, Demerouti, 2007). With this in mind, the widely known and recognized a structured model of Job Demand-Resource (JD-R) will be used (Vecina et al., 2012, Xanthopoulou et al., 2007). The JD-R model is known for explaining how job demands and resources have positive and negative effects on employees wellbeing and is mostly applied in explaining the employee wellness and how job resources are connected to employee work engagement (Demerouti et al., 2001). In this paper is important to mention that even though the model mostly examines the paid employees wellbeing, research shows that there are more similarities than differences of work characteristics regarding volunteers and paid employees (Lewig et al., 2007). Page 8 of 71

11 In addition the JD-R model explains how different types of resources contribute to the work engagement and how this effects the performance outcome (Lewig et al., 2007). In addition, the unifying model illustrates that both work engagement and performance have returning loops to job resources. The model displays that engaged employees who perform well are more likely to utilize more of the job- and personal resources that they have (Bakker, Leiter, 2010) Work engagement The JD-R model is one of the most used models used to explain the work engagement (Hakanen, Roodt, 2014). As already mentioned the concept is defined by the three characteristics: vigor, dedication and absorption (Schaufeli et al., 2002). The idea being that engagement in brief can be described as high level or energy and strong identification with one s work (Schaufeli, Bakker, 2010) It particularly refers to the idea that high job demands and high job resources combined can develop a positive outcome as well as influence the engagement, which is a fulfilling, positive work-related state of mind (Schaufeli, Bakker, 2004, Bakker et al., 2011b). It has been argued that work engagement is positively related to the business performance and that engagement is related to meaningful business outcomes at a magnitude that is important to organizations (Harter et al., 2002, p. 276). By managing job demands in difficult times and providing proactive job resources, organizations are able to contribute to the maintenance of the work engagement. Thus as businesses have scrutinized the work engagement the evidence show that engagement can enhance profitability over higher productivity, sales and employee retention (Xanthopoulou et al., 2009b) Page 9 of 71

12 Job and personal resources In the JD-R model the general claim is that job and personal resources are both positively related to work engagement components. The personal resources are defined as self-esteem and the ability to successfully deal with the environment (Hobfoll et al., 2003). In practical terms meaning that the more self-esteem employees have, the more likely they feel they have a desirable job with a high life satisfaction, higher performance levels and more motivation to pursue their goals (Bakker, Demerouti, 2008, Judge et al., 2005). Meanwhile job resources are attributed to those physical, psychological or social components that contribute to achieving personal goals, stimulating growth, learning and developing, reducing job demands, all associated to physiological and psychological costs (Demerouti et al., 2001, Airila et al., 2014, Bakker et al., 2003). Specifically it has been noted that job resources fulfill intrinsic motivation or so called basic human needs such as the need for autonomy, belongingness and competences (Deci et al., 1989) and they contribute to achieving the work goals. In likely manner, job resources can also present the extrinsic motivational role, where in practice this would mean that work environment assists in successful goal accomplishments (Bakker, Demerouti, 2008). Schaufeli and Bakker (2004) demonstrated that particularly autonomy, performance feedback, social support and quality relationships with supervisors - are the most important antecedents positively linked to work engagement (CHRISTIAN et al., 2011). Job demands Evenly important a set of job demands explains the characteristics of physical, social, or organizational aspects of the job that require sustained physical or mental effort (Demerouti et al., 2001, p. 501). In essence meaning the needed psychological and physiological effort and therefore are associated with certain physiological and psychological costs (Schaufeli, Bakker, 2004). Some researchers describe them as things that need to be done and not necessarily that the demands are negative, but they may turn into job stress-factors when demands begin to require a high effort from the employee (Bakker et al., 2007). According to Schaufeli (Schaufeli, Taris, 2014) high job demands with low job resources are mostly related to the burnout concept in employee engagement, as they lead to job strain and provoke health impairment issues (Schaufeli, 2014). Thus, these certain job demands are all the aspects that can cause feeling of stress and exhaustion, because the work demands exceed the job- and personal resources the employee is provided with. Performance Lastly, it is shown that performance set is the final component of the JD-R model. The final phase consists of several measures such as in- and extra-role performance, financial performance, etc. It has been described by researchers that engagement is positively related to the identified indicators Page 10 of 71

