Thermosonic Gold Ball Bonding to Immersion Gold/Electroless Nickel Plating Finishes on Laminate MCM Substrates. Abstract.
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1 Thermosonic Gold Ball Bonding to Immersion Gold/Electroless Nickel Plating Finishes on Laminate MCM Substrates Chris Dunn, R. Wayne Johnson Mike Bozack Auburn University 200 Broun Hall, EE Dept. Auburn, AL (334) Cheryl Kromis, Joe Harris Marnie Knadler AVEX Electronics Inc Bradford Drive Huntsville, AL (205) Abstract As the laminate substrate industry moves from Hot Air Solder Level (HASL) finishes, alternate plating finishes are being proposed such as electroless palladium and immersion gold over electroless nickel. This paper presents results of an evaluation of the thermosonic gold ball wire bondability of immersion gold over electroless nickel. The initial evaluation criteria included bondability (number of missed bonds), wire pull strength, and bond failure mode. Different preconditioning environments such as reflow cycles, high temperature storage and humidity storage on initial bondability were also considered. Rutherford backscattering, Auger and XPS were used to examine the gold and nickel layers. The stability of the bonds was investigated by high temperature storage with periodic electrical resistance and pull strength testing. Key words: wire bonding, plating finishes, immersion gold, laminate substrates Introduction Wire bonding continues to be the mainstay for assembly of semiconductor die. While single chip leadframe packages dominate, substrate based single and multi-chip packages and chip-on-board approaches are gaining in usage. The contract manufacturing industry encounters various products with the most common designs listed below. Typical Designs: Few-chip module with three to six bare die, SMT passives, and ball grid array (BGA) as the secondary interconnect Single card assembly with primary SMT material content of passives and ICs with one to six bare die components The SMT portion of the process typically occurs prior to bare die assembly due to the flat surface requirement for stenciling solder paste. If the number of SMT components is minimal, the SMT passives may be placed with conductive adhesive using the die placement machine. The general preference, however, is to maintain a solderable SMT format compatible with standardized high volume processes. Thus the wire bondable surface finish must remain bondable after exposure to a reflow cycle. Currently, the commercial product driver for bare die assembly is size, but cost is also a primary consideration. Various forms of bare die assembly are available today based on flip chip and wire bond assembly.
2 This paper, however, will focus on the gold thermosonic wire bond approach since the infrastructure is established to support these assemblies. Traditional practices for gold thermosonic bonding recommend μinches of electrolytic, soft Au over μinches of electrolytic Ni. Electrolytic gold plating requires either tie bars or pattern plating of the gold prior to outer layer copper etching. The use of tie bars complicates the substrate layout and remnants of the tie bar structure may produce parasitic structures which adversely affect electrical performance. If the pattern plating option is chosen, the plated gold surface is exposed to a number of subsequent fabrication steps which may contaminate the surface. Also, a much larger area of gold may be plated than is actually necessary for wire bond pads, increasing cost. Electroless gold plating is an alternate approach which eliminates the need for tie bars, simplifying the substrate design. The electroless plating process is more difficult to control and is comparable in cost to the electrolytic process. AVEX Electronics Inc. has successfully bonded to 20 μinches of electroless gold over electroless nickel. A third plating option is immersion plating which results in a gold thickness of 2-7 μinches. Immersion gold over electroless nickel is being considered as a HASL (hot air solder leveled) replacement for SMT assembly. This finish has also been used for aluminum wire bonding. Based on input from multiple suppliers, substrate cost comparisons are described in Table 1. It should be noted that the majority of circuit board suppliers are offering the immersion gold option at cost parity with HASL finish which is prominent in the industry. Table 1. Gold Plating Comparisons Plating Relative Gold Thickness Cost Electrolytic 4X 25-70μin. Electroless 5X 20-40μin. Selective 7X 20-40μin. Immersion 1X 2-7 μin. Mixed assembly product designs require both a solderable and wire bondable surface finish. A number of plating finishes are being offered by the industry [1-3]. For long term reliability with gold based finishes, the gold volume within the solder joint should be less than 3% and preferably less than 1% to avoid embrittlement of the joint and intermetallic formation [4,5]. This requirement leads to a dual finish through a selective plating process or a universal plating finish. The electrolytic process typically exceeds this volume limit (1% vol.). Electroless plating can be a solution to the gold volume content if the gold thickness can be controlled to μinches. A second approach is a selective finish. A selective finish consists of an immersion gold or HASL finish in the solderable areas and additional masking steps to add electroless gold in the wire bond areas. This process is expensive and