Research Design and Methods

Transcription

1 100 Chapter 3 Research Design and Methods 3.1 Research Design A research design is a framework for conduct of the entire research work. The design of the study identifies the study type or work conducted. Research design is a framework to answer the underlying questions of research and further investigation. The types of research design have been discussed below: Research design that pertain to social sciences research are 1) Exploratory Research, and 2) DescriptiveResearch Exploratory research is more of discovery based research with less restrictions on methodology. A researcher may consider petntial dimensions as factors affecting or causing an effect or having a relation with the study under consideration. When problems are not clearly defined, an exploratory method is best suited. In such research, there may be emphasis on secondary data or qualitative approach through informal data collection with respondents. Descriptive researchs takes up the bulk of online surveying and is considered conclusive in nature due to its quantitative nature. Unlike exploratory research, descriptive research is well preplanned and structured in design so the information collected can be statistically inferred on a population. It is also possible to analyze the data using scientific methods and tools and computer software meant for this purpose.the main idea behind using this type of research is to define an opinion, attitude, or behaviorheld by a group of people on a given subject. Consider the multiple choicequestions. Since there are predefined categories a respondent must choose from, it is considered descriptive research.these questions will not give the unique insights on the issues like exploratory research would. Instead, grouping the responses into predetermined choices will provide statistically analyzabledata. This allows the researcher to measure the significance of the results on the overall population that is being studied, as well as the changes of the respondent s opinions, attitudes,andbehaviors over time.

2 101 Choice of the researcher on the research design: The researcher has chosen the research design as conclusive research for the following reasons: 1. Data pertains to entire Maharashtra state 2. There is a direct interview questionnaire which is being responded by the tourists 3. This is a primary data and can be validated ascertained 4. The data can be analyzed to understand the relationships of variables 5. The data can be presented in a quantitative form The conclusive research design enables the researcher to study the problem, identify the right population and use data collection tools to elicit requisite informationfor meaningful analysis. Therefore the research design is considered conclusive. Sampling Plan Samples and Sampling Why Sample? Sampling is done under a wide variety of research settings and requirements.. Listed below are a few of the benefits of sampling: 1. Reduced cost: It is less costly to obtain data for a selected subset of a population, rather than the entire population, which will be very large 2. Speed: Observations are easier to collect and summarize for a sample than with a complete population count. Complete population counts will take extradinarily long time. This is vital if the speed of the analysis is important, such as occasions when the exit polls are done in elections. Here the speed is very important otherwise the research loses its value. 3. Greater scope: Sometimes highly trained personnel or specialized equipment will be limited in availability may have to be used to obtain the data.

3 102 Survey Sampling Methods Sampling method refers to the way that observations are selected from a population to be in the sample for a sample survey Population Parameter vs. Sample Statistic The reason for conducting a sample survey is to estimate the value of some attribute of a population. Population parameter. A population parameter is the true value of a population attribute. Sample statistic. A sample statistic is an estimate, based on sample data, of a population parameter. The quality of a sample statistic (i.e., accuracy, precision, representativeness) is strongly affected by the way that sample observations are chosen; that is., by the sampling method. Probability vs. Non-Probability Samples As a group, sampling methods fall into one of two categories. Probability samples. With probability sampling methods, each population element has a known chance of being chosen for the sample. Non-probability samples. With non-probability sampling methods, the researcher does not know the probability that each population element will be chosen, and/or cannot be sure that each population element has a non-zero chance of being chosen. Probability Sampling Methods The main types of probability sampling methods are simple random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, multistage sampling, and systematic random sampling. The key benefit of probability sampling methods is that they guarantee that the sample chosen is representative of the population. This ensures that the statistical conclusions will be valid. Simple random sampling. Simple random sampling refers to any sampling method that has the following properties.

