Neutrons and Synchrotron Radiation in Engineering Materials Science

Transcription

1 Neutrons and Synchrotron Radiation in Engineering Materials Science From Fundamentals to Material and Component Characterization Edited by Walter Reimers, Anke Rita Pyzalla, Andreas Schreyer, and Helmut Clemens WILEY- VCH WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA

2 Contents Preface XVII List of Contributors XXI Part I General 1 1 Microstructure and Properties of Engineering Materials 3 Helmut Clemens and Christina Scheu 1.1 Introduction Microstructure Crystal Defects Grain (Phase) Boundaries and Twins Precipitates and Dispersions Microstructure and Properties Microstructural Characterization 15 References 20 2 Internal Stresses in Engineering Materials 21 Anke Rita Pyzalla 2.1 Definition Stress Tensor, Strain Tensor, and Elasticity Tensor Stress Tensor Strain Tensor Definitions, Residual Stresses Stress Equilibrium Residual Macro- and Microstresses Origin of Residual Macro- and Microstresses Residual Stress Formation in Primary Forming Processes Residual Stress Formation in Heat Treatment Processes Residual Stresses in a Material without Phase Transformation (Pure Cooling Residual Stresses) 30 Neutrons and Synchrotron Radiation in Engineering Materials Science: From Fundamentals to Material and Component Characterization Edited by Walter Reimers, Anke Rita Pyzalla, Andreas Schreyer, and Helmut Clemens Copyright 2008 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim ISBN:

3 VI Contents Residual Stresses in a Material with Phase Transformation Residual Stress Formation in Surface Hardening Processes (Nitriding, Carbo-Nitriding, and Case Hardening) Residual Stress Formation in Forming Processes Deep-Rolling Residual Stresses Cold Extrusion Residual Stresses Residual Stress Formation in Metal Cutting Manufacturing Grinding Residual Stresses Residual Stress Formation in Joining Processes Residual Stress Formation in Coatings Relevance Failure due to Residual Stress Formation or Residual Stress Relief Induced by Temperature Changes Influence of Residual Stresses on Component Failure Under Static and Dynamic Mechanical Loads Influence of Residual Stresses on Component Failure in Corrosive Environments Influence of Residual Stresses on Wear 53 References 55 3 Texture and Texture Analysis in Engineering Materials 57 Heinz-Günter Brokmeier and Sang-Bong Yi 3.1 Introduction Pole Figures Texture Measurements on Laboratory Scale X-ray Diffraction Electron Diffraction Texture Measurements at Large-Scale Facilities Neutron Diffraction Texture of Semifinished Products Texture Analysis Using Synchrotron X-rays Local Texture Measurement in an Extruded Mg Rod Global Texture in Cu Wire In situ Texture Measurement at Elevated Temperatures In situ Texture Measurement Under Loading 75 References 76 4 Physical Properties of Photons and Neutrons 79 Andreas Schreyer 4.1 Introduction Interaction of X-Ray Photons and Neutrons with Individual Atoms Neutrons X-Rays 83

4 Contents VII 4.3 Scattering of X-Ray Photons and Neutrons from Ensembles of Atoms 86 References 89 5 Radiation Sources Generation and Properties of Neutrons 91 Wolfgang Knop, Philipp Klaus Pranzas, and Peter Schreiner Introduction Generation of Neutrons Research Reactors Spallation Sources Instrumentation 96 References Production and Properties of Synchrotron Radiation 97 RolfTreusch Introduction Properties of Synchrotron Radiation Sources of Synchrotron Radiation Bending Magnets Wigglers and Undulators Outlook: Free Electron Lasers Summary 111 References 112 Part II Methods Introduction to Diffraction Methods for Internal Stress Analyses 115 Walter Reimers 6.1 General Aspects Principles of Diffraction Methods Principles of Strain Determination by Diffraction Methods Determination of the Stress-Free Interplanar Lattice Distance do sin 2 ^/-Technique Nonlinear Lattice Strain Distributions Anisotropy Strain/Stress Gradients Shear Strains/Stresses Diffraction Elastic Constants Calculation of DEC Experimental Determination of the DEC 129