13 and increased customer satisfaction (Xanthopoulou et al., 2009a). According to Bakker, by exploiting job demands and job resources, it becomes possible for the organizations to influence the in- and extra-role performance, leading to improving the overall performance measurements (Bakker et al., 2004). The research also shows that engaged employees also performed well and were willing to walk an extra-mile (Bakker, Demerouti, 2008). However, due to the limitations of this paper, the performance element will be excluded in this analysis. Problem statement The main purpose of the paper is to examine the engagement concept in the not-for-profit organization. In particular, I m interest how job characteristics affect the employee and volunteer engagement and how satisfied they are with the work. In order to properly investigate the subject, the widely known and accepted JD-R model will be applied in this assignment. Given the characteristics of the model and the theoretical discussion above, the following research question is presented: How is work engagement developed and fostered in NPOs? Given the above mentioned issues, the methods that will assist in answering this question will be described in the following section. Page 11 of 71

14 Methodology In order to deliver a thoughtful and structured research paper, it is necessary to include not only scientific theory but also the methodology part. The methodology part is used to explain and reflect on the scientific choices that are made during the research process (Arbnor, Bjerke, 2009). Therefore, the following paragraphs are dedicated to explaining scientific choices and the research design that were chosen to answer the research question. Theory of Science The philosophy of science in the field of business research is important, because there are numerous ways of observing the same things but understanding them from different perspectives. As P. Eriksson advises, understanding the philosophy of science establishes a fundamentally better informed and prepared business research (Eriksson, Kovalainen, 2008). According to philosopher of science T. Kuhn researchers need to share not only theories, but also a shared basis for theory (Kuhn, 1983). Thus, the following section will explain the philosophical paradigms that are commonly discussed among the researchers. The concept of paradigms implies itself as a philosophical and theoretical framework, which governs the formulation of knowledge (Arbnor, Bjerke, 2009). In essence meaning that researchers need to have a certain scientific discipline or world view that would assist in guiding the research process (Guba, Lincoln, 1994). There are four main paradigms that gained recognition among the social science research: positivism, post-positivism, critical theory and constructivism (Eriksson, Kovalainen, 2008). The paradigms mentioned above demonstrate the different positions researchers represent for and the different implications regarding their research interests. Choice of paradigm As the paradigm represents the way research views the world, it is crucial to choose the right paradigm best suited for answering the research question. By answering the questions established by Guba, it becomes possible to evaluate the paradigms and choose the appropriate one for this particular case (Guba, Lincoln, 1994). The following ontological, epistemological and methodological concepts can be described as follows: The ontological what is the nature of reality and what can be known about it? The epistemological what is the relationship between the knower and would-be knower? The methodological how could the inquirer go about finding out whatever the person believes can be known? Page 12 of 71

15 Considering the specifics of the above mentioned and the fact that research question is leading towards the qualitative research constructivism paradigm was chosen. In particular the constructivism paradigm aims to understand the constructions that are hold by people that can be subjective and shared. However it is still open for new ideas and explanations. The paradigm supports the idea that there can be several interpretations of the same data and they can be all equally meaningful (Eriksson, Kovalainen, 2008). The paradigm has also a closely related alternative, such as social constructivism, which supports the idea that people and reality are inseparable (Arbnor, Bjerke, 2009, p. 406). Or also that knowledge is something constructed, rather than objectively provided. Thus, taking into consideration that constructivism supports the idea of socially based constructions, which can be adjusted as are their associated realities (Guba, Lincoln, 1994). It also backs up the notion that findings can be created while investigating. Not to mention, that constructivism is appropriate because it covers the notion that our behavior and communication with others are influenced by the socially constructed reality (Keaton, Bodie, 2011). Eventually, this paradigm advocates personal experiences which is part of the current research question. Research methodology The following methodology part explains the decisions made regarding the tools used to answer the research question. The methodological approach usually differs depending on the type of research question. According to Yin (2014) when the research question focuses on why and how questions, they are most likely exploratory types and leaning towards the case study. Here the goal of exploratory research is to gain insights and an understanding of the situation. In order to properly gather the data required to answer how work engagement is fostered in nonprofit organizations, a qualitative research method was chosen. This method is relevant when the prior knowledge of the phenomena is provided and when correctly applied multiple aspects of it can be discovered and understood (Baxter, Jack, 2008). Given that, the subsequent sections will discuss the specific qualitative methods used for data gathering and analysis. In addition to the qualitative method, a more specific case study method is selected for this research. The research attempts to investigate the relations to social context in organization such as NPOs, therefore the case study method seems to be a good fit for this. According to Yin (2014), the case study research method is chosen when investigating the phenomenon in depth, in this case the widely known and discussed work engagement concept. Secondly, when the boundaries between the phenomenon and context are not transparent, which is the work engagement in the NPOs. In Page 13 of 71