reduces the substrate yield due to redeposited photoresist contaminants, missing gold, surface roughness, and various other surface defects at the wire bond sites. The immersion gold plating process offers a potential low cost solution for both soldering and gold thermosonic wire bonding. This paper will describe recent findings in terms of the thermosonic wire bondability of immersion gold finishes. Test Substrate The test substrate was 4.0 x 3.75 and thick. The design provided an array of wide traces on one side which could be wire bonded to create a continuos daisy chain of 1683 wires. By measuring the resistance between the two ends of the wire bonded daisy chain any missing wire bonds could easily be detected. This structure also provides a convenient method for monitoring the change in bond resistance during aging studies. The other side of the substrate, which was not used in this experiment, was designed with 3 daisy chain test chip bonding sites. This side included a patterned solder mask layer. The substrates were fabricated by Amp Circuits, Greenville, SC using high T g (158 o C by TMA, 170 o C by DSC) FR4-06 laminate material from AlliedSignal Laminates. Electroless nickel and immersion gold from two
3 suppliers were plated onto the substrates. Solder mask was then applied to both sides of the substrate. The solder mask was patterned on the chip bonding site side of the substrate and it was developed off of the daisy chain side. Previous bondability trials and iterations led to a decision to vary the phosphorus content in the nickel. Unpatterned coupons with phosphorus concentrations in the nickel ranging from 0% to 12% from A were provided to AVEX Electronics. The phosphorus variation proved to have a significant impact on the bondability as shown in Table 2. The 4% phosphorus content provided the optimum bonding results with excellent pull strengths and misses only on visibly contaminated surface locations. The plating thickness for this sample measured with a Veeco XRF-5300L showed 2.0 μinches of gold over 162 μinches of nickel. Based upon those results, a 4% phosphorus nickel chemistry was used in plating the A test substrates. B substrates used the traditional 8% phosphorus nickel. Table 2. Bondability of Au/Ni with varying Phosphorus Content. % Phosphorus in Nickel Number of Bonds Missed Bonds wires Pulled Pull Strength Standard Deviation Bond Lifts 0 * * * * * * ** gf 0.39 gf *** gf 0.58 gf *** gf 0.68 gf 1 * Determined unbondable. ** Visual surface contaminants were present in the miss locations. *** Various surface contaminants were present, but not necessarily in the miss locations. Rutherford backscattering (RBS) was used to characterize the as-plated surface finishes on the patterned test substrates. The gold thickness for A substrates was 2.6 μin and the phosphorus content in the nickel was 6.2 at.% (3.4 wt.%). The interface between the gold and the nickel was sharp. With B samples, the gold was 3.8 μin thick and the phosphorus content in the nickel was 11 at.% (6 wt.%). The gold-nickel interface was not as sharp - a nickel rich region approximately 4 μin thick existed between the gold layer and the nickel layer. The estimated composition of this region was 87.5 at.% Ni, 1.5 at.% Au and 11 at.% P. No contaminants were present within the range of detection by RBS in any of the layers from A or B. Immersion Gold/Electroless Nickel Experiments at Auburn The wire bonding experiments at Auburn University were performed on a Palomar Products, Inc. Model 2460-V fully automatic thermosonic wire bonder. The heated wire bonder stage provides both clamping and vacuum hold-down to minimize any deflection of the relatively thin substrate. A design of experiments (DOE) varying ultrasonics, force, time, and stage temperature was used to find the optimum wire bonding parameters for each finish. All wires in this study were bonded in a left-to-right orientation which is perpendicular to the direction of ultrasonic vibration. This is the most difficult bonding orientation for thermosonic gold wire bonding and was chosen as the most severe condition. The number of initial second bond misses and pull test results (pull strength and number of second bond lifts) were used to evaluate the DOE variables. Without plasma cleaning, no parameters were found which eliminated second bond misses. A plasma cleaning step was added to the process (Technics West, Inc. PEII-A Plasma Etcher, oxygen for 3 minutes at 300 Watts). This reduced the number of second bond misses, but the pull strength s remained low for all parameters. A capillary heater was then added to the bonder. The capillary heater is a 0.1 in. heating coil which encircles the bonding capillary without contacting it. Thus heat transfer is primarily by radiation. A thermocouple is attached to the heating element and provides feedback control to maintain the heating element temperature. This was set to 300 o C. The addition of the capillary heater required the use of a longer bonding tool: Gaiser Tool GM. With the combination of plasma cleaning and capillary heat, a relatively wide processing window was found in a second DOE which varied ultrasonics, force, and time. In the DOE, 32 rows with 33 bonds each were made on a single test substrate. One parameter (force, ultrasonics, or time) was varied in each row. Four levels of force, four levels of ultrasonics and two levels of time were used. The stage temperature was maintained at 125 o C.
