Assessing the size of lack-of-fusion imperfections in MIG/MAG welds using Computed Tomography
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1 Assessing the size of lack-of-fusion imperfections in MIG/MAG welds using Computed Tomography M. Jovanović (1a, M. Uran (1, D. Zuljan (1b, D. Jovanović (2c 1) Welding Institute of Slovenia, Ljubljana, Slovenia, 2) High Technical School, Zrenjanin, Serbia a) b) c) Keywords LoF, MIG/MAG, imperfection, computed tomography 1. Introduction In the first issue of the EN ISO 25817:1992[1] standard, 401 (LoF) imperfections were unacceptable in B-class and C-class welds. They were permitted in D-class welds, but only if intermittent and not breaking the surface. That issue of the standard did not, however, make any distinction between surface and internal imperfections. In the 2003 and 2014[2] issues of the EN ISO 5817 standard, surface imperfections of the 401 type are not acceptable in any of the weld quality classes. As an internal imperfection, lack of fusion is permitted in D-class welds, but only in cases of short imperfections (the condition being h 0.4s for BW and h 0.4a for FW). The term micro-lack of fusion (Micro LoF) is being introduced; such imperfections are only detectable through microscopic assessment and are permitted for weld classes C and D, but not for the B class welds. In practice, most lack-of-fusion imperfections are encountered in the weld interior. Due to their position (at the groove-face or between the weld runs), the detection of such discontinuities in the material using the classical non-destructive testing methods (radiography, ultrasound) is very limited. In both cases, we only see the LoF in projection, which makes establishing its actual dimensions difficult. It is therefore impossible to determine the resulting reduction in the loading capacity of the welded joint affected by the LoF. Using a macro- or microscopic metallographic specimen only allows determining the LoF size in one cross-section and in a single dimension - its height (h). We can acquire more information about the actual size of the LoF through the use of advanced ultrasound techniques the Phased Array and the TOFD, which can show internal defects in multiple projection planes. However, these two techniques do not enable visualising the weld imperfections in 3D, either. We were therefore interested in assessing the capabilities of Computed Tomography (CT); a modern, radiography-based NDT technique [3]. 2. Content Initially, the CT method was only used for plastics, ceramics, and composite materials, but it has recently began to be used for the inspection of metallic materials as well. The field of application is primarily the castings and resistance-welded joints in the automotive industry [4]. Given the nature of the existing research, we were interested in the capabilities of this method with respect to detecting defects in the interior of MIG/MAG welds, particularly the planar defects the LoF-imperfections. The first step was to ensure the presence of LoF-imperfections in the welds. The workpieces were fabricated using the MIG/ MAG welding method; the large amount of energy delivered into the weld with this method increases the probability of LoF-imperfections occurring in the weld. The material being welded is low-carbon steel, with the welding performed slowly; low welding speed is the main cause of LoF-imperfections. In order to obtain LoF-imperfections of varying shapes and sizes, we used three different shielding gases. We filmed the welding process with a high-speed camera in order to determine the mechanism and the causes for the formation of LoF-imperfections. Once the welding was complete, we performed a classical X-ray radiographic examination of the welded plates to confirm the presence of LoF-imperfections in the weld interiors. LoFimperfections were confirmed to be present in all the welds. Afterwards, suitably dimensioned samples were cut out of the workpieces and subjected to computed tomography inspection. The inspection results consisted of tomograms in three projections; 3D visualisations of the LoF-imperfections were then generated from the tomograms using the Avizo and Meshlab software programs. With the help of these programs, the following geometric parameters of the imperfections were derived from the tomograms: volume, length, height and width; we used these parameters to compare the different forms of LoF-imperfections distributed along the length of the welds. 