IMPROVEMENT OF THE DEFORMATION CAPACITY BY THE USE OF FIBERS
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1 IMPROVEMENT OF THE DEFORMATION CAPACITY BY THE USE OF FIBERS Kenji Kosa and Hiroki Goda Department of Civil Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Japan Abstract To improve the seismic resistance of a pier which needs the highest deformation capacity among the members of a bridge, two specimens constructed with steel fiber reinforced concrete and one specimen with normal concrete were loaded under reversed cyclic loading conditions. The results show that ductility factor was 8, and ultimate deformation capacity was 77 mm for the normal concrete specimen. The column constructed of steel fiber increased its deformation capacity, and ductility factor was 13, and ultimate deformation capacity was 111mm. This will be the effect of increasing the stress capacity after the peak stress at compression zone, due to the bridging effect of stress provided by steel fibers. 1. Introduction One of the methods to improve seismic resistance of reinforced concrete (RC) structures is to increase the deformation capacity of the member at the plastic hinge section. In this report, improvement of deformation capacity was investigated by applying steel fiber reinforced concrete (SFRC) to the plastic hinge section at which bending damage is predicted to occur.
2 First, the deformation capacity of column members constructed of ordinary concrete, SFRC, and Ductal was evaluated analytically using evaluation equations. Next, to verify the effect, column specimens were produced using those materials and reversed loading tests were conducted on them. 2. Evaluation of deformation capacity using existing equations Figure 1 shows the configuration and the cross- section of the control specimen (Specimen No. 1). Table 1 shows the attributes of this specimen. It is a 1/8 scale specimen modeling an ordinary single column pier. Analysis parameters were the concrete type, hoop tie ratio, strength of reinforcement, and the structure of the cross section. Three types of concrete were used: ordinary concrete, SFRC, and Ductal which is ultra-high strength concrete. The latter two types were adopted with the intention to improve ductility capacity. Table 2 shows the cross-sections of each specimen containing parameters for evaluation. Ductility capacity was evaluated in accordance with the Japanese Highway Specifications: V-Seismic Design (1) {. For this evaluation, the stress-strain relationship of the member is needed. As the stress-strain relationship of ordinary concrete, the 5 1 3=3 5 Loading relationship conforming to direction Type II seismic motion that is employed in the Highway Side C 4 Specification was used. As 5 1 3=3 5 the stress-strain relationship D1 D19 of SFRC, as the relationship currently being proposed by the JSCE (2) does not take D19 D19 into account the confinement D1 effect of hoop ties, the Side A relationship for this investigation was obtained by inserting values that take (Unit: mm) into account the confinement effect of hoop ties as adopted Fig. 1 Configuration and cross-section of control specimen in Highway Specifications 6 7 5= =15 Side D =3 5 Side B
3 Table 1 Attributes of control specimen Section size Width height (mm) 4 4 Effective height (mm) 35 Shear span (mm) 14 Shear span ratio 4 Main reinforcement Diameter D19 Tensile reinforcement ratio pt 1.3 Steel type SD345 Hoop tie Diameter D1 Spacing s (mm) 15 Volumetric ratio of lateral confinement ρs.63 Steel type Axial force (N/mm 2 ).1 SD345 Table 2 Cross sections studied and their parameters Ordinary concrete (f c=33 [N/mm 2 ]) Ordinary reinforcement (SD345) SFRC (f c=33 [N/mm 2 ]) Ductal (f c=2 [N/mm 2 ]) High-strength reinforcement (SD785) D1 (s=15 ) D1 (s=15) D1 (s=15) D1 (s=15) High ratio of hoop ties ρ s=.63% Loading direction D19 D19 D19 D19 No.1 1 No. 2 D1 (s=15 ) No. 3 D19 1 D19 D1(s=15) No.3-2 Note 1) The center of Specimens No. 7, No.8 is ordinary concrete. Note 2) Unit: mm Low ratio of hoop ties ρ s=.1% D6(s=42 ) D19 No.4 No.7 No.8 D6 (s=42) D6 (s=42) D6(s=42) D19 D19 D19 No.5 No.6 No. 6-2 For all specimens,: H B = 4 4[mm], shear span: 14[mm], shear span ratio: 4., main reinforcement ratio: ρ t =1.3[%]
4 into the JSCE equation shown in Equation (1) below. As for Ductal, taking a similar approach, the relationship was obtained by assuming an equation that adds the confinement effect of hoop ties to the existing experimental results of Ductal. = f ck ε c /.2(2-ε c/.2) (1) σ c (ε c.2) f ck (-ε c /.24+13/12) (ε c >.2) where, σ c = Stress of plain SFRC f ck = Compressive strength of plain SFRC ε c = Strain of plain SFRC σ[n/mm 2 ] Ordinary concrete (HS equation) SFRC (JSCE equation) Ductal (experi. value) ε[µ] Fig. 2 Stress-strain relationship(ρs=.63%) Fig. 3 Ductility factor at each cross-section of specimens Table 3 Results of calculation No.1 No.2 No.3 No.4 No.5 Pu (kn) (kn) δu (mm) (mm) µ Shear failure 7. No.6 No.7 No.8 No.3-2 No.6-2 Pu (kn) (kn) δu (mm) (mm) µ Table 4 Parameters of specimens Specimen No No.1 No.2-1 No.2-2 Concrete type RC SFRC SFRC Mix ratio of steel fiber (Vf) 1 1 Axial force (N/mm 2 ) Ductility factor (µ) Section No.