4 103 o o o The population consists of N objects. The sample consists of n objects. If all possible samples of n objects are equally likely to occur, the sampling method is called simple random sampling. There are many ways to obtain a simple random sample. One way would be the commonly known lottery method. Each of the N population members is assigned a unique number. The numbers are placed in a bowl and thoroughly mixed. Then, a blind-folded researcher selects n numbers. Population members having the selected numbers are included in the sample. Stratified sampling. With stratified sampling, the population is divided into groups, based on some characteristic. Then, within each group, a probability sample (often a simple random sample) is selected. In stratified sampling, the groups are called strata. For example, suppose the researcher conducts a national survey, they might divide the population into groups or strata, based on geography - north, east, south, and west. Or they may divide them into income groups. Then, within each stratum, they will randomly select survey respondents. Cluster sampling. With cluster sampling, every member of the population is assigned to one, and only one, group. Each group is called a cluster. A sample of clusters is chosen, using a probability method (often simple random sampling). Only individuals within sampled clusters are surveyed. There is a specific difference between cluster sampling and stratified sampling. With stratified sampling, the sample includes elements from each stratum. With cluster sampling, in contrast, the sample includes elements only from sampled clusters. Multistage sampling. With multistage sampling, the researcher selects a sample by using combinations of different sampling methods. For example, in Stage 1, the researcher might use cluster sampling to choose clusters from a population. Then, in Stage 2, the researcher might use simple random sampling to select a subset of elements from each chosen cluster for the

5 104 final sample. However the use of this is limited because of the complexities involved. Systematic random sampling. With systematic random sampling, the researcher creates a list of every member of the population. From the list, the researcher randomly selects the first sample element from the first k elements on the population list. Thereafter, they select every kth element on the list. This method is different from simple random sampling since every possible sample of n elements is not equally likely. Researcher s Choice of Simple Random Sampling The researcher in this case has chosen simple random sampling as a suitable sampling technique for the following reasons 1. Tourists come for various purposes and objectives 2. They come either individually or as a group 3. They come from various countries Hence the variability is more.therefore simple random sampling was chosen by the researcher in this case Simple random sampling Refers to a sampling method that has the following properties. The population consists of N objects. The sample consists of n objects. All possible samples of n objects are equally likely to occur. An important benefit of simple random sampling is that it allows researchers to use statisticalmethods to analyze the results. For example, given a simple random sample, researchers can use statistical methods to define a confidence interval around a sample mean. Statistical analysis will not be so appropriate when non-random sampling methods are used.there are many ways to obtain a simple random sample. One way would be the lottery method.each of the N population members is assigned a unique number. The

6 105 numbers are placed in a bowl and thoroughly mixed. Then, a blind-folded researcher selects n numbers. Population members having the selected numbers are included in the sample. Advantages of simple random sampling In this technique, each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected as subject. The entire process of sampling is done in a single step with each subject selected Independently of the other members of the population. This ensures that the random sampling works well when the population is heterogeneous in nature.there are many methods to apply simple random sampling. An example of the most primitive and is the lottery method, which is a familiar method to all. Each member of the population is assigned a unique number. Each number is placed in a bowl or a hat and mixed thoroughly. The blind-folded person then picks numbered tags from the hat. All the individuals bearing the numbers picked by the researcher are the subjects for the study. Another way would be to let a computer do a random selection from the population and now software is available for this purpose. For populations with a small number of members, it is advisable to use the first method but if the population has many members, a computer-aided random selection is preferred.one of the best things about simple random sampling is the ease of assembling the sample. It is also considered as a very fair way of selecting a sample from a given population since every member is given equal opportunities of being selected.another feature of simple random sampling is its representativeness of the population. Theoretically, the only thing that can compromise its representativeness is luck. If the sample is not representative of the population, the random variation is called sampling error. However the possibility is rare.an unbiased random selection and a representative sample arevery important in drawing conclusions from the results of a study. One of the goals of research is to be able to make conclusions pertaining to the population from the results obtained from a sample. Due to the representativeness of a sample obtained by simple random sampling, it is very reasonable to make generalizations from the results of the sample back to the population.

7 106 Sampling method chosen by the researcher: The researcher has chosen simple random sampling for the direct interview. This is to get a good representative sample,the population being hetrogenious. Simple random sample in such a hetrogenious population is more likely to be represeting the population Universe of the study The study pertains to the state of Maharashtra only as the state has been receiving tremendous tourist inflow due to its access, approach, tourist locations and diversity. The places of data collection included Mumbai, Pune. These places attract large number of tourists in the state. These places offer diversity in tourism asthese are both sight seeing places, have nearby tourist locations, have hospitals, and are business centres. Sampling Unit The sampling units included : 1. Tourists and 2. Tour Operators The toursists provided first hand information about their experiences during visits to various tourist destination in Maharashtra. The opinions of tour operators were considered to undersand the choice of tourists during their visits. Through the simple random sampling method a total of 678 responsents were interviewed for this research. Methods of Data collection Both Primary and Secondary sources of data were utilized. For Primary data, a questionnaire was prepared and administered to select respondents to the study. Primary responses provide first hand information on availability of information to respondents, challenges faced, reasons for visiting tourist destination etc. For secondary source, the research primarily relied on extensive material in the form of :