3. Experiments 3.1. Welding The welds were made using the MIG/MAG method, using three different shielding gas mixtures: 18% CO 2-82% Ar, 100% CO 2 and 50% Ar - 50% He. We used hot-rolled low-carbon S235JR steel sheet of 8 mm thickness throughout the investigation. The welding position was PA (flat). To make sure that the conditions were as realistic as possible, we cut a symmetrical groove into the sheet metal; its dimensions are shown in figure 1. At the same time, we avoided having to perform the root pass and the back seal weld. The welding plate dimensions were 300 x 150 mm. For the power supply we used an Iskra 550 SW rectifier combined with a WF 500/4 wire feeder connected to the welding torch. For the filler metal we used VAC 60 welding wire of 1.2 mm diameter. The welding process was automated, with the welding torch stationary and the workbench movable. The filler metal selected year XXIV, no. 4/
2 was the VAC 60 welding wire produced by Elektrode Jesenice (G3Si1 according to EN ISO [5]). The welding torch was fixed during the experiments. The welding torch inclination was in the pushing direction, at an angle of 74. Figure 1. Preparation of gap for welding Welding recording with high speed camera By using the high-speed camera, we aimed to record the motion of the molten pool and therefore determine the possible causes and mechanisms for the formation of LoF-imperfections in a weld joint. Since welding is a very dynamic and rapid process, the high-speed camera is one of the few tools that enable on-line monitoring of physical phenomena that occur during welding. We were particularly interested in the interaction between the welding arc, the droplets of molten filler metal, the moving molten pool and the base material in the groove. We used an Olympus i-speed 3 high-speed camera equipped with a 105 mm macro lens during the experiments. The recording was done at 2000 frames per second. The sensor resolution was 1280x1024 at a pixel size of 21 µm. The recording system also included a controller display unit (CDU), a laser for the illumination of the recording area, a laser control unit (LCU) connected to the laser and a laptop that was connected to the LCU. A high energy source (HES) was used to power the laser. We recorded the groove welding process in three samples. The data was obtained in the form of video recordings. To process and analyse the data, we used the dedicated i-speed Viewer software program. In particular, the analysis gave us an insight into the motion of the molten pool and the way the droplets of the filler metal drop into the molten pool. their density, that is, their absorption. Depending on the intent and the goal of the investigation, the tomogram assessment may be performed based on volumetric data (visualisation, examination) or based on a section (geometric measurements) [7]. The creation of 3D images using the microfocus computed tomography begins with the acquisition of two-dimensional segment projections that are generated by gradually rotating the object of inspection inside a conical beam of X-ray radiation. The rotation is performed gradually, with a step angle of somewhat less than 1, until a full 360 rotation has been performed. The segment projections consist of position data and the data on the absorption density inside the sample [8 10]. The data collected is used for a numerical reconstruction of spatial data. The reconstruction itself is performed using a three-dimensional, filtered segment projection (Feldkamp s algorithm) [11]. In our own research, it was especially important to obtain an insight into the spatial characteristics of the LoF-imperfections affecting the joint. Figure 2. Computed tomography system (CT). Micro XCT-400 [Xradia] Radiographic testing The welded plates were imaged using a BALTEAU SPOT GFD 165 X-ray radiography machine, in accordance with the EN 1435 [6] standard, table B.3, using the following parameters: FFD distance: 600 mm; Current intensity: 4 ma; Voltage: 150 kv; Duration of exposure: 60 s; Film: Kodak T 200, C4 class. The film development was automated, performed using a Colenta RDM8-2/SO processing machine. The blackening (optical density) of the film was 2.5. The image quality is W Computer tomography Classical radiography s limitations include the resolution of the details on the radiograph films and the two-dimensional representation of a spatial imperfection. The method of computed tomography overcomes both of these limitations; instead of acquiring a single image, it performs a series of