International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer

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1 International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 8 (13) Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer journal homepage: Heat transfer enhancement of PAO in microchannel heat exchanger using nano-encapsulated phase change indium particles W. Wu a, H. Bostanci a, L.C. Chow a,, Y. Hong b, C.M. Wang b,m.su b, J.P. Kizito c a Department of Mechanical, Materials and Aerospace Engineering, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL , USA b NanoScience Technology Center, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 3816, USA c Department of Mechanical Engineering, North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, NC 7411, USA article info abstract Article history: Received 1 May 1 Received in revised form 8 November 1 Accepted 8 November 1 Keywords: Microchannel heat transfer Phase change nanoparticles Encapsulation This paper describes a new method to enhance the heat transfer capability of a single phase liquid by adding phase change nanoparticles (nano-pcms), which absorb thermal energy during solid liquid phase changes. Two types of slurries having bare and silica encapsulated indium nano-pcms have been made using colloid method and suspended into poly-a-olefin (PAO) for potential high temperature (1 18 C) applications. The silica shells were devised in an effort to prevent agglomeration of molten phase change materials. In addition, the silica shells were evaluated for their effect on thermal performance. Experiments with the microchannel heat exchanger (MC) indicated that the heat transfer coefficient of slurry with 3% bare indium nanoparticle can reach 47, W/m K at flow rate of 3. ml/s (velocity of.8 m/s). The magnitude of heat transfer coefficient represents times improvement over that of single phase PAO, and is also higher than that of single phase water which is at 4, W/m K. A thermal cycling test involving cycles showed a consistent performance of both types of slurries, thus negating the need for the encapsulation of In nano-pcms in PAO. Ó 1 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. 1. Introduction Phase change materials (PCM) can absorb or release heat energy when they change phase from solid to liquid, and vice versa. More significantly, the PCM can be encapsulated into small spherical containers of nano sizes and then dispersed into a carrying fluid to enhance the overall thermal properties, especially the fluid heat capacity. Such slurry can be used to reduce the overall pumping power in a coolant loop because of the increased heat capacity of the carrying fluid. Heat transfer fluids (HTFs) have many industrial and civil applications, which include energy storage, heat exchange and electronics cooling. Experimental evidence on anomalous improvement in the thermophysical properties of so-called nanofluids was provided more than a decade ago by Eastman et al. [1]. Many investigators followed and produced a large body of literature. Earlier research efforts have considered adding high thermal conductivity materials, such as silver, copper, alumina, CuO, SiC and carbon nanotubes into HTFs in order to improve their heat transport properties []. There has also been a significant amount of work to increase the effective specific heat of a liquid by adding microencapsulated phase change materials [3 8]. Poly-a-olefin Corresponding author. Tel.: ; fax: address: louis.chow@ucf.edu (L.C. Chow). (PAO) is a dielectric oil used in cooling of avionics systems. PAO is inexpensive and stable and is used to maintain electronic components and devices at temperatures 16 C so that silicon carbide based devices could operate reliably. However, PAO has inherently poor heat transfer performance due to its low thermal conductivity (.14 W/m K which is only 3% of that of water). The concept of nanofluids was further developed by incorporating indium as phase-change nanoparticles into PAO [9] to enhance the heat capacity of PAO. Indium was chosen as the PCM because of its melting point of 17 C. There are several methods to produce microencapsulated PCM including interface polymerization and coacervation methods [1]. A method used to produce nanoscale encapsulated PCMs is called the emulsion polymerization technique [11,1]. The advantages of the resulting nano particles in fluid mixtures stem from their small sizes and large surface-tovolume ratios, and the ability to disperse uniformly within the liquid. These thermal fluids containing encapsulated nano-pcms have specific advantages such as high density thermal energy storage, low flow drag and high specific heat capacity. All these advantages make nano-pcm slurry a promising material for thermal control, cooling of electronic equipment, and other systems requiring high heat transfer rates. The intimate contact between nanoparticles and fluid reduces the resistance of heat transfer between nanoparticles and fluid, thus allowing rapid exchange of heat energy between phases /$ - see front matter Ó 1 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