5 The stress- strain relationships thus obtained are shown in Fig. 2. Table 3 shows the calculation results of deformation capacity that were obtained using these stress-strain relationships. Figure 3 shows the ductility factors at each cross-section. As known from the results of Specimens No. 2, 5, 7, addition of 1% SFRC can largely increase the deformation capacity. Further, Specimens No. 3, 6, 8 made of Ductal could increase the ductility factor about six-fold although their strengths remained roughly identical to those of other specimens. Specimens No. 3-2, 6-2 made of Ductal and containing high-strength reinforcement were found to have two-fold strength, in addition to fix-fold ductility factor. 3. Reversed loading test 3.1 Outline of the experiment As shown in Fig. 1, the specimen is a 1/8 scale model of an ordinary single column pier. The square-cross section is 4 4 mm and the height from the column bottom to the column top is 16 mm. Horizontal load was applied at the position 14 mm high from the column bottom and the shear span ratio was 4.. D19 was used as the main reinforcement. The tensile reinforcement ratio (pt) in the axial direction was 1.3%. As the hoop ties, D1 was arranged at a spacing of 15 mm. The volumetric ratio of lateral confinement (ρs) was.63%. All the specimens were designed to fail by bending. Three types of specimens were prepared which differed in the concrete type and the axial force, as shown in Table 4. Steel fiber with both ends hooked was used because it has a good adhesion ability. The mixing ratio of steel fiber was 1% (volumetric ratio). In consideration of the plastic hinge length, SFRC was applied to the section up to 7 mm from the column bottom and the remaining section of the column was constructed of ordinary concrete. Reversed loads were applied by the load-control method up to the bending yield load that was calculated using a real strength. After reaching the yield load, load was applied by the displacement-control method. Namely, load was applied at each integral multiple of the yield displacement. Load was applied only once at each loading steps in a reversed manner. Here, positive loading means to apply load to Side B of a specimen and negative loading means to apply load to Side D, as shown in Fig. 1. As the vertical load, a uniform axial load of 1. N/mm 2 was applied to Specimens No. 1, No No vertical load was applied to Specimen No. 2-1.
6 Concerning Specimen No. 2-2, due to a handling error during the initial loading stage, a displacement of 3 δy was abruptly reached before a clear yield displacement was identified. But, no damage such as buckling occurred at the column bottom on Side B, although horizontal cracks appeared on Side D which was the tensile side. Therefore, load was again applied up to the design yield load by the load-control method and after that the load was applied by the displacement control method by taking the yield displacement as the basis for determining loading steps. 3.2 Experimental results a) Failure pattern Figure 4 shows cracks observed on all sides of specimens at the end of experiment. Figure 5 shows damage at the column bottom which was obtained by removing the cover concrete after the end of experiment. In Specimen No. 1 which was made of ordinary concrete, cracks appeared on the tensile side of Sides B, D at the initial stage of loading and then horizontal cracks on Sides A, C developed into diagonal cracks. At the end of experiment, cover concrete was found to have fallen in a large scale at the positions of diagonal cracks. In contrast, in Specimen No. 2-2 whose column bottom was made of SFRC, horizontal cracks occurred densely and the crack size was also small compared with that of Specimen No. 1. Also, no significant fall of cover concrete occurred in this specimen because it was retained in place by steel fiber. As for the damage to the column bottom, in Specimen No. 1, 28% of core concrete was smashed into pieces and the cross-section was largely lost. Further, diagonal cracks penetrated into the remaining part of concrete. Because of this, the core concrete was unable to resist compressive force and all the main reinforcements buckled. In contrast, Side D Side A Side B Side C Side D Side A Side B Side C a) Specimen No. 1 b) Specimen No. 2-2 Fig. 4 Cracks at the end of experiment