4 Twenty wires were pull tested from each row. The bonding parameters were optimized by statistical analysis using number of bond misses, average pull strength, standard deviation and number of second bond lifts as evaluation criteria. Flame-off errors during bonding were also considered as this would limit high volume production. Several in. diameter wire alloys and annealing conditions were also evaluated and American Fine Wire Alloy AW8 with 5-8% elongation was selected. Initial bondability results for the two immersion gold/ electroless nickel finishes are given in Table 3. As can be seen from the data, the initial bonding results were excellent - the only misses were associated with visible defects in the substrate. One bond lift did occur with the finish from B. It should be noted that in both cases the average pull strength minus 6σ is greater than 3 gf. 2nd Bond Misses (10,098 wires) Table 3. Initial Au/Ni Wire Bond Results 2nd bond lifts A 2* 7.47 gf B 1** 7.73 gf Notes: * missing gold plating on pad ** missing bond pad Aging tests were conducted at 125 o C for 2000 hours to examine the long-term stability of the wire bonds. The test metrics were average pull strength, standard deviation, failure mode and electrical resistance. At each time interval, 100 wires are pull tested to failure. The average pull strength and standard deviation were calculated and the failure mode(s) were recorded. The electrical resistance measurement was for a series of 1683 wires (3366 bonds) and the associated substrate pads on one board. Five boards per plating finish were used for this test and the resistance measurements were averaged. The test results are presented in Table 4. No significant change in average pull strength or series resistance occurred. The pull strength average minus 6σ for the B samples was less than 3 gf at the 250, 500, 1000 and 2000 hour test intervals. The higher standard deviations resulted from a single, low value ( gf) tail lift at each of these test intervals. One tail lift per 100 wire pulls on B finish was consistent with the initial pull test results. There appears to be no degradation due to the 125 o C storage with the plating finishes provided by either supplier. Storage Time (hours) Table 4. Au/Ni Wire Bond 125 o C Aging Results Average Electrical Resistance for 1683 Wires (5 boards) Average Pull Strength Standard Deviation 2nd Bond Lifts A ohms 7.47 gf 0.69 gf ohms 7.89 gf 0.64 gf ohms 7.68 gf 0.68 gf ohms 7.47 gf 0.65 gf ohms 6.59 gf 0.46 gf ohms 7.01 gf 0.64 gf ohms 6.98 gf 0.61 gf 0 B ohms 7.73 gf 0.74 gf ohms 8.19 gf 0.81 gf ohms 8.01 gf 0.98 gf ohms 7.57 gf 0.82 gf ohms 6.75 gf 0.76 gf ohms 7.45 gf 0.74 gf ohms 7.43 gf 0.83 gf 1
5 To evaluate the effect of reflow soldering cycles on wire bondability, substrates were subjected to one and two reflow cycles through a convection reflow oven in air. The overall cycle time was 4.5 minutes with 10 seconds at 215 o C. It was observed during the initial wire bond pull testing of these boards that the average pull strength of wires in the section of the board bonded first was approximately 1.1 gf higher than those bonded last. (Note: To randomize the pull test results, 50 wires are pulled from the area which is bonded first and 50 wires are pulled from the area which is bonded last.) The bond cycle time for the 1683 bonds was approximately 15 minutes with the substrate on the heated stage. Upon re-examination of the data from the initial bond study (without exposure to reflow) a similar trend was observed, but the difference in pull strength from first to last was approximately 0.6 gf. A number of variables were examined to determine the cause for this difference. By reducing the oxygen plasma cleaning time from 3 minutes to 2.5 minutes, the difference in first to last wire bond average pull strengths for samples exposed to solder reflow cycles was eliminated. Plasma cleaning time had not been included as a variable in the initial DOE. The explanation for this observed effect of plasma cleaning time on pull strength distribution may be related to oxidation of surface nickel (see discussion in following section). The bonding results with a 2.5 minute plasma clean are given in Table 5. Number of Reflows Table 5. Au/Ni Wire Bond Results After Solder Reflow Cycle(s) 2nd Bond Misses (5,049 wires) Average Pull Strength Standard Deviation 2nd bond lifts A gf 0.76 gf gf 0.73 gf 0 B gf 0.64 gf gf 0.71 gf 0 The shelf life of plated finishes for wire bonding is always a concern. The substrates in this study had been stored for approximately 1 month in dry nitrogen prior to the beginning of the wire bond experiments. To further study aging before wire bonding, substrates