2 W. Wu et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 8 (13) Nomenclature F base heat transfer area (m ) c volumetric concentration (%) c p heat capacity of the working fluid (J/kg K) k thermal conductivity of working fluid (W/m K) h sl latent heat of In (kj/kg) h heat transfer coefficient for the overall microchannel area(w/m K) MC microchannel heat exchanger P l pressure of working fluid (Pa) Q total power (W) R thermal resistance (K/W) Re Reynolds number Pr Prandtl number r radius (m) T temperature (K) T f temperature of inlet fluid (K) t time (s) Greek / mass ratio of nanoparticles in the working fluid q s solid density (kg/m 3 ) q v liquid density (kg/m 3 ) s melting time (second) l viscosity (Pa s) Subscripts b bulk f carrying fluid h hydraulic diameter m melting p particle s surface sh shell w wall If the flow rate and thermal conductivity of liquid remain constant, the heat transfer ability is mainly dependent on the heat absorbing capacity. Our primary objective in developing nano- PCMs is to enhance the thermal capacity of the working fluid by using the latent heat of melting. Our second objective is to evaluate the potential agglomeration of the particles when the PCM is in a molten form. To our knowledge, no work has been done on the heat transfer enhancement due to the bare and encapsulated nanoparticles of In in microchannel cooling systems. This study particularly investigates the method of adding bare and silica encapsulated In nano-pcms into PAO to enhance the heat absorbing capacity of the liquid, and to eventually reduce the size of cooling systems. Encapsulated nano-pcms have been made by encapsulating the bare PCM core in silica shells that contains the molten core and prevents coalescence of particles. PAO fluid containing bare and encapsulated nano-pcms at 9% and 3% mass ratio exhibits a much higher heat capacity due to the latent heat of melting. Pressure drop and heat transfer characteristics of this fluid are experimentally determined, and the size and interface effects of nano-pcm on melting and solidification are discussed.. Synthesis of nanoparticles and experimental setup and procedure All chemicals used in this experimental work are obtained from Aldrich without purification. Direct emulsifications of appropriate precursors are used to prepare metallic nano-pcms. In the case of In that has a melting point of 17 C, emulsification is carried out by boiling certain amount of In powder (3 mesh) in PAO at C with magnetic stirring under protection of nitrogen. An ultrasound sonication could also be used to assist the uniformity and particle size reduction. The nanoparticles are then separated from PAO by centrifuging at 4 rpm for 1 min, and washed with ethanol (9%). Such centrifuging and washing processes are repeated for three times. The precursor used to encapsulate nano-pcms is tetraethoxysilane (TEOS, surfactant). Sol gel method is used to form a thin silica shell around nano-pcms. After redispersing mg nanoparticles into ml of ethanol, ml of NH 4 OH at the concentration of 8% and. ml of TEOS are added drop-wisely into the solution. The mixture is then sonicated by a Brason 1 sonicator at 7 C for 1. h to decompose TEOS and make silica shells formed around nanoparticles. After finishing encapsulation process, the mixture is centrifuged to remove the top clear liquid and washed by ethanol. The centrifuging and washing processes are repeated for three times to ensure the complete removal of residual TEOS, and the encapsulated nano-pcms are re-dispersed in PAO at certain ratio..1. Nano encapsulated particles and slurry viscosity properties A JEOL 111 TEM (1 kv) and a TECNAI F3 TEM ( kv) systems were used for imaging the core shell characteristics of nano-pcms. To prepare sample for TEM imaging, an ethanol drop containing nanoparticles is placed on a copper TEM grid that coated with carbon film. A Perkin Elmer DSC7 device is used to measure the thermal physical properties of nano-pcms. A sample of about 1 mg is hermetically sealed into an aluminum pan and placed inside the (differential scanning calorimetry) DSC chamber under continuously purged nitrogen gas. Dynamic scans are performed on the samples at the heating rate of 1 C/min from room temperature to a set temperature, and cooling down to the initial temperature. Fig. 1(a) and (b) with scale bars show SEM and TEM images of silica encapsulated In nanoparticles. Size distribution of silica encapsulated In nanoparticles is included in Fig. 1c. Fig. a shows DSC curves of pure indium nanoparticles (dashed line) and silica encapsulated indium nanoparticles (solid line), where the melting and freezing temperatures are at 1 and 13 C, respectively, for both of them. The enthalpy of fusion is derived as 19.6 J/g from the area of melting peak of silica encapsulated indium nanoparticles, which is lower than that of pure indium value (8. J/g). The difference is due to the presence of silica, whose melting point is over 16 C. The mass ratio of indium inside encapsulated nanoparticles is determined to be 69% from the ratio of these enthalpies. Fig. (b) shows the viscosities of PAO, PAO with bare In nanoparticles, and PAO with silica encapsulated In nanoparticles measured by the custom-made capillary viscometer. Viscosities of PAO (triangle), PAO with bare In nanoparticles at 3% particle mass ratio (square), and PAO with silica encapsulated In nanoparticles at 9% particle mass ratio (circle) all decrease as temperature increases from 3 to 4 C. PAO with bare In nanoparticles has higher viscosity than that of both PAO, and PAO with silica encapsulated In nanoparticles. The viscosity of PAO with silica encapsulated In nanoparticles at 4 C (9.49 cp) is close to that of PAO (4.68 cp) thus providing an advantage of the encapsulated particles over the bare ones due to viscosity reduction.