16 particular, this paper attempts to address the issues that are complex and problematic relationships require more attention than the daily experiences. Not to mention that case study research provides rich descriptive information due to the deep and varied sources of information (Hancock, 2011). This allows the researcher to combine many variables that are built-in the phenomena of work engagement. Given that and with the help of multiple sources an opportunity for more thorough examination of the research is provided (Hancock, 2011). Case study selection After the case study method is chosen, the next stage is to define what a case is (Yin, 2012). In order to structure the report contextual conditions have to be drawn. In this case study object is organizational entity, where the phenomenon of work engagement is tested. Another step is to decide which of the case study designs will be applied (Yin, 2014). It can either be single- or multiple-case study. Where the former can be used to explore critical cases test the well-known theories, either by confirming, challenging or expanding them (Yin, 2014). Though, single case can also provide unique and valuable information that can potentially contribute to the theory. On the other hand, multiple-cases can deliver results that are more convincing and powerful than single-case outcomes. Multiple-cases also include more complexities and challenges. However, regarding the process and time consumption, multiple cases are seen to be slightly behind the student scope (Yin, 2014). Considering the arguments above a rationale leads to selecting a single-case study. The next step according to Yin (2014) would be to choose whether to conduct a holistic (singleunit) or embedded (multiple units) analysis. The holistic approach is more useful when no subunits of can be named. Being aware that this feature can confuse being superficial. While embedded analysis aims for more thorough analysis and understanding of the research (Yin, 2014). In general, considering this research about the work engagement, a holistic approach appears to be appealing. Data Collection Researchers agree that in research good practice multiple methods of data sources are necessary to have trust in valid and reliable qualitative research papers (Mathison, 1988, Golafshani, 2003). As one of the ways the triangulation method is considered one of the ways to enhance the validity of research and findings (Mathison, 1988). Patton promotes the application of triangulation by claiming that triangulation strengthens a study by combining methods. This can mean using several kinds of methods or data, including using both quantitative and qualitative approaches (Patton, 1999, p. 274). Following this idea, the data collection consists of primary data and secondary data gathering. The methods regarding each of them are discussed below. Page 14 of 71

17 In order to collect the primary data for the qualitative data part, interview method was chosen. Interviewing is the most commonly used method for data collection helping to examine views, beliefs and motivations of individual participants (Gill et al., 2008, Kvale, Brinkmann, 2009). According to Kvale (2009), the interview attempts to attain the description of the world of the interviewee regarding the interpretation of the inquiring phenomena, which is work engagement. By conducting the interview, the researcher has the opportunity to discover the personal insights regarding the work engagement concept, explore opinion and experiences of the interviewee. In addition, the approach was chosen to be a semi-structured interview, because of its flexibility and ability to cover wide range instances (Bryman, Bell, 2011). Moreover, an interview guide approach was used in order to ensure that the same general areas of information are collected from each interviewee (Mcnamara) and also to help the interviewer during the process of conversation. The outlined structured was used as follow: Introduction of the purpose of the paper Description of the person Questions regarding specific areas of the work The interview guide can be found in the appendix A. Also, in certain occasions together with semistructured questions, interviewees were asked a follow-up questions, in order to probe the insights of participants (Turner, 2010). Equally important matter of research ethics was covered by acquiring a permission to record the interview before the session, so that information could be transcribed and analyzed afterwards. Regarding the participant selection a snowball sampling technique was applied. The approach is particularly suitable when the research focuses on sensitive topics related to personal and private matter and can produce interactional knowledge and insights (Biernacki, Waldorf, 1981, Noy, 2008). In short, the tactics of snowball sampling is that participant selection can be seen as chain where one participants recommends or provides the contacts of another potential candidate. This approach allows to explore the sample and gather informative data (Noy, 2008). Meanwhile, the secondary data accordingly contributes to the validation of the research and is equally important for the data triangulation (Mathison, 1988). Secondary data also helps to gather information regarding the NPO, which can help to understand and explain the research question (Ghauri, Grønhaug, 2005). It is also helpful for the relevant background research, literature review about the work engagement and generic information about the chosen NPO. Meanwhile quantitative data requirement of the triangulation is fulfilled by gathering the data from questionnaire given to participants. The questionnaire is based on a shortened of Utrecht Work Engagement Scale Page 15 of 71