8 107 Research papers pertaining to Tourism published in International and National journals. Reports of the Government and other tourism based agencies. Reference and Text books on Tourism Management. Publications from international institutions. Working papers and other Research papers available on the world wide web. The particulars of references are documented in the bibliography. Variables considered for the study There are many variables that impact upon tourism. Studeis conducted earlier have identified various variables upon which tourism is dependant. The independent variables chosen for thestudy include : 1) Information 2) Promotion 3) Media for promotion 4) Infrastructure availability 5) Referrals 6) Hospitality These variables were found most suitable to study the tourism potential and its current status in the state of Maharashtra. Statistical Tools for Data Analysis Data analysis is a process of gathering, modeling, and transforming data with the goal of highlighting useful information, suggesting conclusions, and supporting decision making. Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches, encompassing diverse techniques under a variety of names, in different business, science, and social science domains. The research study used the following statistical techniques for data analysis: Frequency Count and their presentation Chi square test Binomial test

9 108 Chi square test - Chi-square is a statistical test commonly used to compare observed data with data that would be expected to obtain according to a specific hypothesis. The chi-square test is always testing the null hypothesis, which states that there is no significant difference between the expected and observed result. That is, chi-square is the sum of the squared difference between observed (o) and the expected (e) data (or the deviation, d), divided by the expected data in all possible categories. Binomial test - the binomial test is an exact test of the statistical significance. It is an exact test to compare the observed distribution to the expected distribution when there are only two categories. Data collection methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Methods Data are usually collected through qualitative and quantitative methods. Qualitative approaches aim to address the how and why and tend to use unstructured methods of data collection to fully explore the research topic. Qualitative questions are open-ended such as why do participants enjoy the program? and How doesprogram help increase self-esteem for participants? Qualitative methods include focus groups, group discussions and interviews. Quantitative approaches on the other hand address the what of the program. They use a systematic and standardized approach and employ methods such as surveysand ask questions like what activities did the program run? and what skills does staff need to implement the program effectively? Both methods have their strengths and weaknesses as well. Qualitative approaches are good for further exploring the effects and unintended consequences of a program. They are, however, expensive and time consuming to implement. Additionally the findings cannot be generalized to participants outside of the program and can only be taken as indicative of the group involved.quantitative approaches have the advantage that they are standardizedand so comparisons can be easily made and the size of the effect can usually be measured. Quantitative approaches however are limited in their capacity for the investigation and explanation of similarities and unexpected differences.

10 109 Combined methods: Combined methods approaches may mean a number of things: i.e. a number of different types of methods in a study or at different points within a study, or, using a mixture of qualitative and quantitative methods.combined methodsemploys multifaceted approaches that combine to capitalize on strengths and reduce weaknesses that emanates from using a single research design. Using this approach to gather and evaluate data may assist to increase the validity and reliability of the research.some of the common areas in which mixed-method approaches may be used include: Initiating, designing, developing and expanding interventions; Evaluation; Improving research design; and Corroborating findings, data triangulation or convergence. Some of the challenges of using a mixed methods approach include: Delineating complementary qualitative and quantitative research questions; Time-intensive data collection and analysis; and Decisions regarding which research methods to combine. These challenges call for training and multidisciplinary collaboration of the people involved andmay therefore require greater resources (financial and personnel) and a higher workload than using a single method. However this may be overcomeby identifying key issues early and ensuring the participation of experts in qualitative and quantitative research.combined methods are useful in highlighting complex research problems such as disparities in health and can also be transformative in addressing issues for vulnerable or marginalized populations or research which involves community participation. Using combined methods approach is one way to develop creative options to traditional or single design approaches to research and evaluation. Surveys Surveys are a verygood way of gathering a large amount of data, providing a broad perspective. Surveys can be administered electronically, by telephone, by mail or face to face. Mail and electronically administered surveys have a wide reach, are relatively cheap to administer, information is standardized and privacy can be maintained. However, they,