3 3 W. Wu et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 8 (13) Percentage (%) Diameter (nm) (a) (b) (c) Fig. 1. SEM (a) and TEM (b) images, and size distribution (c) of silica encapsulated In nanoparticles. (a) 1 Encap In with silica shell Nano bare In (b) 4 3% In/PAO 9% In@SiO /PAO Heat flow (mw) 1 Viscosity (cp) 3 PAO Temperature ( o C) Temperature ( o C) Fig.. DSC curves of bare and encapsulated nano-pcms (a), and viscosities of PAO, slurry with encapsulated nano-pcms at 9% mass particle ratio, and slurry with bare nano- PCMs at 3% mass particle ratio at a temperature range of 3 4 C (b). fluid reservoir using a diaphragm pump. The valve is used for flow rate adjustment in the loop. The flow rate is determined using two rotameters that have been calibrated by measuring the weight of collected flow amount. The two mixing sections are used to disturb fluid so that the thermocouples can measure the bulk temperature at the inlet and outlet of the heat exchanger. The plate heat exchanger is used to cool down the working fluid after it exits the test section. In Out.. Experimental setup Fig. 3. Schematic of experimental setup. Fig. 3 illustrates a schematic of the experimental flow loop. It consists of a microchannel heat exchanger, a pump, a valve, a flow meter, two mixing sections at inlet and outlet of the heat exchanger, and a plate heat exchanger. Working fluid is pumped from the TC#1 TC# mm TC#3 1 mm Thick film resistor Copper block mm Fig. 4. Details of microchannel heat exchanger-heater assembly.

4 W. Wu et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 8 (13) Fig. 4 shows the details of microchannel heat exchanger-heater assembly. Heat flux is applied to the microchannel heat exchanger surface through a copper plate using an electric heater controlled by a HP 63A DC power supply. The heater consists of two 1-cm, -ohm thick film resistors with BeO substrate made by Barry Industries Inc. Three thermocouples (Type-T, 36-AWG) are embedded halfway in the copper plate and spaced equally across the cm area as illustrated in Fig. 4. Temperature at the microchannel heat exchanger surface was calculated by extrapolating the average of three thermocouple readings through the known distance to the surface and assuming steady 1-D conduction through the copper plate. Other measurements include pressures and temperatures at inlet and outlet. The microchannel heat exchanger-heater assembly is thermally isolated by 1 cm thick fiberglass to prevent heat loss. The remaining parts of experimental setup such as tubing, slurry reservoir and heat exchanger are thermally insulated as well. Since the calculated heat loss is negligible, heat transfer rate was calculated directly from the power provided to the heater. Fig. shows the general concept and detailed cross-section of a Micro Cooling Concepts (MC ) microchannel heat exchanger. The overall size of the heat exchanger is approximately cm 1 cm 1 cm, with two ports for fluid inlet and outlet on the opposite faces of the heat exchanger surface. A sample microchannel heat exchanger was partially cut open in an effort to better understand its design features, and the fluid flow paths are depicted in Fig.. We note that there are two nominal size microchannel heat exchangers in this study, referred to as lm and 1 lm microchannels. The measured dimensions for the individual microchannels are and 1 lm width (y-direction), respectively, lm height (z-direction), and 1 lm length (x-direction). The wall and base thicknesses are and 1 lm, respectively. Individual microchannels are stacked up as many as 1 layers, and this set of 1 layers is estimated to provide a total surface area of cm in the first millimeter of construction