18 (UWES), where the nine-item version measures the work engagement based on the three dimensions established by Schaufeli (2002): vigor, dedication and absorption. The validity and reliability is confirmed by empirical research Vecine et. al. (2012) Data Analysis According to Eriksson, the classical criteria of reliability, validity and generalizability are the concepts that create the basic framework for good-quality research. Reliability provides the possibility to obtain consistent results and validity explaining to what extent the conclusions made in the research provide an accurate explanation of the research (Eriksson, Kovalainen, 2008). However in order to understand the gathered data, an analysis of it must be conducted (LeCompte, 1999). As Patton identifies, the data analysis process is based on the organization of the data, reduction of it and the recognition of patterns and themes which link the data together (Patton, 2002). In order to do that, a grounded theory of methodology is chosen, due to its comparative and interactive characteristics. Meaning that by using this theory the researchers are able to interact with the data and extract the ideas from it (Smith, 2008). As Bernard describes, the grounded-theory approach is a set of techniques used for: i) identify the categories and concepts that emerge from the text and ii) link the concepts to substantive and formal theories (Bernard, 2006). Extracted from the transcribed data of interviews and the concepts, commonly used words allow researchers to find patterns and similarities. Which later is followed by trying to find linkages connecting to the theory and theoretical concepts. Description of the organization As it happens Studenterhus Aarhus is the organization that fits the criteria which characterize the not-for-profit organization. As mentioned an organization is recognized as one if it can be described as private, organized, self-governed, non-profit distributing and voluntary (Salamon, Anheier, 1992). As a matter of fact Studenterhus Aarhus is a private association that seeks to create a versatile student house for students from different higher education institutions. Studenterhus Aarhus is also a part of the association which was established in 2003 (StudenterhusAarhus, 2015). In particular Studenterhus Aarhus operate in various social, educational and business areas that are related to students, both internationals and locals. Structure of the organization The current structure the organization consists of the board of members, the daily management team with general manager, few interns, 15 student assistants and more than 150 volunteers. Where in Page 16 of 71

19 essence the latter group is the one that creates and runs the activities in the organization (StudenterhusAarhus, 2015). The management team and their leader are not only responsible for administrative tasks, but they are also divided into different departments depending on the responsibility scope. At the same time people manage the ongoing activities in particular departments where they are team-managers. Whereas the head director is responsible for looking after the whole organization including both managers and volunteers. In fact, the organization agrees that volunteers are the very foundation of the Studenterhus Aarhus (StudenterhusAarhus, 2015). Regarding the volunteers they have an option to choose which of the departments they would like to be part of. There are five different areas that people can join according to their interest: Business relations mainly deals with the local businesses, arranges career related events, administers the job portal, searches for potential business partners and sponsors PR, marketing and communication manages the public communication channels and marketing campaigns of the organization Bar consists of serving drinks and refreshments during the events, concerts at the Café and Stakladen Artist booking is responsible for booking and arranging the music venue International group mainly organizes events, activities that are related to integration of international students Lastly, in brief the organization is in essence funded by the membership sales, business partners, sponsors and municipality funds. The management part of the organization is paid based on contracts, the rest of the members, interns and volunteers receive no financial reward for being a part of it. As a result meaning that finance management is crucial for the organization to maintain its business. Analysis of data Based on the above literature review part, five interviews were conducted to gather qualitative data for the analysis. Both paid staff (managers) and unpaid members (volunteers) were selected. This was done to investigate and demonstrate how work engagement related aspects are perceived by both groups. Two of the participants are managers and three volunteers, due to the fact that organization is so heavily based on the work that students-volunteers provide. Page 17 of 71