5 VIII I Contents 6.8 Experimental Set-up and Measuring Procedures Experimental Set-up Diffractometers Diaphragms Detectors Measuring Procedures Overview on In-depth and Local Residual Stress Analysis 133 References Stress Analysis by Angle-Dispersive Neutron Diffraction 137 Peter Staron 7.1 Introduction Diffractometer for Residual Stress Analysis Set-up of a Diffractometer for Strain Scanning Monochromator Slit System Sample Positioning Detector Measurement and Data Analysis Gauge Volume and Sample Positioning Data Reduction and Analysis Data Reduction and Peak Fitting Calculation of Stresses Macro and Microstresses Stress-Free Reference Examples Residual Stresses in Friction Stir Welded Aluminum Sheets Residual Stresses in Water-Quenched Turbine Discs Summary and Outlook 152 References Stress Analysis by Energy-Dispersive Neutron Diffraction 155 Javier Roberto Santisteban 8.1 Introduction Time-of-Flight Neutron Diffraction TOF Peak Shape and Data Analysis Packages TOF Strain Scanners Counting Times and Resolution Neutron Optics and Time Focusing A Virtual Laboratory for Strain Scanning Evolution of Intergranular Stresses TOF Transmission Analysis Bragg Edges 171

6 8.6.2 Stram Mapping Quantitative Phase Analysis Other Applications Conclusions 174 References Residual Stress Analysis by Monochromatic High-Energy X-rays 177 Rene Valery Martins 9.1 Basic Set-ups Principle of Slit Imaging and Data Reconstruction The Conical Slit Working Principle Capabilities Example The Spiral Slit Functional Principle Capabilities Example Simultaneous Strain Measurements in Individual Bulk Grains Coarse Grain Effects Analysis of Diffraction Data from Area Detectors Matrix for Comparison and Decision Taking Which Technique to Use for a Specific Problem 193 References Residual Stress Analysis by White High Energy X-Rays Reflection Mode 195 Christoph Cenzel Motivation Basic Relations in Depth-Resolved Energy-Dispersive X-Ray Stress Analysis (XSA) in Reflection Geometry Experimental Set-up Example for Depth-Resolved Residual Stress Analysis by ED Diffraction Concluding Remarks and Prospects 205 References 206

7 X Contents 10.2 Transmission Mode 207 Anke Rita Pyzalla Motivation Experiment Set-up and Experimental Details Penetration Depth Gauge Volume and Spatial Resolution Example for an Experiment Set-up Data Evaluation Examples Conclusions 218 References Diffraction Imaging for Microstructure Analysis 221 Thomas Wroblewski 11.1 Introduction, the Principle of Diffraction Imaging The MAXIM Experiment at HASYLAB Beamline G Data Structure Strategies for Data Reduction and Visualization Outlook, Bulk Imaging 226 References Basics of Small-Angle Scattering Methods 229 Philipp Klaus Pranzas 12.1 Common Features of a SAS Instrument Contrast Scattering Curve Power Law/Scattering by Fractal Systems Guinier and Porod Approximations Macroscopic Differential Scattering Cross Section Model Calculation of Size Distributions Magnetic Structures 236 References Small-Angle Neutron Scattering 239 Philipp Klaus Pranzas 13.1 Nanocrystalline Magnesium Hydride for the Reversible Storage of Hydrogen Precipitates in Steel SiÜ2 Nanoparticles in a Polymer Matrix - an Industrial Application Green Surfactants 246 References 248

8 14 Decomposition Kinetics in Copper-Cobalt Alloy Systems: Applications of Small-Angle X-ray Scattering 249 Günter Coerigk 14.1 Introduction ASAXS Fundamentals Results of ASAXS Experiments Characterizing the Decomposition in Copper-Cobalt Alloys Outlook Summary 255 References B3 Imaging 257 Wolfgang Treimer 15.1 Radiography Fundamentals Interactions of Neutrons with Matter Geometries Resolution Functions Image Degradation Other Imaging Techniques Tomography Mathematical Introduction Slice Theorem, Shannon Theorem Image Reconstruction New Developments in Neutron Tomography 281 References Neutron and Synchrotron-Radiation-Based Imaging for Applications in Materials Science - From Macro- to Nanotomography 287 Felix Beckmann 16.1 Introduction Attenuation-Contrast Projections Phase-Contrast Projections Phase-Enhanced Projections Direct Phase-Contrast Projections Indirect Phase-Contrast Projections Parallel-Beam Tomography Measurement and Reconstruction Density Resolution and Detector Quality Data Evaluation and Visualization Macrotomography Using Neutrons Experimental Set-up 296