projections at different angles by rotating the object of inspection inside an X-ray beam. The result of the examination is a tomogram, which includes spatial information and is generated from a series of individual images. The tomogram captures the spatial composition of the object, allowing us to distinguish materials according to Figure 3.Interior equipment of CT system Micro XCT-40. Previous NDT methods could only give a clear indication of their presence (an ultrasonic A-scan) or whether they are continuous or intermittent (a radiogram in an x-ray examination). The reason for that is the planar nature of the LoF-imperfections. In these imperfections, the third dimension is nearly absent [12, 13]. It is, of course, present in the microscopic sense [14]. Three welded plates were selected for the investigation; they were all welded with the same welding speed (2.3 mm/s), but each of them used a different shielding gas mixture. Due to the 20 year XXIV, no. 4/2015
3 limited radiative power available in the CT method, samples in the form of 120 mm rods had to be cut out of the plates. The width of the samples corresponded to the width of the weld faces. The thickness was the base material thickness plus the weld face protrusion. The samples were then subjected to computed tomography imaging. We used the Micro XCT-400 CT system manufactured by Xradia (Figure 2). The system consists of a 150 kv microfocus X-ray tube and a 16-bit detector, with an achievable voxel size of 26.8 μm (figure 3). In imaging the test samples we used a tube voltage of 150 kv and a current intensity of 67 μa. The achievable detail resolution is 50 μm. The X-ray tube power is 10 W. 4. Results 4.1. Analysing the causes for LoF formation using a high-speed camera recording By observing the movement of the molten pool, we found that the molten pool is overtaking the arc, regardless of the shielding gas choice. The reason is the low welding speed (2.3 mm/s). The low welding speed prevents the arc from melting the base material directly; instead, the arc hits the pool of molten metal. The molten metal is therefore heated both by the arc and by the droplets of the filler metal. Heating the molten metal this way leads to the melting of the groove faces and of the lower edge of the groove in the base material, with which the pool is in direct contact. The video recordings mostly provide insight into the melting of the groove faces. Analysing the welding using Ar-He shielding, we discovered that the droplets falling into the molten metal pool can be classified into two types. The first type are spherical, with a diameter of 1.5 mm, while the second type are ellipsoidal, with the long-axis measurement of 4 mm. When the droplet breaks off and falls into the pool, the molten metal waves heavily. The measured distance between the wire tip and the pool fluctuates between 6.6 mm and 8.4 mm. Waves in the molten metal melt the groove faces; this is seen on the video recordings as a narrow bright area near the edge of the pool. We have observed that part of the material between the groove face and the lower edge of the groove remains unmelted. This area is shown in figure 4. A similar thing happens when using CO 2 for shielding. The maximum droplet diameter is 2 mm, but the waves in the weld pool are more pronounced. The minimum distance from the wire tip is 4 mm, and the maximum is 9 mm. The area between the groove face and the lower edge of the groove remains unmelted in this case as well. When welding using the Ar-CO 2 gas mixture, we found that the fluctuation of the molten metal is fairly mild. Due to how static the molten metal was, we could not detect any moltenthrough and/or unmelted areas on the groove side. As when using the Ar-He mixture, the droplets were spherical, with a diameter of 1.4 mm, or ellipsoidal, with the long-axis measurement between 2 mm and 3 mm. Unlike in the previous two cases, there were no noticeable bright moltenthrough areas at the edge of the molten pool Determining the size of the LoF-imperfections using computed tomography (CT) Using the computed tomography method, we obtained images of the welds containing the LoF-imperfections in three projections. In all three samples the non-contiguous LoFimperfections consist of individual linear pores. These pores vary in shape and dimensions, both between individual samples and within a single individual LoF in a sample. The geometric analysis of the LoF-imperfections consisted of measuring the volume (V), the length (LZ), the height (HZ) and the width (WZ) of an LoF. The volume of individual pores was established using the AVIZO software tool. The rest of the dimensional Figure 4. Pictures made by high speed camera during welding with Ar-He shielding gas. Upper picture shows unmelted parent material in gap with 3x magnification and bellow with 8x magnification. Figure 5. LoF geometric parameters. measurements were performed using the MeshLab_64bit v1.3.4 BETA software. The HZ height is measured in the groove face plane, while the WZ width is measured in the plane perpendicular to the groove face (Figure 5). year XXIV, no. 4/