20 With the Job Demand-Resource model in mind, the analysis will attempt to process the information according to the model s components. Job Resources As mentioned before, job resources have a positively profound impact on the work engagement (Bakker et al., 2004). Therefore in the following part the set of job resource components will be analyzed as contributing factors to the work engagement. Autonomy The autonomy concept in the JD-R model has stems from the Job-Characteristic model developed by Hackman (Bakker et al., 2007, Hackman, Oldham, 1976). The notion of autonomy refers to the extent of freedom and independence provided by the organization to the individual helping him/her in choosing own working procedures, make decisions and choose working times and methods to perform the given tasks (Hackman, Oldham, 1976). In a high task autonomy individuals have the ability choose that themselves. Meanwhile when there is low task autonomy employees have low control over their tasks. In particular, when the autonomy is high, employees tend to perceive wider range of skills and knowledge concerning their roles. This consequently motivates them to try and learn new things by integrating more tasks into their work responsibilities (Parker, 1998, Morgeson et al., 2005). It is also argued that autonomy increases the motivation of the employees because they can freely choose their own working techniques thus working more effectively (Morgeson et al., 2005). By analyzing this in the NPO-environment the task autonomy aspects were also applied. Both groups of participants recognized the freedom and independence of control over tasks in a similar manner. Though, different constraints are applied regarding the obligations and work pressure scope. Observing the managers, they have contractual duties to fulfill and responsibility scopes to perform and be aware of. As paid-staff managers, they are obliged to work within certain time periods during the office hours. The rest of the working hours can be more flexible and decided upon themselves. This can be observed from both of the manager s perspectives. We have this rule that says you have to be present from 10(am) to 3(pm). [ ]So when it comes to regulating your own working hours there is big freedom (Manager 1). Do whatever you want as long as you talk to the boss and your colleagues (Manager 2) Page 18 of 71

21 At the same time the freedom to decide their working hours is also a constraint, in the way that volunteers are required to take a certain amount of shifts during a given period. This can be easily selected personally and volunteers perceived it as having a strong sense of control over choosing working hours. But you choose your shift yourself, so you have complete freedom when or what you want to do. Choose very easily who do you work with, what kind an event it is (Volunteer 1) In relation to the control over the tasks performed, a certain degree of autonomy is recognized among the managers. All of them are liable to the higher managerial working personnel. For instance the working procedures and planning managers are accountable to the general manager (Manager 2), while the general manager is accountable to the board when it comes to the overall situation in the organization (Manager 1). In short, a moderate level of vigor can be observed from the questionnaire results. Mostly respondents replied to the statements as At my work, I feel bursting with energy or I am enthusiastic about my job, and that they Very often feel like this (See appendix 2). This can be partly generated by the appropriate amount of autonomy that is given to the volunteers. From the observations above, it seems highly plausible to argue that there is a strong coherency between employees perceived feelings of higher task autonomy and the level of engagement they feel. Performance feedback Another element of job resources is the performance feedback. The performance feedback refers to the degree of information to which people learn how effective they are at work. The feedback can come from colleagues, supervisors, customers or from job design itself (Bakker et al., 2004, Piccolo, Jason A. Colquitt, 2006). There is a variety of opinions regarding the impact of performance feedback on the work engagement. Thus, the research of the relation between feedback and job performance is quite controversial (Kluger, DeNisi, 1996). Despite that, the employees value and welcome a constructive and informal feedback related to the performance. Schaufeli claims that constructive feedback stimulates the personal growth and development, allowing employees to perform better (Schaufeli, 2014). Not to mention that it also affects the motivation to work in the organization. In the current unit of analysis, moderately similar beliefs can be observed. Despite the difference whether being a manager or volunteer, the occurrence of feedback depends on several factors such as the department to which the person belongs to, the degree of the feedback itself and the person Page 19 of 71

22 presenting it. According to both of the managers, the organization lacks both the understanding and habit of how to give feedback on a personal level. I think we are really bad at this actually. At least on individual level. I don t think it s well developed. (Manager 1) The general manager also identifies that in the organization it is individually. Or as other managers identify, the idea of giving feedback sometimes is easily forgotten, though it doesn t mean that it is not possible to receive. You get a lot of feedback from everybody, but you sometimes can forget that is ok, just ask for it. Once in a while we should stop and ask am I working well enough? (Manager 2). From the participants it is observed that no systematized way has been implemented in the organization yet. However, both managers identified that it would benefit the organization. By giving the feedback and feeling that volunteers are welcomed and their work is valued by the organization, it would make them feel and perform better, and motivation to stay could be strengthened. Not to mention the benefits of personal development and heightened job performance levels. It s also very important to make volunteers feel not like they are just temporary passengers. In the organization that is the whole point about volunteers feeling welcome here (Manager 2). If we take an individual and we would give an individual feedback, we may get a better stuff and we might have some more volunteers that are committed, because they would feel that they are taking more seriously (Manager 1). It seems though that, volunteers perceive the performance feedback from a different angle. One of the volunteer workers feels that there is no performance feedback recognized in the organization all. At least when it comes to the general and management levels giving the feedback. I don t feel like so much feedback getting back from the office people, maybe because they aren t at events as much, they don t seem to worry as much (Volunteer 1). But the reason for that is justified at the same time being due to the limitations that management themselves are not present when most of the events take place. Another occurrence also appears with regard to giving constructive feedback to each other, being objective and structured. Lack of understanding and inconsistent behaviour among the colleagues damages the joy of volunteering and diminishes the motivation to work. At the same time the opinion aligns with the managers perspective and benefits what the structured performance feedback could bring. Page 20 of 71