with platings from A were subjected high temperature storage (125 o C) and temperature/humidity (85%RH/85 o C) storage. After 14 hours of temperature/humidity storage, the boards were not wire bondable - exhibiting a very high number of flame-off errors. A complete DOE was performed to find acceptable bonding parameters, but no bonding window was found. Oxygen plasma etching did not improve the bondability. The samples from high temperature storage were wire bondable with a 2.5 minute oxygen plasma clean. Of 1683 wires attempted, there were 2 second bond misses. The average pull strength was 7.8 gf with standard deviation of 0.77 gf. Of the 100 wires pulled, there were no second bond lifts. While the sample was bondable, the 2 second bond misses indicate reduced bondability compared to the results without high temperature storage or after solder reflow cycles. Surface Analysis To understand the loss of bondability with high temperature and temperature/humidity storage, three samples were cut from one substrate. One sample was aged at 125 o C of 13 hours, one sample was stored at 85%RH/85 o C for 13 hours and the third sample was stored in dry nitrogen for 13 hours. The examples were then analyzed by Auger and XPS. Table 6 shows the results from the XPS analysis. It is clear from the XPS results that a trace of nickel is on the surface of the gold finish in the starting boards which bonded well. (Remember, the boards had been stored for approximately 1 month in dry nitrogen prior to the beginning of the bonding experiments.) It is also clear that the ratio of Au to Ni on the surface decreases with 13 hours at 125 o C. While this surface was bondable the bond miss rate was higher than was observed for samples which had not been high temperature aged. The most dramatic change in surface composition resulted from temperature/humidity storage. Given the small percentage of Au on the surface, the inability to find a bonding window is not surprising. XPS was used to identify NiO on the surface of the temperature/humidity stored sample. The samples were subjected to a 1 minute ion sputter etch (approximately 4.5 nm removed) in the Auger system followed by a second Auger analysis. In the sample which had only been exposed to nitrogen storage, the Auger analysis found only Au after the 1 minute sputter etch (detection limit 0.1 at.%). The sample stored at 125 o C for 13 hours had a strong Au peak and only very small peaks remaining for Ni, C and O. The temperature/humidity
6 sample had a significantly increased Au peak, however, prominent Ni, O, and C peaks remained. The high temperature sample was subjected to an additional 1 minute ion sputter etch and re-analyzed. After two, 1 minute sputter etches (9 nm removed total), the spectra had only Au peaks indicating less than 0.1 at.% Ni in the bulk of the Au layer. In the case of the temperature/humidity sample an additional 3 minutes of ion sputter etching (18 nm removed total) was required to eliminate the Ni peaks in the spectra. The Au-Ni phase diagram shows a miscibility gap below 810 o C. At 100 o C, the solid solubility limit for Ni in Au is less than 0.5 at.%. At room temperature the solubility limit is at the detection limit of Auger analysis. Table 6. XPS Analysis Results of Surface Finish at.% = atomic percent Surface Elements Nitrogen Stored 125 o C for 13 hrs 85%RH/85 o C for 13 hrs. Au 4.64 at.% 3.60 at.% 0.61 at.% Ni 0.24 at.% 0.36 at.% at.% O 26.3 at.% 28.2 at.% 48.3 at.% C 67 at.% 64.1 at.% 39.7 at.% F 1.82 at.% 3.75 at.% ---- With the discovery of Ni on the surface, a second substrate was subjected to an acid Ni clean for 1 minute, rinsed and dried. The substrate was again cut into 3 pieces: one stored in dry nitrogen, one stored for 13 hours at 125 o C and one stored for 13 hours at 85%RH/85 o C. Auger analysis was performed on the three samples. The nitrogen stored sample showed no Ni peaks, while the 125 o C stored sample had Ni peaks, and the 85%RH/85 o C stored sample had more significant Ni peaks. This seems to confirm that nickel is diffusing through the gold layer to the surface. The concentration in the gold layer is small (<0.1 at.