4 The results of the measurements have been obtained by measuring the tomograms (Figure 6) and are presented in the tables that follow. Table 1 contains the results for weld 00. The LoF consists of 14 different pores in total, arranged linearly. Their total volume is mm 3. The individual pores are 5 8 mm in length, but the majority are shorter than 1.5 mm. Their total length is 29 mm, which represents 25% of the sample length. The heights of the LoFimperfections are in the mm range. HZ sr = 0.68 mm. The widths of the LoF-imperfections are in the mm range. WZ sr = 0.35 mm. Table 2 contains data on the geometric values of the LoFimperfections in sample 47. The pores dimensionally resemble those in sample 00. In this case there are 21 in total. Their total volume is mm 3. The larger pores are 3 5 mm in length, but the majority are shorter than 1 mm. The cumulative length of all the LoF-imperfections is mm, which is similar to sample 00. The heights of the LoF-imperfections are in the mm range. HZ sr = 0.41 mm. The widths of the LoFimperfections are in the mm range. WZ sr = 0.26 mm. In comparison with the previous sample, all the LoF-imperfections in sample 47 have smaller dimensions. Table 3 contains the LoF measurements for the weld no. 16. The total volume is mm3. Most of the LoF-imperfections (72%) are shorter than 1 mm in length. The total length of all the LoF-imperfections is mm. The heights of the LoFimperfections are in the mm range. The median value is 0.32 mm. The widths of the LoF-imperfections are in the mm range. The median value is 0.16 mm. Table 1. Geometric values for LoF in weld 00(ArCO 2 ). Ar-CO 2 Weld 00 V [mm 3 ] LZ [mm] HZ [mm] WZ [mm] S HZ sr = WZ sr = Table 2. Geometric values for LoF in weld 47(CO 2 ). Figure 6. LoF for three different specimens on CT tomograms. CO 2 - Weld 47 No. V [mm 3 ] LZ [mm] HZ [mm] WZ [mm] S HZ sr = WZ sr = In comparison with samples 00 and 47, the LoF-imperfections in this case are more numerous (59), but considerably smaller individually. The distances between them are likewise smaller. Their lengths (LZ) and heights (HZ) are also small. The total volume of all the LoF-imperfections is the same as in weld year XXIV, no. 4/2015
5 The total length of all the LoF-imperfections is 45% greater than in the other two welds. This length also represents 45% of the total length of weld 16. Calculating the median values of the LoF-imperfections for the individual samples, we find that LZsr(00) = 2.07 mm; LZsr(47) = 1.42 mm; LZsr(16) = 0.91 mm. This means that the LoF-imperfections in sample 00 are more elongated. Calculating the ratio between the height and the width of the LoF, the following values are obtained: HZ sr /WZ sr (00) = -1.94; HZ sr /WZ sr (47) = 1.58 in HZ sr /WZ sr (16) = 2.0. This means that the LoF-imperfections in weld 00 and weld 16 have similar notch-sensitivity on loading. In weld 47, this sensitivity is lower by 19% and by 21%, respectively. Figure 7 shows the volume distribution for individual LoFimperfections in all three welds. Most of the LoF-imperfections are lower than 0.2 mm 3 in volume. All the samples contain some LoF-imperfection with volumes between mm 3. In general, the largest LoF volumes are found in sample 00. Figure 8 shows the distribution of lengths for all the LoFimperfections in the three samples. In most cases (80%), the LoF-imperfections are less than 2 mm in length. The rest of the LoF-imperfections are 2 8 mm in length. The LoFimperfections are the longest in the 00 sample, the second longest in the 47 sample and somewhat shorter in the 16 sample. Figure 7. LoF volumes for welds 00, 16 in 47. Table 3. Geometric values for LoF in weld 16 (ArHe). Ar-He Weld 16 No. V [mm 3 ] LZ [mm] HZ [mm] WZ [mm] No. V [mm 3 ] LZ [mm] HZ [mm] WZ [mm] S HZ sr = WZ sr = year XXIV, no. 4/