from the heat exchanger surface. The dimensions of the inlet and outlet manifolds are lm width (y-direction), lm height (z-direction), and lm length (x-direction)..3. Test conditions and procedure Prior to each experiment, the microchannel heat exchanger was soaked and cleaned with acetone to remove any contamination. All experiments were performed at one atmosphere pressure. A total of 3 ml slurry is pumped between a hot source and a cold sink, and adequate temperature controls are employed. The slurry is heated in the reservoir by using an immersion heater, and the slurry temperature at the microchannel heat exchanger inlet is maintained at low end of the melting profile. After the heat exchange in the test chamber, slurry temperature is lowered to room temperature which is 19 C to assure re-solidification of nano-pcms. Once the steady-state flow and temperature conditions were attained, the local mean temperature of the heater, and inlet and outlet temperature of the slurry were calculated by the arithmetic mean of temperature readings. The heat transfer coefficient was then obtained by h = Q/F base (T w T f )..4. Uncertainty analysis The temperature measurement precision is maintained to be within ±.18 C and the thermocouples are positioned within ±1 lm of the center line. A Keithley 7 data acquisition system was used with a digital voltmeter having a sensitivity of ±1 lv, a six-figure scale and an accuracy of.1% of the reading. The error in power calculation from the voltage and current measurement can be ignored in the experiments. The error in pressure difference was less than %. Thermal balance between supplied power to the heater and amount absorbed by the working fluid was less than %. The error in heat transfer coefficient calculation based on the temperature and heat flux measurements is estimated to be less than 1%. The relative error of the flow rate measurement was estimated to be within ±3%. Depending on the temperature of the heater, a heat loss corresponding to % 1% of the electrical-power input was estimated. The heat flux at the surface of the copper plate was obtained from the measured electrical-power after accounting for the heat loss. We repeated our experiment five Fig.. Design concept and cross-sectional view of MC microchannel heat exchanger.

5 3 W. Wu et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 8 (13) times and during these measurements the average heat loss was found to be ±.%, representing a reasonable degree of accuracy. 3. Results and discussion h 1-4 (W/m.K) µm MC PAO 1 1 µm MC Water Data from MC (extrapolated for water) Flow rate (ml/s) Fig. 7. Comparison of heat transfer coefficients of 1 lm microchannel with water and PAO. The inlet temperature was 19 C and the heat flux input was varied from 1 W/cm to W/cm. Table 1 Thermophysical properties of water, PAO and In. Density (kg m 3 ) Specific heat (J kg 1 K 1 ) Thermal conductivity (W m 1 K 1 ) Viscosity (mpa s) 93 K Water PAO[16] In [17] In PAO % bare In PAO % encap In PAO 3% Pressure drop 1 - (kpa) µm MC PAO µm MC PAO 1 µm MC 9% Encap In 1 µm MC 9% Bare In µm MC 9% Encap In µm MC 9% Bare In 1 µm MC 3% Bare In µm MC 3% Bare In Flow rate (ml/s) Fig. 6. Pressure drop of and 1 lm microchannels with PAO, and slurries having bare and encapsulated nano-pcms at 9% and 3% particle mass ratios (no heating involved). Performance of the current system was mainly evaluated in terms of pressure drop and heat transfer measurements. It should be noted that the particle mass ratio in slurries solely reflects the amount of PCM material (In), and therefore slurries with encapsulated nano-pcms involved higher number of particles when compared to slurries with bare nano-pcms, to compensate the