Principles of Economics

Transcription

1 Principles of Economics Ten Principles of Economics Jiaming Mao Fall 2015

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3 Principle 1: People face tradeoffs All decisions involve trade offs. To get one thing we like, we usually have to give up another thing we like.

4 Principle 1: People face tradeoffs All decisions involve trade offs. To get one thing we like, we usually have to give up another thing we like. Computer or Xbox

5 Principle 1: People face tradeoffs All decisions involve trade offs. To get one thing we like, we usually have to give up another thing we like. Computer or Xbox Playing basketball or studying for an exam

6 Principle 1: People face tradeoffs All decisions involve trade offs. To get one thing we like, we usually have to give up another thing we like. Computer or Xbox Playing basketball or studying for an exam Environmental protection or economic growth

7 Principle 1: People face tradeoffs All decisions involve trade offs. To get one thing we like, we usually have to give up another thing we like. Computer or Xbox Playing basketball or studying for an exam Environmental protection or economic growth Milton Friedman: There is no such thing as a free lunch.

8 Principle 1: People face tradeoffs Society faces an important tradeoff: Efficiency vs. Equality.

9 Principle 1: People face tradeoffs Society faces an important tradeoff: Efficiency vs. Equality. Efficiency: whensocietygetsthemostfromitsscarceresources

10 Principle 1: People face tradeoffs Society faces an important tradeoff: Efficiency vs. Equality. Efficiency: whensocietygetsthemostfromitsscarceresources the size of the pie

11 Principle 1: People face tradeoffs Society faces an important tradeoff: Efficiency vs. Equality. Efficiency: whensocietygetsthemostfromitsscarceresources the size of the pie Equality: when prosperity is distributed uniformly among society s members

12 Principle 1: People face tradeoffs Society faces an important tradeoff: Efficiency vs. Equality. Efficiency: whensocietygetsthemostfromitsscarceresources the size of the pie Equality: when prosperity is distributed uniformly among society s members how the pie is divided

13 Principle 1: People face tradeoffs Society faces an important tradeoff: Efficiency vs. Equality. Efficiency: whensocietygetsthemostfromitsscarceresources the size of the pie Equality: when prosperity is distributed uniformly among society s members how the pie is divided Tradeoff Example: progressive income tax, welfare

14 Principle 2: The cost of something is what you give up to get it Making decisions requires a comparison of costs and benefits across alternatives.

15 Principle 2: The cost of something is what you give up to get it Making decisions requires a comparison of costs and benefits across alternatives. The opportunity cost of an item is the value of what must be given up to obtain it.

16 Principle 2: The cost of something is what you give up to get it Making decisions requires a comparison of costs and benefits across alternatives. The opportunity cost of an item is the value of what must be given up to obtain it. Opportunity cost can include both explicit cost and implicit cost.

17 Principle 2: The cost of something is what you give up to get it Making decisions requires a comparison of costs and benefits across alternatives. The opportunity cost of an item is the value of what must be given up to obtain it. Opportunity cost can include both explicit cost and implicit cost. The cost of going to college: F F Explicit cost: tuition, etc. mplicit cost: lost wages, etc.

18 Principle 2: The cost of something is what you give up to get it Making decisions requires a comparison of costs and benefits across alternatives. The opportunity cost of an item is the value of what must be given up to obtain it. Opportunity cost can include both explicit cost and implicit cost. The cost of going to college: F F Explicit cost: tuition, etc. mplicit cost: lost wages, etc. The cost of seeing a movie F F Explicit cost: movie ticket mplicit cost: the value you can get by using the time to do things other than watching the movie

19 Principle 2: The cost of something is what you give up to get it Definition Opportunity cost is the net benefit foregone by not choosing the next best opportunity.

20 Principle 2: The cost of something is what you give up to get it Definition Opportunity cost is the net benefit foregone by not choosing the next best opportunity. Opportunity cost is the relevant cost for decision making.

21 Principle 2: The cost of something is what you give up to get it Example You are given a free ticket to see a performance at Min-nan Theatre (which has no resale value). Xiamen Philharmonic is performing on the same night and is your next-best alternative activity. Tickets to the XMP concert cost $50. On any given day, you would be willing to pay up to $100 to attend an XMP concert. Assume there are no other costs of seeing either performance. What is the opportunity cost of going to see the performance at Min-Nan theatre?

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23 Principle 3: Rational people think at the margin Rational people systematically and purposefully do the best they can to achieve their objectives, given the available opportunities.

24 Principle 3: Rational people think at the margin Rational people systematically and purposefully do the best they can to achieve their objectives, given the available opportunities. Arationalpersonmakesdecisionsbycomparingmarginal benefit and marginal cost.

25 Principle 3: Rational people think at the margin Rational people systematically and purposefully do the best they can to achieve their objectives, given the available opportunities. Arationalpersonmakesdecisionsbycomparingmarginal benefit and marginal cost. As opposed to comparing average benefit and average cost.