11 110 have a low response rate, and cannot investigate issues to any great depth.as surveys are self-reported by participantsthemselves, there is a possibility that responses may be biased particularly if the issues involved are very sensitive or require some measure of disclosure on trust by the participant. It is thereforeessential that surveys used are designed and tested for validity and reliability with the target groups who will be completing the surveys. This can be done by pre testing in a selected group.very careful attention must be given to the design of the survey. If possible the use of an already designed and validated survey instrument will ensure that the data being collected is accurate. If the researcher designs their own survey it is necessary to pilot test the survey on a sample of the target group to ensure that the survey instrument is measuring what it intends to measure andis appropriate for the target group. Therefore pre testing becomes a must before the surveyquestions in the survey questionnaire can be asked in several ways and include: closed questions, open-ended and scaled questions, and multiple choice questions. Closed questions are usually in the format of yes/no or true/false options which are easier to answer. Open-ended questions on the other hand leave the answer entirely up to the respondent and therefore provide a greater range of responses. Additionally; the use of scales is very useful when assessing the participants attitudes. A multiple choice question may well ask respondents to indicate their favorite choice or most preferred activity. Other considerations when developing a survey instrument include: question sequence, layout and appearance, length, language, and an introduction and cover letter. Sensitive questions should be placed near the end of a survey rather than at the beginning. Interviews Interviews can be conducted face-to-face or by telephone. They can range from in-depth, semi-structured to unstructured depending on the information being sought.face to face interviews are advantageous since: detailed questions can be asked further probing can be done to provide rich data literacy requirements of participants is not an issue nonverbal data can be collected through observation complex and unknown issues can be explored

12 111 response rates are usually higher than for self-administered questionnaires. 6 Disadvantages of face to face interviews include: they can be expensive and time consuming training of interviewers is necessary to reduce interviewer bias and are administered in a standardized why they are prone to interviewer bias and interpreter bias (if interpreters are used) sensitive issues maybe challenging Telephone interviews yield just as accurate data as face to face interviews according to some researchers. Telephone interviews are advantageous as they: are definitely cheaper and faster than face to face interviews to conduct use less resources than face to face interviews allow to clarify questions Do not require literacy skills. Disadvantages of telephone interviews include: having to make repeated calls as calls may not be answered the first time potential bias if call backs are not made so bias is towards those who are at home only suitable for short surveys only accessible to the population with a telephone not appropriate for exploring sensitive issues. Focus groups Focus groups or group discussions are useful to further explore a topic, providing a broader understanding of why the target group may behave or think in a particular way, and assist in determining the reason for attitudes and beliefs. they are conducted with a small sample of the target group and are used to stimulate discussion and gain greater insights. They can be conducted to understand a new concept or a product. Focus groups and group discussions are advantageous as they: are useful when exploring cultural values and health beliefs can be used to examine how and why people think in a particular way and how it influences their beliefs and values

13 112 can be used to explore complex issues can be used to develop hypothesis for further research do not require participants to be literate. Disadvantages of focus groups include: lack of privacy/anonymity having to carefully balance the group to ensure they are culturally and gender appropriate (i.e. gender may be an issue) Potential for the risk of group think (not allowing for other attitudes, beliefs etc.) potential for group to be dominated by one or two people group leader needs to be skilled at conducting focus groups, dealing with conflict, drawing out passive participants and creating a relaxed, welcoming environment are time consuming to conduct and can be difficult and time consuming to analyse. Imaginative and Creative strategies to collect data Drama, exhibition, and video are veryimaginative and attractive alternatives to the written word. These imaginative new approaches can be used to demystify the evaluation process.using creative arts in evaluation offers opportunities for imaginative ways of understanding programs and creating evaluation knowledge. The creative arts may be used in designing, interpreting, and communicating evaluations. The direct perception and understanding a creative arts approach brings is helpful to the evaluator in gaining a deep understanding of the program. In addition, this approach is a useful means of connecting with participants experience in an evaluation Creative strategies are advantageous as they: provide an opportunity for participants to portray experience through different art forms which often reveals insights that they may not have been able to articulate in words; accommodate for people who learn in different ways, who have different cultural backgrounds and/or who are less articulate, it can be a most useful means of engaging them in an evaluation and offering them a voice; cab use a combination of arts-based approaches in the evaluation process; and

14 113 Can be used in conjunction with more traditional approaches. Challenges arising from creative strategies include: Participants are often fearful of engaging with art. This may be as a result of past negative experiences of art in school or lack of belief in their own abilities. The challenge is to assure them that they or their final product are not being judged. It is the process of engaging with art that often elicits valuable data. The success of such an approach can often rely on the interest levels of the participants; the task needs to be defined clearly, emphasizing the reasoning behind it. There are multiple forms of creative strategies: 3.1 Methods of collecting qualitative data Data collection approaches for qualitative research usually involves: 1. Direct interaction with individuals on a one to one basis 2. Or direct interaction with individuals in a group setting Qualitative research data collection methods are time consuming, therefore data is usually collected from a smaller sample than would be the case for quantitative approaches - therefore this makes qualitative research more expensive. The benefits of the qualitative approach is that the information is richer and has a deeper insight into the phenomenon under study The main methods for collecting qualitative data are: 1. Individual interviews 2. Focus groups 3. Observations 4. Action Research For the quantitative research: For the purpose of having a quantitative research, the researcher has chosen the direct interview face to face method.