6 Figure 9 shows the different heights of the individual LoFimperfections in the three samples. The height (h) of a LoFimperfection is the dimension specified in the standards concerning the level of acceptability with respect to the weld joint quality. Figure 8. LoF lengths for welds 00, 16 in 47. Figure 9. LoF lengths for welds 00,16 in 47. The ability to determine this dimension of a LoF represents the main advantage of the CT method over other NDT methods, or in comparison with taking a macro-/microscopic metallographic specimen of a weld section. The CT method enables the inspection of all LoF-imperfections and finding the largest height for an individual LoF. In our research, we labelled LoF height as HZ. As with the LoF lengths in figure 7, the LoF-imperfections with the greatest height are found in sample 00, while the average LoF heights in the other two samples are similar. 5. Conclusions - Due to the low welding speed, inter-run LoF-imperfections occur in the welds, taking the form of linearly elongated pores. - By recording the process with a high-speed camera, it was confirmed that the arc is directed into the molten metal pool during the welding. For this reason, there is no direct melting of the base material; instead, the arc and the droplets of filler metal heat the molten metal, which then melts the edges of the weld groove. In the samples 16(Ar-He) and 47(CO 2 ) the molten metal in the pool waves heavily, which affects the way the weld groove faces melt. This fluctuation is not detectable in the 00(ArCO 2 ) sample. This could probably be linked to the more pronounced LoF-imperfections in this sample, compared to the other two. - The shielding gases affect the form of the LoF. Depending on the type of gas used, the distribution of LoF-imperfections within the weld varies with respect to the shape and dimensions. When using the Ar-He mixture, the LoF-imperfections are the smallest and most numerous. The total volume of the LoFimperfections is the greatest when using the Ar-CO 2 mixture. The total length of the LoF-imperfections is the greatest when using the Ar-He mixture. With respect to the median length and height, again, the LoF-imperfections are most pronounced in the welds performed using the Ar-CO 2 mixture. - Computed Tomography (CT) is a very powerful tool for the analysis of internal imperfections in the welds, for example LoF-imperfections. This method, in combination with software tools, enables a very detailed analysis of geometric parameters of the imperfections and allows viewing the imperfections in multiple projections. The only limitation we can observe at this moment is the size of the inspection samples. References [1]. Standard EN ISO 25817:1992, Arc-welded joints in steel. Guidance on quality levels for imperfections (ISO 5817:1992) [2]. Standard EN ISO 5817:2014, Welding - Fusionwelded joints in steel, nickel, titanium and their alloys (beam welding excluded) - Quality levels for imperfections (ISO 5817:2014) [3]. Jovanović M., Kosec L., Zorc B., Examination of Weld Defects by Computed Tomography, Metalurgija 51, , [4]. Flisch A., Industrial Computer Tomography for 3D Data Acquisition and Defects Analysis, 46th International Foundary Conference 2006, Portoroz, Slovenia. [5]. Standard EN ISO 14341:2011, Welding consumables - Wire electrodes and weld deposits for gas shielded metal arc welding of non alloy and fine grain steels - Classification (ISO 14341:2010) [6]. Standard EN 1435:1998, Non-destructive examination of welds - Radiographic examination of welded joints [7]. Radiografic Testing, ASNT NDT Handbook; Third edition, [8]. Nondestructive Evaluation and Quality Control, ASME Handbook, Volume 17,1992. [9]. Sommerfeld D.: [ ] [10]. Sauerwein C., Simon M., 25 Years of Industrial CT in Europe, International Symposium on Computed Tomography and Image Processing for Industrial Radiology - Berlin, Germany, [11]. Xiao S., Bresler Y., Munson Jr. D.C., Fast Feldkamp Algorithm for Cone-beam Computer Tomography, [svetovni splet]. Dostopno na WWW: XiaBreMunICIP2003.pdf [ ] [12]. Rihar G. and Uran M., Lack of fusion characterisation of indications, Welding in the world, vol. 50, n 1/2, [13]. Jovanović M. et al., Analysis of Ultrasonic Indicaations in Lack of Fusion Occuring in Welds, ECNDT Berlin [14]. Jovanović M. et al., Influence of the type of a shielding gas on the shape and size of lack of fusion defects in MIG/MAG welding, Eurojoin 8, Pula Copyright IIW rd IIW SEENET Int. Congress Reproduced with kind permission of the IIW. 24 year XXIV, no. 4/2015
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