CONTENTS. Chapter 1 Macrostructure

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1 CONTENTS Preface Chapter 1 Macrostructure Visualization and Evaluation of Macrostructure by Etching Macroetching with Acid Solutions Copper-Containing Macroetchants for Primary Structure Macroetchants for Revealing Strain Patterns Macroetch Specifications Classification of Macroetch Features Applications of Macroetching Solidification Structures Billet and Bloom Macrostructures Continuously Cast Steel Macrostructures Consumable Electrode Remelted Steel Macrostructures Dendrite Arm Spacing Forging Flow Lines Grain or Cell Size Alloy Segregation Carbide Segregation Weldments Strain Patterns Failure Analysis Response to Heat Treatment Flame Cutting Macrostructure Revealed by Machining The Fracture Test Composition Inclusion Stringers 42 xiii i

2 Vi CONTENTS Chapter Degree of Graphitization Grain Size Depth of Hardening Detection of Overheating Evaluation of Quality Special Print Methods Contact Printing Sulfur Printing Oxide Printing Phosphorus Printing Lead Printing and Exudation Test Miscellaneous Print Methods Specimen Preparation for Light Microscopy Sample Selection Sectioning Mounting Fracturing Shearing Sawing Abrasive Cutting Microtomy Wire Saws Electric Discharge Machining Micromilling Cleaning Adhesive Mounting Clamps Plastic Mounting Materials Compression Mounting 1 Castable Mounts Grinding Polishing Grindi Vacuum Impregnation Taper Mounting Edge Preservation Conductive Mounts Special Mounting Techniques Mount Marking and Storage Grinding Media Equipment Lapping Equipment Polishing Cloths Polishing Abrasives ne and Polishing Theory

3 CONTENTS vii 2-8 Electromechanical Polishing Attack Polishing Chemical Polishing Electropolishing Advantages Disadvantages Equipment Theory Factors Influencing Electropolishing Comparison of Mechanically and Electrolytically Polished Surfaces Specific Polishing Recommendations Universal Methods Common Problems 127 Coatings I Graphite and Inclusion Retention 2-12,3 Metals 132 Aluminum I Antimony and Bismuth I Beryllium I Cadmium, Lead, Tin, and Zinc I Chromium, Molybdenum, and Tungsten I Cobalt, Manganese, Nickel, and Iron I Copper I Germanium and Silicon I Indium and Thallium I Magnesium I Niobium, Tantalum, and Vanadium I Precious Metals I Radioactive Metals I Rare Earth Metals I Selenium and Tellurium I Sodium I Titanium I Zirconium and Hafnium Borides and Carbides Chapter Safety Carbonaceous Materials Ceramics Composites Minerals Polymers Solvents Acids Other Chemicals Microstructure Etching Heat Tinting Etching Theory Etching Technique Etching Problems Tint Etching Electrolytic Etching Anodizing Potentiostatic Etching Polarized-Light Etchants

4 viii CONTENTS 3-4 Thermal Etching Gas Contrasting Vapor-Deposited Interference Films Magnetic "Etching" Ion-Bombardment Etching Dislocation Etch Pitting Corrosion Tests Specific Etching Recommendations Metals 195 Aluminum and Alloys I Antimony and Bismuth I Beryllium I Cadmium, Lead, Tin, and Zinc I Chromium, Molybdenum, and Tungsten I Cobalt and Manganese I Copper and Alloys I Germanium and Silicon I Indium and Thallium I Iron and Steels I Magnesium and Alloys I Nickel and Alloys I Niobium, Tantalum, and Vanadium I Precious Metals I Radioactive Metals I Rare Earth Metals I Selenium and Tellurium I Titanium and Alloys I Zirconium and Hafnium Borides, Carbides, Nitrides, and Oxides Polymers Minerals Chapter 4 Light Microscopy Basic Concepts in Light Optical Theory The Light Microscope Illumination 271 Low-Voltage Tungsten Filament Lamp I Carbon Arc I Xenon Arc I Quartz-Iodine Lamp I Zirconium Arc Lamp I Mercury Vapor Lamp Condenser System Light Filters Objective Lens Eyepieces Stage Control of Microscope Variables Lens Defects Resolution and Depth of Field Examination Modes in Light Microscopy Methods of Examination 292 Bright-Field Illumination I Oblique Illumination I Dark-field Illumination I Polarized Light I Phase-Contrast Illumination I Interference Techniques I Ultraviolet Microscopy I Light-Section Microscopy I Fluorescence Microscopy I Infrared Microscopy 4-5 Light Phenomena Photomicrography Obtaining Good Photomicrographs 313

5 CONTENTS ix Black-and-White Photography Color Photography Film Handling Photomacrography Auxiliary Techniques Microhardness Hot-Stage Microscopy Special States for In Situ Experiments Hot-Cell Microscopy Field Microscopy Comparison Microscopes Television Monitors Clean-Room Microscopy Chapter Hardness Indentation Hardness Relationship to Stress-Strain Curve Effects of Time, Velocity, and Size Effects of Lubrication and Adhesion Indentation Size and Shape Changes Surface Roughness Static Hardness Tests Brinell Hardness Meyer Hardness Vickers Hardness Rockwell Hardness Other Static Hardness Tests Ludwik Conical Indentation Test I Mutual Indentation Tests I Mallock Cone Test I Scratch Hardness I Hardness Tests for Nonmetallic Materials 5-4 Dynamic Hardness Tests Shore Scleroscope Pendulum Hardness Cloudburst Test Equotip Hardness Nondestructive Hardness Tests Microindentation Hardness Hardness Conversions Applications Anisotropy Indentation Fracture Machinability Phase Identification Prediction of Other Properties Quality Control Residual Stress Temperature Effects 396

6 X CONTENTS 5-9 r Wear Miscellaneous Applications Quantitative Microscopy Basic Measurement Variables Sampling Sample Preparation Field Selection Standard Chart Methods Measurement of Structural Gradients Decarburization Case Depth Coating Thickness Stereology Terminology Volume Fraction Areal Analysis Lineal Analysis Point Counting Statistical Analysis Comparison of Methods Grain Size Grain Shape Grain Size Measurement Delineation of Grain Boundaries 1 Standard Chart Methods 1 Jeffries Planimetrie Method 1 Triple-Point Count Method 1 Heyn Intercept Method 1 Nonequiaxed Grains 1 Duplex Grain Structures 1 Two-Phase Structures 1 Snyder-Graff Intercept Method 1 Fracture Grain Size 1 Accuracy of Grain Size Estimates 1 Relationship of L 3 to Other Grain Parameters Grain Size Distributions Inclusion Rating Methods Chart Comparison Methods Nonchart Rating Methods Inclusion Deformability Line Length Spacings Mean Free Path and Mean Spacing Interlamellar Spacing Contiguity Anisotropy Shape Particle Size

7 CONTENTS Xl 6-15 Electron Microscopy Techniques Quantitative Fractography Image Analysis Applications Appendixes 509 A Etchants for Revealing Macrostructure 509 B Macroetchants Based on Copper-Containing Compounds For Etching of Iron and Steel 533 C Macroetchants for Revealing Strain Patterns in Nonferrous Metals 536 D Electroless and Electrolytic Plating Procedures 538 E Electromechanical Polishing Procedures 541 F Attack Polishing Procedures 543 G Chemical Polishing Solutions 552 H Electrolytic Polishing Solutions 562 I Etchants for Revealing Microstructure 610 J Dislocation Etching Techniques 712 Indexes 733 Author Index Subject Index