15 The Face-to-Face Method A personal interview survey, also called as a face-to-face survey, is a survey method that is utilized when a specific target population is involved. The purpose of conducting a personal interview survey is to explore the responses of the people to gather more and deeper information.personal interview surveys are used to probe the answers of the respondents and at he same time, the investigator can observe the behavior of the respondents, either individually or as a group. The personal interview method is preferred by researchers for some advantages. But before choosing this method for own survey, the researcher should also know the about the disadvantages of conducting personal interview surveys. Advantages of Personal Interview Survey 1. High Response Rates One of the main reasons why researchers achieve good response rates through this method is the face-to-face nature of the personal interview survey. Unlike administering questionnaires, people are more likely to readily answer live questions about the subject (for instance, a product) simply because they can actually see, touch, feel or even taste the product. 2. Tolerable Longer Interviews If the researcher wishes to probe the answers of the respondents, he or she may do so using a personal interview approach. Open-ended questions are more tolerated through interviews due to the fact that the respondents would be more convenient at expressing their long answers orally than in writing. 3. Better Observation of Behavior Market researchers can benefit from personal interview survey because it presents a greater opportunity to observe the attitude and behavior of the respondents / consumers toward a product.

16 115 Disadvantages of Personal Interview Survey 1. High Costs Personal and Face-to-face interview surveys are considerably more expensive than paperand-pencil questionnaire surveys, on line surveys and other types of surveys. 2. Time-consuming Personal interview surveys are not usually time-bounded, so the gathering of data from the respondents can take a longer time. Another important thing that makes this method is time-consuming since there is a need to travel and meet the respondents at either single or different locations. Types of Personal Interview Survey Basically, there are mainly two-types of personal interview survey according to how the interviewer approaches the respondents: intercept and door-to-door interviews. In an intercept approach, the interviewer usually conducts a short survey by means of getting the sample from public places such as malls, theaters, food courts, or tourist spots. On the other hand, a door-to-door interview survey involves going directly to the house of the respondent and conduct the interview either on-the-spot or at a scheduled date. Getting to the respondents in their home will be a difficult and time consuming proposition. Methods used by the researcher: 1.By direct interview: The researcher has designed a questionnaire by which data was collected. 2. by expert opinion methods. The researcher has also chosen the expert opinion method, since the tourism industry is confined to a group of expert individuals in the travel industry who can promote a particular country or a state, depending on the tourist choice and his possible revenues from that choice. Hence the researcher has designed a semi structured questionnaire for those in the travel industry.since a quantitative analysis is being done, and there are no such ideas to be tested by theexploratory method, the personal interview method was chosen due to the following reasons:

17 Telephonic methods cannot sustain for a long time, since the information required is vast 2. The e mail method was not chosen, since the e maid ID of the tourists will be unknown to the researcher 3. More accurate demographic details, like the country,age, gender etc. can be validated by the personal interview method. Two different questionnaires were designed by the researcher, one for the tourists visiting Maharashtra and another for officials and travel agents connected with the industrythey are enclosed in the Appendix 1 (for the tourists) and Appendix 2 (for the personnel in the travel industry in Maharashtra.) Data Collection Tool The questionnaire was administered to different respondents; hence two different questionnaires were prepared for data collection. The Questionnaire consisted of two way questions, Likerts scale type questions, and questions with options. The questionnaire was prepared using the selected factors and focus areas for understanding tourism and its potential in Maharashtra. Limitations to research The research is only confined to the state of Maharashtra. There are many factors that attract or distract tourists from all over the world to India. These factors also affect the tourism in Maharashtra.Many of the tourists may not be aware of the state of Maharashtra as a potential tourism place, but generally they go by the tourism opportunities in India as a whole.the researcher has only concentrated on the Maharashtra tourism. However in the literature review, the researcher has dealt with India tourism in detail. Concluding Remarks:- In this chapter,the researcher has defined research design to be conclusive research wherein the qualitative and quantitative data was collected using simple random sampling for 678 samples with the help of questionnaire and expert opinion method.