mass of shell material (silica). Pressure gauges at the inlet and outlet of the test chamber were used to evaluate the pressure drop throughout the tests. Additional performance characterization experiments were also conducted to determine the pressure drop versus flow rate, and the thermal resistance versus flow rate. Pressure versus flow rate data were limited at ml/s because of the maximum available pumping power. Fig. 6 shows the pressure drop across the microchannel heat exchanger, measured at flow rates of 8 ml/s in and 1 lm microchannels with bare and encapsulated nano-pcms having 9% and 3% particle mass ratio. The pressure drop results were all obtained at a room temperature of 19 C at inlet with no heat added to the system (no melting occurred). When data from PAO are compared, the pressure drop of lm microchannel is higher than that of 1 lm microchannel as can be expected. For slurries with the same particle mass ratios (u =.9 and.3), encapsulation helped to reduce the pressure drop. However, the effect of channel size on pressure drop is more pronounced than the effect of encapsulation as evidenced by the consistently higher level of pressure drops with the lm microchannel. For the same nano-pcm slurry and microchannel size, pressure drop increases with the particle mass ratio, which can be explained by the increase in the slurry viscosity. Present experimental results indicated that slurry with bare nano-pcm at 3% particle mass ratio yields a sharp pressure-drop increase of 7% when compared to PAO. Therefore, slurries with higher particulate loads are expected to make the slurry too viscous and should be avoided. Evaluation of microchannel heat transfer performance was started by filling the system with water and performing a calibration experiment. Fig. 7 shows the heat transfer coefficients obtained from 1 lm microchannel with water and PAO. In these tests, inlet temperature was maintained at 19 C while flow rate was ranged between.7 and 3. ml/s, and heat flux input was varied from 1 W/cm to W/cm. The solid line in this figure represents the extrapolated range of manufacturer s data for water in an effort to estimate the performance at low flow rates. At the highest flow rate, the heat transfer coefficient for water is 4 W/m K, and it reasonably matches the manufacturer s data. The heat transfer coefficient for PAO is W/m K which is about half of the corresponding water data. As summarized in Table 1, water possesses superior thermophysical properties compared to PAO in terms of heat transfer performance (for instance, PAO has a thermal conductivity 4x smaller than that of water at room temperature). Fig. 8 shows the heat transfer coefficients of and 1 lm microchannels with slurries featuring bare and encapsulated nano-pcms at 9% and 3% particle mass ratios. All of these results were obtained when the inlet temperature is controlled at 19 C and the outlet temperature was set to be less than C, a temperature much lower than the melting point of nano-pcms (17 C). For PAO, the heat transfer coefficients of lm microchannel are higher than that of 1 lm microchannel. For slurries with the same particle mass ratios (u =.9 and.3), bare and