23 It s very important to give feedback among the colleagues. I think it improves the St. House atmosphere if we will get better at talking to each other and not holding back criticism. And if we have something to say. It would be a lot more openness and honesty (Volunteer 3). Also, the importance of having performance feedback was pointed out by another participant. The volunteer identified that particularly performance feedback would help to show the appreciation that the members are welcomed and meaningful to the organization. Respondent backs up the idea that particularly performance feedaback contributes in motivating to remain in the organization. I think it s important to have it [performance feedback], cause then you feel valued, feel treasured when you get performance feedback. And that encourages you to stay in the organization (Volunteer 3). It can be argued that performance feedback is linked to the feeling of being appreciated and valued in the organization, because the volunteers seem more likely to dedicate more of their time and energy into their working responsibilities when these job resources are applied. This is illustrated by the fact that participants generally responded such as Often to the statements as My job inspires me or that I am proud of the work that I do. In short the results support the idea that performance feedback is imperative for the survival of the organization. Meaning that organization that provides feedback is more likely to have employees that are enthusiastic and excited about their jobs. Social support In the following, the social support received from the peers and supervisors will be covered. The initial idea of this social support is the perceived feeling of being taken care of by other colleagues, including both formal and informal relationships in the organization. According to several analysis measuring the engagement, it is consistently submitted that job resources such as social support from colleagues and supervisors, performance feedback and autonomy are positively associated with the concept (Bakker et al., 2004, Tims, Baker, 2014). Therefore given the importance participants were asked about their own perceptions of the social support in the organization and among the colleagues. From the managers perspective the generic environment of Studenterhus Aarhus is welcoming and supportive: It s my impression that volunteers are caring and considerate of each other. I think they are very considerate and they are also, which I can come up is roomie, meaning that they have a lot of room who are different. Manager 1 Page 21 of 71

24 As a matter of fact according to the department manager, Studenterhus Aarhus is particularly recognized for being a place where students with different backgrounds meet to socialize and develop themselves. We aren t just place for the music; we are open place for the students. Where they can meet, have fun, learn things. Everything needs a combination of everything a bit of studies, of having fun, of learning. Manager 2 Regarding the perception of organizational support, volunteers noted that they feel the support of Studenterhus Aarhus by the amount of social gatherings and events. The meetings are where the ongoing activities are presented to the volunteers and other non-financial motivators such as dinners contribute to the overall well-being of volunteers. Not to mention, that management encourages the initiatives and suggestions regarding the improvement of the well-being of the volunteers and the Studenterhus Aarhus. And in situation where employees believe the organization cares about them, they also tend to become invested in performing their roles (Saks, 2006). They have outreach and monthly meetings, where everyone is invited and you get food, information, to hang out. [ ]So they are spending that money on increasing volunteers wellbeing (Volunteer 2) In general, the way it is and the way it should be if you have an idea as a volunteer, as a stuff or anything else, then you are more than welcome to come and bring it on (Manager 2) Worth noticing is that certain data suggests that perceived social support in the organization decreases the likelihood of turnover intention (Kim, Stoner, 2008). If consideration and caring friendliness is not nurtured, employees feel disengaged in their work roles with a diminished degree of enthusiasm and lower performance. However, the members of the Studenterhus Aarhus responded that they mostly feel enthusiastic about going to work and as well as energetic and strong (Appendix 2). This emphasizes the idea that volunteers feel motivated and valued in the organization. However, the organization could possible look for methods which would ensure that constructive performance feedback is shared among the members. Looking from a broader view, the feedback is supposed to stimulate the employee s growth and development. At the same time benefiting the organization by having more engaged employees and improved performances. Supervision and recognition This next part discusses the relevance of supervision and recognition in Studenterhus Aarhus. According to researchers, when employees receive greater amounts of rewards and recognition, Page 22 of 71