26 Principle 3: Rational people think at the margin Rational people systematically and purposefully do the best they can to achieve their objectives, given the available opportunities. Arationalpersonmakesdecisionsbycomparingmarginal benefit and marginal cost. As opposed to comparing average benefit and average cost. A rational person does not consider sunk cost in decision making.

27 Principle 3: Rational people think at the margin Example A200-seatplaneisabouttotakeoffwith10emptyseats.Theflightcosts the airline $100,000. A passenger arriving at the last minute is hoping to purchase a ticket for one of the remaining seats. How much should the airline charge her?

28 Principle 4: People respond to incentives ncentive: somethingthatinducesapersontoact,suchasthe prospect of a punishment or reward.

29 Principle 4: People respond to incentives ncentive: somethingthatinducesapersontoact,suchasthe prospect of a punishment or reward. When gas taxes rise, people use public transportation, and travel less.

30 Principle 4: People respond to incentives ncentive: somethingthatinducesapersontoact,suchasthe prospect of a punishment or reward. When gas taxes rise, people use public transportation, and travel less. When interest rates rise, people save more and consume less.

31 Principle 4: People respond to incentives ncentive: somethingthatinducesapersontoact,suchasthe prospect of a punishment or reward. When gas taxes rise, people use public transportation, and travel less. When interest rates rise, people save more and consume less. Steven Landsburg: Most of economics can be summarized in four words: People respond to incentives. The rest is commentary.

32 Principle 5: Trade can make everyone better off Rather than being self-sufficient, people can specialize in producing one good or service and exchange it for another.

33 Principle 5: Trade can make everyone better off Rather than being self-sufficient, people can specialize in producing one good or service and exchange it for another. Consider a world in which every person has to grow her own food, makes her own clothing, performs her own surgeries, etc.

34 Principle 5: Trade can make everyone better off Rather than being self-sufficient, people can specialize in producing one good or service and exchange it for another. Consider a world in which every person has to grow her own food, makes her own clothing, performs her own surgeries, etc. Countries likewise benefit from trade and specialization.

35 Principle 6: Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity Market economy allocates resources through the decentralized decisions of many firms and households as they interact in markets for goods and services.

36 Principle 6: Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity Market economy allocates resources through the decentralized decisions of many firms and households as they interact in markets for goods and services. Famous insight by Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations (1776): Each of these households and firms acts as if led by an invisible hand to promote general economic well-being.

37 Principle 6: Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity The invisible hand works through the price system:

38 Principle 6: Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity The invisible hand works through the price system: The interaction of buyers and sellers determines prices.

39 Principle 6: Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity The invisible hand works through the price system: The interaction of buyers and sellers determines prices. Each price reflects the good s value to buyers and the cost of producing the good.

40 Principle 6: Markets are usually a good way to organize economic activity The invisible hand works through the price system: The interaction of buyers and sellers determines prices. Each price reflects the good s value to buyers and the cost of producing the good. Prices guide self-interested households and firms to make decisions that, in many cases, maximize society s economic well-being.

41 Principle 7: Governments can sometimes improve market outcomes Government s role in improving market outcomes:

42 Principle 7: Governments can sometimes improve market outcomes Government s role in improving market outcomes: 1 Enforce property rights

43 Principle 7: Governments can sometimes improve market outcomes Government s role in improving market outcomes: 1 Enforce property rights People are less inclined to work, produce, invest, or purchase if large risk of their property being stolen.

44 Principle 7: Governments can sometimes improve market outcomes Government s role in improving market outcomes: 1 Enforce property rights People are less inclined to work, produce, invest, or purchase if large risk of their property being stolen. 2 Address market failure and promote efficiency

45 Principle 7: Governments can sometimes improve market outcomes Government s role in improving market outcomes: 1 Enforce property rights People are less inclined to work, produce, invest, or purchase if large risk of their property being stolen. 2 Address market failure and promote efficiency Market failure: when the market fails to allocate society s resources efficiently.

46 Principle 7: Governments can sometimes improve market outcomes Government s role in improving market outcomes: 1 Enforce property rights People are less inclined to work, produce, invest, or purchase if large risk of their property being stolen. 2 Address market failure and promote efficiency Market failure: when the market fails to allocate society s resources efficiently. Causes of market failure: F Externalities: the production or consumption of a good affects bystanders (e.g. pollution)

47 Principle 7: Governments can sometimes improve market outcomes Government s role in improving market outcomes: 1 Enforce property rights People are less inclined to work, produce, invest, or purchase if large risk of their property being stolen. 2 Address market failure and promote efficiency Market failure: when the market fails to allocate society s resources efficiently. Causes of market failure: F F Externalities: the production or consumption of a good affects bystanders (e.g. pollution) Market power: asinglebuyerorsellerhassubstantialinfluenceon market price (e.g. monopoly)