6 W. Wu et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 8 (13) h 1-4 (W/m.K) µm MC PAO µm MC PAO 1 µm MC 9% Encap In 1 µm MC 9% Bare In 1.8 µm MC 9% Encap In µm MC 9% Bare In 1 µm MC 3% Bare In µm MC 3% Bare In Flow rate (ml/s) h 1-4 (W/m.K) µm MC PAO µm MC PAO 1 µm MC 9% Encap In 1 µm MC 9% Bare In µm MC 9% Encap In µm MC 9% Bare In 1 µm MC 3% Bare In µm MC 3% Bare In Fig. 8. Heat transfer coefficients of 1 lm microchannels with slurries having bare and encapsulated nano-pcms at 9% and 3% particle mass ratios when the inlet temperatures are set below C (no melting occurs). The heat flux input was varied from 1 W/cm to W/cm. encapsulated nano-pcms resulted in nearly the same heat transfer coefficients. Similar to the observation with the pressure drop experiments, encapsulation has less effect on the heat transfer coefficient enhancement compared to the channel size. For the same kind of nano-pcm and microchannel size, the heat transfer coefficients increase with the particle mass ratio. For the slurry with 3% bare nano-pcm, heat transfer coefficient at flow rate of 3. ml/s can reach 8 W/m K which is about 3% higher than that of PAO. This can be attributed to thermal conductivity enhancement. The bulk thermal conductivity of a slurry can be calculated according to Maxwell s formula [13]: k þ kp þ c k p 1 b k f k f ¼ ð1þ k f þ kp c k k p 1 f k f where the k f is thermal conductivity of fluid, c is the volumetric concentration and k p is thermal conductivity of the PCM particles, which is obtained by [1] MC Inlet temperature ( o C) Fig. 9. Heat transfer coefficients of 1 lm microchannels with PAO, and slurries having bare and encapsulated nano-pcms at 9% and 3% particle mass ratios and 3. ml/s flow rate. The heat flux input was fixed at W/cm. Fig. 9 includes additional heat transfer coefficients of and 1 lm microchannels with slurries having bare and encapsulated nano-pcms at 9% and 3% particle mass ratios. In order to compare the heat transfer performance under the same condition, flow rate and heat flux were set at 3. ml/s and W/cm, respectively, while the fluid inlet temperature was varied between 13 and 168 C. These results were recorded when the inlet temperature spanned the phase change range, therefore nano-pcms underwent melting. For PAO, the heat transfer coefficients of lm microchannel is higher than that of 1 lm microchannel as before. The effect of encapsulation on heat transfer enhancement is negligible, while the effect of channel size is more obvious at a given particle mass ratio. Data indicate that as inlet temperature 4 1 ¼ 1 þ d p d mc k p d p k mc d mc k ms d p d mc ðþ 3 where k mc is the thermal conductivity of the PCM core material, k ms is the thermal conductivity of the shell material, d p is particle diameter and d mc is the diameter of the PCM core. With k mc = 81.6 W/m K, k ms = 1.4 W/m K, d p = 1 nm (averaged) and d mc = 1 nm, the slurries with bare nano-pcm at 9% particle mass ratio, encapsulated nano-pcm at 9% particle mass ratio, and bare nano-pcm at 3% particle mass ratio have thermal conductivity of.17,.14 and.189 W/m K, respectively, compared to PAO s thermal conductivity of.14 W/m K. This level of thermal conductivity enhancement due to the nano-pcms is listed in Table 1. Although there are several recent correlations such as [14] which may be able to provide a better estimate of the thermal conductivity of the nano- PCM slurries, it is still not clear which correlation can yield the best prediction. We acknowledge that the traditional conductivity models, such as the Maxwell equation, may not be the best choice to predict thermal conductivity of nano-pcm slurry. However, this is actually not very important to this study since our main goal is to demonstrate how phase change in the nanoparticles increases heat transfer. Tw - Tf ( o C) 3 1 µm MC PAO µm MC PAO 1 µm MC 9% Encap In 1 µm MC 9% Bare In µm MC 9% Encap In µm MC 9% Bare In 1 µm MC 3% Bare In 1 µm MC 3% Bare In MC Inlet temperature ( o C) Fig. 1. Comparison of temperature difference between wall and outlet using and 1 lm microchannels with PAO, and slurries having bare and encapsulated nano-pcms at 9% and 3% particle mass ratios and 3. ml/s flow rate. The heat flux input was fixed at W/cm.