9 XII Contents Measurements and Results Microtomography Using Synchrotron Radiation Beamline Optics Experimental Set-up Summary and Outlook 306 References /«-Tomography of Engineering Materials 309 Astrid Haibel 17.1 Advantages of Synchrotron Tomography Applications and 3D Image Analysis Discharging Processes in Alkaline Cells Microstructural Investigations of NbsSn Multifilamentary Superconductor Wires Influence of the Foaming Agent on Metallic Foam Structures Image Artifacts Ring Artifacts Image Noise Edge Artifacts Motion Artifacts Centering Errors of the Rotation Axis 319 References Diffraction Enhanced Imaging 323 Michael Lohmann 18.1 Introduction Basics Extinction Contrast PrinciplesofDEI Experimental Set-up Examples Complete Set of DEI Images Material Science Example of Mineralogical Investigations Conclusions 332 References 332

10 Contents XIII Part III New and Emerging Methods D X-ray Diffraction Microscope 335 Henning Friis Poulsen, Wolfgang Ludwig, and Soren Schmidt 19.1 Basic Set-up and Strategy The 3DXRD Microscope Indexing and Characterization of Average Properties of Each Grain Application I: Nucleation and Growth Studies Application II: Plastic Deformation Application III: Studies of Subgrains and Nanocrystalline Materials Mapping of Grains and Orientations Mode III: Mapping Grains in Undeformed Specimens Mode IV: Mapping Orientations in Deformed Specimens Application I: Recrystallization Application II: Grain Growth Combining 3DXRD and Tomography Grain Mapping by Tomography Ouüook 350 References D Micron-Resolution Laue Diffraction 353 Gene E. Ice 20.1 Introduction The Need for Polychromatic Microdiffraction Theoretical Basis for Advanced Polychromatic Microdiffraction Modified Ewald's Sphere Description of Laue Diffraction Qualitative Information: Phase, Texture, Elastic Strain, Dislocation Density Phase Texture Dislocation Tensor Elastic Strain Tensor Technical Developments for an Automated 3D Probe Source Microbeam Monochromator Nondispersive Focusing Optics Area Detector Differential Aperture Software 362

11 XIV Contents 20.4 Research Examples D Grain Boundary Networks Deformation Behavior and Grain Boundaries Deformation in Single Crystals Grain Growth on Surfaces and in Three-Dimensions Anomalous Grain Growth Future Prospects and Opportunities 369 References Quantitative Analysis of Three-Dimensional Plastic Strain Fields Using Markers and X-ray Absorption Tomography 371 Kristoffer Haldrup and John A. Wert^ 21.1 Introduction Experimental Approach Markers Particle Tracking and DGT Calculation Spatial Resolution Results of Investigations Homogeneous Deformation Heterogenous Deformation Microstructural Effects Outlook 376 References Combined Diffraction and Tomography 379 Anke Rita Pyzalla and Augusta Isaac 22.1 Introduction Experimental Set-up Example: Combined Diffraction and Tomography for Investigating Creep Damage Evolution Scientific Background Experimental Details Miniature Creep Device Tomography and Diffraction Material Results Conclusions and Outlook 385 References 386

12 Part IV industrial Applications Diffraction-Based Residual Stress Analysis Applied to Problems in the Aircraft Industry 389 Peter Staron, Funda S. Bayraktar, Mustafa Koqak, Andreas Schreyer, Ulrike Cihak, Helmut Clemens, and Martin Stockinger 23.1 Motivation Residual Stresses in Turbine Disks Introduction Material Finite Element Modeling Neutron Diffraction Results In Situ Tensile Test Stresses in a Turbine Disk Stresses in a Thin Plate Summary Residual Stresses in Laser-Welded AI Joints Introduction Materials and Welding Neutron Diffraction Stresses in Laser-Welded T-Joints Stresses in Laser-Welded Butt Joints Summary Conclusions 409 References Optimization of Residual Stresses in Crankshafts 413 Anke Rita Pyzalia 24.1 Introduction Experimental Determination of Residual Stresses in Crankshafts Experimental Results and Implications Conclusions 418 References 419 Index 421