48 Principle 7: Governments can sometimes improve market outcomes Government s role in improving market outcomes: 1 Enforce property rights People are less inclined to work, produce, invest, or purchase if large risk of their property being stolen. 2 Address market failure and promote efficiency Market failure: when the market fails to allocate society s resources efficiently. Causes of market failure: F F 3 Promote equity Externalities: the production or consumption of a good affects bystanders (e.g. pollution) Market power: asinglebuyerorsellerhassubstantialinfluenceon market price (e.g. monopoly)

49 Principle 7: Governments can sometimes improve market outcomes Government s role in improving market outcomes: 1 Enforce property rights People are less inclined to work, produce, invest, or purchase if large risk of their property being stolen. 2 Address market failure and promote efficiency Market failure: when the market fails to allocate society s resources efficiently. Causes of market failure: F F 3 Promote equity Externalities: the production or consumption of a good affects bystanders (e.g. pollution) Market power: asinglebuyerorsellerhassubstantialinfluenceon market price (e.g. monopoly) f the market s distribution of economic well-being is not desirable, tax or welfare policies can change how the economic pie is divided.

50 Principle 8: A country s standard of living depends on its ability to produce goods and services Variation in living standards is mainly attributable to differences in countries productivity: thequantityofgoodsandservicesproduced from each unit of labor input.

51 Principle 9: Prices rise when the government prints too much money nflation: increasesinthegenerallevelofprices.

52 Principle 9: Prices rise when the government prints too much money nflation: increasesinthegenerallevelofprices. n the long run, inflation is almost always caused by excessive growth in the quantity of money, which causes the value of money to fall.

53 Principle 9: Prices rise when the government prints too much money nflation: increasesinthegenerallevelofprices. n the long run, inflation is almost always caused by excessive growth in the quantity of money, which causes the value of money to fall. The faster the government creates money, the greater the inflation rate.

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55 Principle 10: Society typically faces a short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment n economic booms, demand is strong relative to the economy s capacity to produce.

56 Principle 10: Society typically faces a short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment n economic booms, demand is strong relative to the economy s capacity to produce. Higher demand may cause firms to raise their prices. t also encourages them to hire more workers and produce a larger quantity of goods and services, which results in higher wages and lower unemployment.

57 Principle 10: Society typically faces a short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment n economic booms, demand is strong relative to the economy s capacity to produce. Higher demand may cause firms to raise their prices. t also encourages them to hire more workers and produce a larger quantity of goods and services, which results in higher wages and lower unemployment. Central banks can stimulate demand through monetary injections.

58 Principle 10: Society typically faces a short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment n economic booms, demand is strong relative to the economy s capacity to produce. Higher demand may cause firms to raise their prices. t also encourages them to hire more workers and produce a larger quantity of goods and services, which results in higher wages and lower unemployment. Central banks can stimulate demand through monetary injections. As prices and wages are not set every day, how much firms would raise their prices and how much workers would demand higher wages also depend on their expectations of future inflation.

59 Principle 10: Society typically faces a short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment n economic booms, demand is strong relative to the economy s capacity to produce. Higher demand may cause firms to raise their prices. t also encourages them to hire more workers and produce a larger quantity of goods and services, which results in higher wages and lower unemployment. Central banks can stimulate demand through monetary injections. As prices and wages are not set every day, how much firms would raise their prices and how much workers would demand higher wages also depend on their expectations of future inflation. As a result, inflation today depends on expected inflation in the future.

60 Principle 10: Society typically faces a short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment n economic booms, demand is strong relative to the economy s capacity to produce. Higher demand may cause firms to raise their prices. t also encourages them to hire more workers and produce a larger quantity of goods and services, which results in higher wages and lower unemployment. Central banks can stimulate demand through monetary injections. As prices and wages are not set every day, how much firms would raise their prices and how much workers would demand higher wages also depend on their expectations of future inflation. As a result, inflation today depends on expected inflation in the future. Holding inflation expectations constant, societytypicallyfacesa short-run tradeoff between inflation and unemployment.

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62 The Wealth of Nations Man has almost constant occasion for the help of his brethren, and it is in vain for him to expect it from their benevolence only. He will be more likely to prevail if he can interest their self-love in his favor, and show them that it is for their own advantage to do for him what he requires of them... Give me that which want, and you shall have this which you want, is the meaning of every such offer; and it is in this manner that we obtain from one another the far greater part of those good offices which we stand in need of.

63 The Wealth of Nations t is not from the benevolence of the butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own interest. We address ourselves, not to their humanity but to their self-love, and never talk to them of our own necessities but of their advantages... Every individual...neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it... He intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention. Nor is it always the worse for the society that it was no part of it. By pursuing his own interest he frequently promotes that of the society more effectually than when he really intends to promote it. back