7 34 W. Wu et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 8 (13) Percentage change of heat transfer performance (%) Bare 3% 93 Encap 9% Bare 9% Cycle number Fig. 11. thermal cycling, slurries with bare and encapsulated nano-pcms demonstrated very consistent thermal performance. increases, heat transfer coefficient of PAO increases throughout the test range. For slurries, heat transfer coefficient sharply increases at inlet temperatures starting 146 C when nano-pcms begin to melt, and reaches a maximum level at 1 C when full phase change is utilized. At higher inlet temperatures, heat transfer coefficient starts to decrease due to the nano-pcms reduced capacity to absorb heat. The heat transfer coefficient of slurry with bare nano-pcm at 3% particle mass ratio, at the inlet temperature of 1 C and flow rate of 3. ml/s (flow velocity of.8 m/s), can reach 47 W/m K. At comparable flow conditions this heat transfer coefficient is about times higher than that of PAO, and even slightly higher than that of water at 4 W/m K. Fig. 1 shows temperature difference between the wall and the outlet of and 1 lm microchannels with slurries having bare and encapsulated nano-pcms at 9% and 3% particle mass ratio. The PAO has no downward peak in the absence of phase change, but slurries with nano-pcms have peaks where the peak area is proportional to the particle mass ratio, indicating the melting of In between 14 and 18 C. The lowest temperature difference of 18 C between the wall and the outlet is achieved by the slurry with bare nano-pcm at 3% particle mass ratio when the inlet temperature is 1 C. At this condition, phase change process seems to be fully utilized. Fig. 11 illustrates the change of heat transfer coefficient during thermal cycling, where each cycle includes melting and solidification processes. Data from the slurries with bare and encapsulated nano-pcms demonstrated very consistent thermal performance. Both bare and encapsulated nano-pcm slurries attained 97% of their initial heat transfer performance. These results therefore imply that encapsulation, in an effort to prevent coalescence of particles during phase change, is not needed for the slurry featuring PAO and In nano-pcms. The main reason in the explanation of the comparable performance of bare nano-pcms is thought to be the existence of oxide shells around the particles. Oxidation of In is unavoidable during the synthesis process, and can provide a helpful protective shell for the core material avoiding its leakage for a long time. Furthermore, two other possible mechanisms might be helping to bare nano-pcms. First, the added surfactant during the synthesis of particles might help resist coalescence of molten In nanoparticles and ensure the stability of colloidal suspension. We have observed the thermal stability of the slurry by thermal cycling nanoparticles using in situ TEM coupled with a heating stage. Second, bare In nanoparticles have residual charges which generate strong repulsive electrical force to avoid the agglomeration of molten nanoparticles. Further enhancement in heat transfer performance of nano- PCM slurries would be achieved by higher latent heat, higher phase change rate, and lower super cooling features. In the meantime, the presented experimental data can offer helpful design criteria for thermal management systems with PCMs Discussion on melting time of nanoparticles Heat absorption of particles is determined by the particle size and material properties. Heat transfer from the fluid to the particles is controlled by the difference between the fluid temperature and the surface temperature of the particles. A nano-pcm model illustrated in Fig. 1 can be helpful in the calculation of melting process. Considering a phase change temperature of T m, and neglecting the sensible heat capacity, the heat absorbed at the interface must be conducted through the liquid to the solid and is described by [1]: 4pk l ðt s T m Þ q ¼ ð3þ 1=r 1=r p where T s and T m are the surface temperature and the melting point of nanoparticles, respectively; r p is the radius of the nanoparticles before melting, and k l is the thermal conductivity of nanoparticles. In addition, neglecting the sensible heat capacity, the heat absorbed at the interface must be conducted through the liquid to the solids, which means q ¼ m hsl ¼ðq l 4pr dr ds Þh sl where q l is the density of nanoparticles, and h sl is the latent heat of fusion of the nanoparticles. Combining Eq. (3) and (4), and integrating gives: 4pk l ðt s T m Þ ð 1 ¼ q 1 r r p Þ l h sl 4pr dr ds where s is the melting time when the solid radius is r. The melting time is dependent on size and difference between the surface temperature of the nanoparticle and the melting temperature of the nanoparticle material: " ðt s T m Þs 3 ¼ r 1 r p 1 # r þ q l h sl k l r p r p In the case of silica encapsulated nanoparticles, silica shell has a lower thermal conductivity (1.3 W/m K) than that of metallic material, and Eq. () is modified to include the contribution of the silica shell: Fig. 1. Nano-PCM model used for melting process calculation. ð4þ ðþ ð6þ