25 they are more likely to feel engaged (Saks, 2006). Whereas with the supervisory coaching and direct support from the supervisors, these are believed to be notably important when fostering engagement (Bates, 2004). Considering managers and supervision, relatively little was mentioned about supervision. Participants would rather elaborate on the work appreciation and recognition, describing the idea that the volunteers recognize each other s effort and time as emotional state of being respected and appreciated among the managers. Also the people in the office they are good at saying that if something was done really good. I think there is a certain amount of respect (Manager 1) I heard a few times like if you wouldn t be here, I wouldn t be here as well. That s pretty cool. Someone said that I am like a glue, because I can fix everything. It s a good feeling to know that (Manager 2) Meanwhile volunteers, with regard to recognition, also feel that their work and effort is appreciated. The current motivational system for the volunteers offers prior rights to certain events, discounts for different activities and services. However volunteers noted that there is no sign of financial rewards in the organization and as according to one of them the financial rewards are not the key motivators in the first place. Well for me having discounts or getting free beverages that was never a motivation for me. It s more about that you can work with the people you like (Volunteer 3) Despite that, respondents recognize the signs of appreciation from the managers and organization. Recognition is expressed by giving a higher position to the active volunteers offering to become team-leaders and trusting them with a wider scope of responsibilities, eventually by promoting the proactive and enthusiastic volunteers by offering them a paid-job. The insights of the participants proves the initial idea that engaged employees want to satisfy the need for belongingness and recognition, and as mentioned earlier people who volunteer are mostly driven by the internal motivation. However, the supervisor coaching and support is recognized by the volunteers only in the beginning of integration. This is a natural indication that management encourages the integration into the organization, so that newcomers are feeling welcomed and supported. Even though the recognition is not part of the JDR model there is a positive connection between recognition and motivation. As noted, the feeling of being valued motivates to work in the organization and stay there. Regarding the relation between supervisory coaching and work Page 23 of 71

26 engagement it is possible to assume that if volunteers recognize the supervision from the managers, this could improve the engagement and willingness to work. Furthermore, that by promoting coaching any potentially weak areas can be recognize and improved with help from volunteers. Physical and emotional demands Referring to the JD-R model the upper part of job demands will be covered with the following section. The major job demands part consists of physical and emotional demands that refer to the social, physical and emotional aspects that require psychological and physiological effort (Schaufeli). In the interview questions related to the job demands seeking to understand how challenging working situations are perceived in the non-profit organization and how the members handle it. As the data shows, the high job demands such as demanding contacts with patients, emotional demands, performance and physical demands creates pressure in the working environment (Schaufeli, Taris, 2014). Therefore in order to protect the members of the non-profit organization from the overflow of stress and demanding, the affecting factors are investigated. As from the managerial perspective a certain degree of demand is recognized by both of the managers. According to one of them, there a lot of tasks and activities performed even though they are outside the defined job description. Also, the responsibility scope is noted as expanding and time consuming to such degree that the initial tasks and activities often are left behind. Sometimes I have priority to do things, which I am not supposed to do, but they are more important than things I have to do (Manager 2) Despite the job demands, managers note the importance of the social support strenghthening the working performance helping to deliver tasks on time. The orgniazation is working actively on inhouse collaboration and communication with the goal of relieving the demands and stressful moments when sharing them together. The approach of handling the challenges depends on the personality of the individual and how she/he handles working under stressful conditions. That said, proposing that idea that even though a job is demanding, it simultaneously allows person to develop and learn new skills (Bakker, Leiter, 2010). In my experience, my colleagues are very considerate for demands that are made for me (Manager 1) So I think it s all about being flexible and open to learn (Manager 2) Though volunteers experience the job demands in slightly different ways, they are however the ones usually interacting with the customers as well working together with other team members. As indicated by one of the respondents, emotional demand aspects are particularly essential. For Page 24 of 71