7 in Specimen No. 2-2, although about 7% of core failed on Side B, no marked damage occurred other than this. Also, only the main reinforcements arranged on Sides B, D (loading sides) buckled and one of them on Side B fractured. b) Load-displacement relationship Figure 6 shows relationship of horizontal force vs. horizontal displacement. As mentioned earlier, the yield load was not clear identified in Specimen No. 2-2 because a displacement of 3 δy abruptly occurred during loading by the load-control method. Because of this and because the load-deformation development in the positive loading direction was nearly identical to that of Specimen No. 1, the load-displacement relationship of Specimen No. 2-2 was corrected up to 3δy using the hysteresis loop of Specimen No. 1. The three specimens, No. 1, 2-1, 2-2, did not show any conspicuous difference at the initial loading stage as well as under the maximum load condition. However, after passing the maximum load, a marked difference occurred in the displacement that can carry the maximum load. In Specimen No. 1, displacement of only up to 53 mm could Specimen No Displacement (mm) a) Specimen No. 1 Load (kn) Load (kn) Side D Positive loading Negative loading Side C Side B Side D Reinforcem ent buckled Reinforcem ent fractured Area of concrete failure Side C Side B Side A Side A a) Specimen No. 1 b) Specimen No. 2-2 Fig.5 Damage to the column bottom at the end of experiment Specimen No Specimen No Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm) b) Specimen No. 2-1 c) Specimen No. 2-2 Fig.6 Relationship of horizontal force vs. horizontal displacement Load (kn)
8 carry the maximum load. Whereas, in Specimen No. 2-2, the displacement that could carry the maximum load was 78 mm, 1.5 times greater, because of the application of SFRC. When loading was continued, main reinforcement in Specimen No. 1 buckled and the load decreased abruptly. In contrast, in Specimen No. 2-2, the load decreased gradually even though the main reinforcement buckled, and the experiment was ended with the fracture of main reinforcement on the tensile side. From the comparison of specimens, it is known that load decrease due to buckling of main reinforcement after reaching the maximum load is gradual and displacement is greater in the specimen using SFRC. The reason why the deformation capacity of Specimen No. 2-1 was not as good as that of Specimen No. 2-2 was probably that dispersion of steel fiber was not good in the former specimen and localized failure occurred as a result. c) Hysteretic energy absorption Figure 7 shows hysteretic energy absorption at each loading step. In Specimen No.1, a maximum energy absorption of 2 kn m was reached at the displacement of 6 mm and then it dropped abruptly. Whereas, in Specimen No. 2-2, energy absorption reached a maximum of 25 kn m at the displacement of 85 mm and then reduced gradually. In Specimen No. 2-2, the maximum energy absorption was 2 kn m, the same with that of Specimen No. 1, even under the maximum displacement. When cumulative energy absorptions of each specimen are compared, Specimen No. 1 was about 1 kn m, but Specimen No. 2-2 was 21 kn m, approximately two times that of the former specimen. This indicates that Specimen No. 2-2 is excellent in hysteretic energy absorption. d) Comparison of experimental and calculated results Figure 8 compares the envelopes of each specimen that were obtained from experiment and calculation. Table 5 shows the displacement and ductility factor. The ultimate state of experiment shown in the table is the state that the load has decreased to the initial yield load obtained by calculation. The ductility factor obtained by experiment was 8.2 for Specimen No. 1, 7.8 for Specimen No. 2-1, and 12.6 for Specimen No These values were far greater than those obtained by calculation, which were 3.5, 6.9, and 6.6, respectively. It is known that both Specimens No. 1 and No. 2-1 have a ductility factor about two times the calculated value. The area circled by an envelope in experiment and the area circled by a bilinear model in calculation show the amount of energy absorption in each case. They are also shown in Table 5.