8 ðt s T m Þ ¼ 4pq R In þ R In h sl r dr SiO ds where R In ¼ pk In r r In ; R SiO ¼ 1 1 4pk SiO r In 1 r SiO Integrating Eq. (7) gives s ðt s T m Þ¼q In h sl þ 1 r 3 3 k In r In k SiO r SiO k SiO r In r 3 In 1 r þ 1 k In 6 r In 1 k In 3 þ k SiO r SiO. r In 3k SiO For encapsulated nano-pcms, k In, k SiO, r In, r SiO, h sl, q In are 81.8 W/ m K, 1.3 W/m K, 1 nm, 1 nm, 8. J/g, and 7.3 g/cm 3, respectively. As r goes to nm, the Eq. (8) becomes: sðt s T m Þ¼:9 1 7 s K The melting time s is.9 ls when T s T m =.1 K. For bare nano- PCMs on the other hand, the melting time using Eq. (6) is.44 ls, which is x faster than that of encapsulated ones calculated with Eq. (8). At the flow rate of 3. ml/s, the resident time of nanoparticles passing through a 1 lm microchannel length is 4 ms. Therefore, there is enough time for In nanoparticles to melt. 4. Conclusion This paper describes a new method to enhance the heat transfer property of a single phase liquid by adding bare or encapsulated nano-size phase change materials (nano-pcms), which will absorb thermal energy during solid liquid phase changes. Silica encapsulated In nanoparticles have been made using colloid method and suspended into poly-a-olefin (PAO) for potential high temperature applications (1 to 18 C). Performance of the system was mainly evaluated in terms of pressure drop and heat transfer measurements, and the conclusions can be summarized as follows: j j j For the same microchannel size and other operational conditions (particle mass ratio, flow rate, inlet temperature and heat input): s Slurry with encapsulated nano-pcms encounters a lower pressure drop compared to that of bare nano-pcms. s Slurries with bare and encapsulated nano-pcms provide nearly the same heat transfer performance. The slurry with bare nano-pcm at 3% particle mass ratio, at the inlet temperature of 1 C and flow rate of 3. ml/s (flow velocity of.8 m/s), can reach 47, W/m K heat transfer coefficient. At comparable flow conditions this heat transfer coefficient is about times higher than that of PAO, and even slightly higher than that of water at 4, W/m K. Based on thermal cycling, slurries with bare and encapsulated nano-pcms demonstrated very consistent thermal performance indicating that coalescence of In particles is not an issue, and thus encapsulation of particles may not be needed. Ability of avoiding the coalescence of molten In particles is believed to be due to the naturally developing oxide shell outside the W. Wu et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 8 (13) ð7þ ð8þ ð9þ particles, and possibly two other mechanisms, namely, the surfactant used during the synthesis of particles, and residual charges which generate strong repulsive electrical force. The introduced method would greatly benefit thermal management applications that dictate the use of certain working fluids. The slurries featuring nano-pcms would enhance thermal properties of the working fluids and eventually improve the system efficiency and size/weight specifications. Acknowledgments This work was supported by National Science Foundation (NSF) through Grant CBET No , and Air Force Research Laboratory (AFRL) through Universal Technology Corporation. Material characterization was performed at the Materials Characterization Facility at the University of Central Florida. References [1] J.A. Eastman, S.U.S. Choi, S. Li, W. Yu, L.J. Thompson, Anomalously increased effective thermal conductivities of ethylene glycol-based nanofluids containing copper nanoparticles, Appl. Phys. Lett. 78 (1) 718. [] L.Q. Wang, X.H. Wei, Nanofluids: synthesis, heat conduction, and extension, J. Heat Transfer 131 (9) 331. [3] R.L. Zeng, X. Wang, B.J. Chen, Y.P. Zhang, J.L. Niu, H.F. Di, Heat transfer characteristics of microencapsulated phase change material slurry in laminar flow under co heat flux, Appl. Energy 86 (1) (9) [4] B.J. Chen, X. Wang, R.L. Zeng, Y.P. Zhang, X.C. Wang, J.L. Niu, Y. Li, H.F. Di, X. Wang, An experimental study of convective heat transfer with microencapsulated phase change material suspension: laminar flow in a circular tube under constant heat flux, Exp. Therm. Fluid Sci. 3 (8) [] X.C. Wang, X. Wang, J.L. Niu, Y. Li, B.J. Chen, R.L. Zeng, Q.W. Song, Y.P. Zhang, Flow and heat transfer behaviors of phase change material slurries in a horizontal circular tube, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer (7) [6] Y. Yamagishi, H. Takeuchi, A.T. Pyatenko, N. Kayukawa, Characteristics of MPCM slurry as a heat transfer fluid, AIChE J. 4 (1999) [7] X. Hu, Y. Zhang, Novel insight and numerical analysis of convective heat transfer enhancement with microencapsulated phase change material slurries: laminar flow in a circular tube with constant heat flux, Int. J. 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