%). The nickel is concentrating on the surface in the form of NiO. This may explain the degradation observed with time on the wire bonder stage after a 3 minute oxygen plasma clean for samples preconditioned by solder reflow cycles. Auger analysis was also performed on samples after 1 and 2 solder reflow cycles. Following one reflow cycle the Auger spectra was virtually identical with a very slight increase in the Ni peak relative to the Au peak. After 2 reflow cycles there was a further increase in the Ni peak relative to the gold peak. From the wire bonding results after solder reflow, the level of Ni on the surface did not reduce bondability even following 2 reflow cycles. Immersion Gold/ Electroless Nickel Experiments at AVEX Electronics Inc. To compare bondability data with Auburn University, similar experiments were conducted at AVEX Electronics Inc. The wire bond experiments at AVEX were performed on a high volume continuous flow production line with the primary equipment supplier for this line being Kyushu Matsushita Electric Company. The wire bonders were KME HW22UH which feature gray scale pattern recognition and ultrasonic monitoring. Cycle time for each bonder is approximately 5 wires per second and all experiments were conducted at full speed. The experiments were designed to simulate standard production requirements with automatic line feed and edge hold clamps for support. In a previous experiment, multiple substrate sets were supplied by Amp Circuits to establish a baseline of wire type, stage temperature, bond parameters, and machine bond comparisons to K&S 4124 and K&S 1419 bonders. These trials were also used to establish plating and substrate fabrication guidelines for the bond experiments. All bonds were performed in the direction perpendicular to the ultrasonics with a stage temperature of 120 C and no capillary heating. The 99.99% Au wire was inch diameter with a 0.5-3% elongation and tensile strength of 18 grams provided by Custom Chip Connections (SO#1282). To evaluate the bondability of the plating, the experiments concentrated on two primary tests: the number of missed bonds in automatic operation and the pull strength of these bonds. The number of missed bonds is critical to a high volume assembly environment to meet throughput rates, minimize operator intervention, and reduce scrap of an assembly with high material content. This test, however, requires a large experiment sampling to determine the defect rate. The pull test was used to validate the initial strength and integrity of the bond. The initial bonding tests were as-received with no plasma cleaning. A process window could not be established which eliminated missed bonds for these substrates although the pull strengths were acceptable. A second issue was also identified. The substrate support on the bonder allowed deflection of the board when the
7 bonding force was applied. This condition dampens the ultrasonic energy resulting in a missed bond. Previous successful bonding trials using the same in. thick substrate design included an internal copper power and ground plane which improved rigidity eliminating the deflection. The current test substrates did not include power and ground planes. Workboard holders were then designed and fabricated to improve the substrate rigidity. However, these holders did not improve the deflection of the 4 inch card. Although a vacuum stage is typically avoided in a high volume process, this support may be a requirement in some instances with thin substrates. While a vacuum stage was being tooled, the A experiments were continued for comparison to results from the bonding experiments at Auburn University. The substrates were oxygen plasma cleaned for 5 minutes in a KME PC12F-G Plasma Cleaner. Results from this trial are shown in Table 7. There were 15 misses in 8,027 wires, nine of which were attributed to visual surface defects. Additional substrate fabrication improvements will be required to reduce the instance of surface contamination or defects. The remaining six misses were due either to board deflection, surface metallization or a combination of the two. A large sampling of pull tests revealed a high pull strength of 9.24 gf with a tight standard deviation of 0.68 gf. Of 600 wire pulls, a single lift occurred at a 1.98 gf. There was no obvious contamination at this bonding site. Table 7. Initial Au/Ni Wire Bond Results after Plasma Clean. 2nd Bond Misses (8027 wires) (600 wires) (600 wires) (600 wires) A 15* 9.24 gf 0.68 gf 1 * 9 misses due to visible gold plating contamination or missing gold. The remaining 6 misses were attributed to board deflection and/or metallization. The next trial (again without the vacuum stage) involved two sets of boards: one group stored at 150 C for 50 hours and one group stored at 85 C/85%RH for 50 hours. The results are listed in Tables 8 and 9. The tables show the decrease in bondability after preconditioning. To determine the time to reduction, a board was tested for bondability after increasing exposure times to either 150 C or 85 C/85%RH. Results are listed in Tables 10 and 11. These trials show significant bondability degradation at 50 hours of exposure to 150 C storage and at 27 hours of storage at 85 C/85%RH. The more significant degradation with temperature/humidity storage correlates to the experience at Auburn University. After finding high surface concentrations of nickel on temperature/humidity samples at Auburn, the role of oxygen plasma cleaning on bondability of preconditioned samples was investigated. The oxygen plasma cleaning time was varied from the standard of 300 seconds to 150 seconds with best results at 180 seconds. This trial supported the hypothesis that prolonged exposure to the oxygen plasma may increase the amount of nickel oxide on the surface yielding the surface unbondable. 