9 ulgedrangebuckledrangm easurem Experimental results Calculated results ent(l2)bspecimen No. 1Section No. 1 Specimen No. 2-1 Section No. 2-1 Specimen No. 2-2 Section No Specimen No Specimen No Specimen No Displacement (mm) Displacement (mm) Fig. 7 Hysteretic energy absorption at each loading step Fig. 8 Comparison of envelopes Table 5 Comparison of deformation capacities Specimen No. 1 Specimen No. 2-1 No. 2-2 Exper. Calcu Exper. Calcu especimen Exper. Calcu First yielding Ultimate state Ductility factor Energy absorption (Unit: mm, kn m) Loading direction Digital camera Hysteretic energy absorption (kn m) Load (kn) ephoto 2 Image analysis of cover concrete Photo 1 Setting of digital cameras Photo 2 Image analysis of cover concrete
10 According to calculation, it was assumed that energy absorption would increase two-fold, from 3.7 kn m in Specimen No. 1 to 7.5 kn m in Specimen No But, the energy absorption obtained by experiment increased 1.6 times, from 12.2 kn m in Specimen No. 1 to 19.1 kn m in Specimen No. 2-2, a tendency roughly identical to that of calculation. e) Buckling During loading, digital images of damage development on the loading sides, B and D, were captured by installing a digital video for Specimen No. 1 and a digital camera for Specimen No As seen in Photo 1, a digital camera was set on each side of B and D. Using the images obtained, bulging of the cover concrete was measured. In this measurement, the range of bulge means the height from the column bottom to the position at which a bulge occurred. The volume of bulge means the horizontal length up to the position of reinforcement buckling. An example of measurement is shown in Photo 2. Measurement of bulge was performed as follows. i) Using the photo of a column which is not bulged, the horizontal length from the center of the column to the end of cover concrete (L1) is measured. ii) Using the photo of the column that has bulged, the horizontal length from the center of the column to the maximum point of bulge (L2) is measured. The difference of L1 and L2 is the volume of bulge. Figure 9 shows the range of bulge measured at the column bottom of Side B under loading and unloading conditions. In Specimens No. 1, No. 2-2, bulging began to appear when the horizontal displacement became no longer able to sustain load. In Specimen No. 2-2, the range of bulge which was 23 mm when the displacement was 72 mm expanded up to about 29 mm at the time of maximum displacement. This way, the buckling length is determined at the time of load decrease, but even after that the buckling length expands slightly. The buckling lengths measured at the end of experiment, namely, 367 mm for Specimen No. 1 and 323 mm for No. 2-2, were roughly identical to the lengths obtained from image analysis. Figure 1 shows the volume of bulge that was measured on Side B under loading and unloading conditions. Bulging appeared after the displacement reached a point when it could no longer sustain load, namely, at a displacement of 54 mm for Specimen No. 1, and 72 mm for Specimen No After that, as loading continued, the volume of bulge expanded. In particular, in the case of Specimen No. 1, the volume of bulge was 25 mm when the displacement was 73 mm which was immediately before the abrupt decrease of
11 load occurred, but then the bulge increased to as much as 62 mm when the displacement became 81 mm. This indicates that the volume of bulge increases greatly if the load decreases abruptly. In Specimen No. 2-2, such a significant increase in bulge was not seen and it increased gradually. This suggests that the range of bulge of the cover concrete due to buckling of main reinforcement expands at one time, but that the volume of bulge continues to expand gradually as loading advances. It can be said that both the range and volume of bulge are correlative with the decrease and increase of load. Loading No.1 Unloading No.1 5 End of experiment No.1 Loading No.2-2 Unloading No.2-2 End of experiment No.2-2 Loading No.1 Unloading No.1 End of experiment No.1 1 Loading No.2-2 Unloading No.2-2 End of experiment No.2-2 Bulged range (mm) Bulged volume (mm) Horizontal displacement (mm) Fig. 9 Comparison of bulged ranges at the column bottom (Side B) Horizontal displacement (mm) Fig. 1 Comparison of bulged volumes at the column bottom (Side B) Conclusions The following conclusions were drawn from the calculation using existing equations and from the experiment using reversed loading. 1)From calculation, it was found that the deformation capacity can be greatly increased by the application of SFRC or Ductal to piers. Therefore, it can be said that they are effective for the improvement of deformation capacity. 2)From the reversed loading test on three specimens, it was found that, if SFRC is used at the plastic hinge section of a pier, the ultimate displacement will be improved about 1.5 times that of a pier constructed of reinforced concrete. Hence, it can be said that if SFRC is applied only to an important localized area of a pier, rational improvement of deformation capacity will be enabled.
12 3)It was found that, if SFRC is applied, the absorption of hysteretic energy at the end of experiment would increase more than two-fold, which indicates an excellent energy absorption capability of SFRC. 4)From the analysis of digital images, it was found that the width of bulge due to buckling of main reinforcement increases significantly as loading advances. References [1]Road Association of Japan: Highway Specifications and Commentary, V Seismic Design, pp , 22.3 [2]Concrete Committee of JSCE: Concrete Library Guidelines for the Design of Column Members Constructed of Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete (Tentative), pp. 3-24, 1999.
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