27 instance, while dealing with the picky customers or managing important events, it would enhance the personal performance if social support or an offer to help would be provided. Alternatively, the job demands applied in Studenterhus Aarhus are perceived as not exceeding the expectations volunteers had when joining the organization. It was also noted that in those occurrences when the job and activities become especially demanding, they were identified as opportunities to learn from and develop. It has been sometimes a bit demanding, but nothing that I couldn t handle. And nothing I didn t think was interesting in a way. It was like it s interesting a different way, it was challenging but worth it, because I developed (Volunteer 3) The mentioned arguments above demonstrate the job demands twofold connection to the engagement. As it is mostly argued, job demands are factors that puts pressure on the employees in their daily tasks. However when high job demands are accompanied by the social support from the peers the engagement is balanced. It s important to remember that job demands such as physical and emotional demands, role conflict and ambiquity and work overload are the aspects that can be to a certain extent monitored by the organization. With this in mind, management has opportunities to facilitate the pressure of the job demands to volunteers and in this way monitoring their engagement levels. The job demands are mostly correlating with feelings of dedication and absoprtion (Schaufeli, Bakker, 2010). Also, respodents replied positively to the statements such as I get carried away when I m working and I feel emersed in my work. Turnover Lastly, the turnover concept will be discussed. As it was mentioned earlier, volunteer retention is considered to be one of the main challenges for non-profit organizations (Kang et al., 2015). As it was anticipated, the issue was also recognized by one of the managers. What could extracted from the conversation was especially importance and magnitude of the challenges concerning turnover in the organization. Well I think we have a high turnover, but with the ones who are here for a short period [ ].I guess half of the staff is changed. I think it s quite high. (Manager 1) Whereas the rest of the respondents noted that the turnover issue is perceived as a natural seasonality of volunteers. Not to mention, that nearly half of the volunteers are exchange students, meaning that the turnover rate directly depends on the seasonality and time of the year. However, an overlooked point is the connection between the social support and intention of leaving. Data from the research show that if people are provided with focused social support in high demanding job, the risks involving possible intention of leaving the organization could be notably reduced. Page 25 of 71

28 Discussion As it can be seen from the examination above the lack of recognition of work engagement can be depicted in the nonprofit organization. There is a few of empirical research regarding the NPOs, which implies the idea of implementation of work engagement of the volunteers have future potential to be exploited (Vecina et al., 2013). By using the Job Demands-Resources (JDR) model it is possible to investigate that some of job characteristics actually have an impact on the work engagement in the NPOs. The findings from the case study were convincing and supporting the chosen JDR model. Discoveries made in the analysis part prove the existing beliefs in the academia, that work engagement can be positively associated with the autonomy, the performance feedback and learning (Bakker et al., 2004). Not to mention, that in particularly organizational support and social support with performance feedback were emphasized in particular as facilitating and contributing to the goal achievement, growth development and stimulation (Bakker et al., 2007). Another implication that can be presumed is the lack of certain resources (e.g. social support, autonomy, fair treatment among the members) can damage the personal motivation and predict the negative outcomes such as absence, turnover and careless attitude (Maslach et al., 2001). From the analysis it possible to observe that support from the management directly affects the people motivation and the support from the managers is perceived as recognition. Also as one of the findings developed from the analysis showed that people are discouraged when there low or no social support when situations with demanding job tasks occur. From the organizational perspective this signals that high job demands such as emotional and cognitive overload can cause diminished performance among the employees (Rudow, Rudow, 1999). Also from the motivational point arrives from the analysis, that not financial but more social incentives are the motivators to stay in the nonprofit organization. Finally, the evidences regarding the volunteer turnover are significantly different than from what it was anticipated. As from the literature review it was notified that turnover is a seen as a major challenge in the nonprofit organizations. Conclusion This paper explore how different job characteristics are affecting the engagement in the nonprofit organizations. Despite the differences in the NPOs and for-profit organizations, the analysis presumed the equal applicability of the JDR model. From the examination and interviews it was Page 26 of 71

29 possible to discover that actually the performance feedback and social support from the colleagues are one the essential aspects that affect the well-being and happiness of volunteers. Which as a result affects the work engagement in the organization. Another point often overlook was the job demands that volunteers experience during the work. Even though participants responded as encountering demanding job tasks or activities, they are not considered as stress initiators. The job demands are seen more as challenges that help to develop and learn new skills. Finally, the differently than it was anticipated the turnover is not considered a major issue in this particular nonprofit organization. This can happen due to the limitations and boundaries of the organization and also because this organization is local and focuses around a social mission to improve the student environment in a particular geographical area. Further research This thesis is considered to be as little initiator to analyze the existing research gap of work engagement in the nonprofit institutions. Another matter also is the fact for the future improvement could be the investigation of the mostly related variables to the work engagement. In this paper only job resources where analyzed, therefore could be argued that analysis not fully covers the Job Demands-Resources model. The future potential aligns with the personal resources and their correlation to the work engagement. A research how different job characteristics are correlated to the work engagement would support the evidences from the empirical type of research. In addition looking from the motivational side would be useful to examine how organization could exploit the advantages that work engagement can bring regarding the volunteers and job performance. Nevertheless, practitioners of work engagement in the nonprofit sector are lacking empirical papers regarding the implementation and consequences of applications of engagement in the organizations. Research limitations Due to the limited time frame only five participants have been interviewed and therefore it is hard to make generalization based on a small sample size. Taken into consideration the case study company s size it possible to generate conclusions based on biased. Page 27 of 71

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