2nd Bond Misses (4383 wires) Table 8. Results after 150 C Storage for 50 hours. A 113* 7.03 gf 2.02 gf 23 Note: Plasma cleaned for 300 seconds with Oxygen. * Numerous first bond misses and spark errors occurred in this data set. Initial bondability tests were repeated for A and B platings with the addition of the vacuum stage to the KME bonder. The results are presented in Table 12. After discounting the missed bonds which can be directly attributed to plating defects, the addition of the vacuum plate significantly reduced the number of missed second bonds. The average pull strength was not significantly changed, however, the use of vacuum stage did lower the pull strength standard deviation. Thus, with thin laminate substrates without internal copper planes, additional support is required to maximize bond yield. Table 9. Results after 85 C/85%RH Storage for 50 hours. 2nd Bond Misses ( 7720 wires) (500 wires) (500 wires) (500 wires)
8 A 22* 8.82 gf 1.2 gf 17 Note: Plasma clean times were varied for each of the 5 boards in this set. * Numerous first bond misses and spark errors occurred in this data set. Interval (hours) Table 10. Incremental testing at 150 C Storage for A. Bond Misses (102 wires) gf 0.43 gf gf 0.46 gf gf 0.60 gf * 9.15 gf 0.68 gf ** 7.73 gf 2.47 gf * 9.09 gf 0.63gF 0 * First bond misses. ** Combination of 1st and 2nd bond misses. Interval (hours) Table 11. Incremental Testing of 85 C/85%RH Storage for A. Bond Misses (102 wires) gf 0.81 gf gf 0.50 gf * 7.24 gf 1.34 gf ** 7.69 gf 0.82 gf * 6.72 gf 1.83 gf ** 5.93 gf 2.04 gf 5 * First bond misses ** Combination of 1st and 2nd bond misses. Table 12. Initial Au/Ni Wire Bond Results after Addition of Vacuum Stage Wire Bonds 2nd Bond Misses Wires Pull Tested Average Pull Strength Standard Deviation 2nd Bond Lifts A 24,122 16* gf 0.48 gf 0 B 31,194 4** gf 0.52 gf 1 * 15 of the 2nd bond misses were due to noticeable surface irregularities ** 4 of the 2nd bond misses were due to noticeable surface irregularities Surface irregularities include excess gold, pits, and deep scratches Conclusion The results obtained in this study indicate the viability of thermosonic gold wire bonding to immersion gold over electroless nickel on laminate substrates. Bondability, initially and after solder reflow cycles, is promising for high volume applications. The major area of concern is with high temperature and particularly humidity/temperature storage/preconditioning. Under these conditions, the bondability is greatly reduced with
9 increasing exposure time. The diffusion of nickel to the surface and subsequent oxidation has been identified as the cause. If immersion gold over electroless nickel is to be used in high volume production, care must be exercised in the storage of the substrates prior to assembly. As with all plating finishes for wire bonding, the surface must be free from processing contaminants and defects. Acknowledgments This work was funded by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency and the Consortium for Vehicle Electronics member companies under Agreement No. MDA References 1. Steve Beigle, Non-precious Metal Coatings for Fine Pitch Assembly and Direct Chip Attachment, Proceedings of the 1996 Surface Mount International Technical Program, September 10-12, 1996, San Jose, CA, pp George Milad, Surface Finishes: Metallic Coatings Over Nickel Over Copper, Proceedings of the 1996 Surface Mount International Technical Program, September 10-12, 1996, San Jose, CA, pp David Hillman, Peter Bratin, and Michael Pavlov, Wire Bondability and Solderability of Various Metallic Finishes for Use in Printed Circuit Assembly, Proceedings of the 1996 Surface Mount International Technical Program, September 10-12, 1996, San Jose, CA, pp J. Glazer, P. A. Kramer and J. W. Morris, Jr., "Effect of Au on the Reliability of Fine Pitch Surface Mount Solder Joints," Circuit World, Vol. 18, No. 4, August 1992, pp Sherman Banks, "Reflow Soldering to Gold," Electronic Packaging & Production, June 1995, pp
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