Design and Solidification Simulation of Exhaust Manifold Made of SiMo Ductile Cast Iron

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1 Design and Solidification Simulation of Exhaust Manifold Made of SiMo Ductile Cast Iron Vijay Gautam Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India. Nanak Ram Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India. Sahil Ahuja Department of Mechanical Engineering, Delhi Technological University, Delhi, India. Abstract: The demand for more environment-friendly vehicles with increased fuel efficiency has expanded the need for specialized materials like SiMo Ductile cast iron (high silicon and molybdenum) in various automotive castings. SiMo Ductile cast iron is a special material designed for high-temperature applications like exhaust manifolds, turbo charger housings used in automotives. These castings can perform and maintain dimensions for many thousands of cycles that can range from below freezing temperatures to those greater than 750 C. The present study deals with the solidification simulation of exhaust manifolds, four in numbers in sand moulds, made of SiMo Ductile cast iron using MAGMASOFT. A proper top gating system was designed with the help of the software to remove the hot spots responsible for shrinkage in the castings and consequently a sound casting was designed. A trial casting was successfully produced and the material was tested for microstructure and mechanical properties. Microstructural analysis revealed that trial casting consists of 79% Nodularity with 10% Pearlite and a maximum of 5% carbide. A series of uniaxial tensile tests were conducted on the specimens taken from the actual casting, and it was observed that the average tensile strength of the designed material is approximately 527MPa with 14% of uniform elongation. The hardness of the material varies from BHN for different specimens. Keywords: SiMo Ductile cast iron, exhaust manifold, gating system, microstructure, nodularity, tensile test, casting simulation, MAGMASOFT. I. INTRODUCTION The concerns related to the environment have been increasing which focuses the industry to use more environment-friendly vehicles with higher fuel efficiency, and this has increased the use of SiMo Ductile cast iron material which has high percentages of silicon and molybdenum. SiMo ductile cast iron is a versatile material and is widely used in automotive components manufactured by the sand casting method. This special material exhibits various advantageous characteristics including high tensile strength, fatigue strength and wear resistance [1]. Moreover, the castings of SiMo ductile iron can perform and maintain their dimensional accuracy for thousands of fatigue cycles that can range from below freezing temperatures to those greater than 750 C [2-3]. These properties also make these materials suitable for large turbine castings and many types of furnace applications. Ductile Iron containing higher silicon and molybdenum has been developed to meet the desired characteristics of oxidation prevention, growth resistance, and wear resistance at high temperatures. Increasing silicon content promotes the stability of the microstructure and properties at high temperature by forming a highly ferritic matrix structure, and by raising the austenite transformation temperature. SiMo Ductile Iron resistance to growth and oxidation is much improved, when compared to gray iron, because gray iron grows by graphitization and oxidation both, and also the nodular shape of graphite plays an important role. It is also more resistant to creep, which increases at higher stress levels and higher temperatures. In general, SiMo Ductile Iron has a silicon content of %. Increasing the silicon concentration above these levels improves resistance to scaling and increases yield strength, but lowers toughness and elongation [4]. Therefore, the material can be very brittle at room temperature with high silicon percentages. Mechanical properties are influenced by microstructure and solidification defects of the alloy. In ductile iron castings, major defects that negatively influence the material properties are correlated to graphite particles shape and dimensions in the thermal center of castings [2]. It usually has a ferritic structure which has higher ductility and toughness but may also contain pearlite and carbides (cause brittleness). Heat treatment is necessary to transform pearlite and carbides,

2 if present, to reduce the brittleness. The addition of molybdenum and other alloying elements may be needed to improve the serviceability and properties of the material at high temperature [5-6]. This material possesses excellent castability but at high pouring temperatures it necessitates the proper design of the gating system for sand mould with top pouring for production [7]. The design of gating and risering system is very important for obtaining a sound casting. It has been reported that 90-95% of the defects in the castings results only because of improper design of gating and feeding system [8-9]. Casting simulation necessarily reduces shop-floor trials to achieve the desired internal quality at the highest possible casting yield and hence saves time, labor, energy and money. Various casting simulation softwares are accessible today, such as CastCAE, MAGMA, Novacast, ProCAST, and SolidCAST. Most of these use Finite Element Method to discretise the domain and solve the heat transfer and/or fluid flow equations. The main inputs include the 3D CAD model of the mould cavity (which includes the part cavity, feeders, and gating system), thermo-physical properties (density, specific heat, and thermal conductivity of the cast metal as well as the mould material, as a function of temperature), boundary conditions (such as the metal-mould heat transfer coefficient, for normal mould as well as feed-aids including chills, insulation and exothermic materials), and process parameters (such as pouring rate, time and temperature). The results of solidification simulation include colour-coded freezing contours at different instants of time starting from beginning to end of solidification. This provides a much better insight of the casting phenomenon compared to shop-floor trials (real moulds being opaque).with the results obtained after the simulation, the user can verify if the location and size of feeders are adequate, and carry out iterations of design modification and simulation until satisfactory results are obtained [10]. Hassan et al. (2012)[11] studied the effects of gating system parameters such as filling pattern, pressure, and speed, cooling rate, solidification on casting related defects with the help of MAGMASOFT and optimized the design to achieve a sound casting of an impeller. The similar studies were done by Sun and Su (2008)[12] in magnesium alloy base castings. The present paper is focused on the design and optimization of the gating system for production of exhaust manifold by casting four number of castings simultaneously in one pouring. To achieve this MAGMASOFT is used and various designs of gating and risering are tried as iterations before reaching to the best one for a sound casting free from defects. SiMo Ductile iron is prepared by charge calculations, and a trial casting is prepared. The produced material is tested for various microstructural and mechanical properties to ascertain the correct chemical compositions, grain size, nodularity, nodule count, tensile properties, microstructure contents, and Brinell hardness number. II. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The research methodology adopted is discussed in detail as below. The entire research is carried out in different stages: design of feeder and gating system, numerical simulation by using MAGMASOFT based on Finite Difference Method (FDM) which relies on discretizing the domain of interest (mould, cast part, feeders, gating channels, feed aids, etc.) into small elements, applying the boundary conditions corresponding to each material and interfaces between them, and solving the differential equations for heat transfer followed by determination of material properties in as-cast component by conducting microstructural analysis uniaxial tension test as per the standard ASTM E8M, and hardness test. A. Preparation of the SiMo ductile iron The SiMo cast iron is prepared by melting steel scrap of cold rolled closed Annealed (CRCA) sheets with high purity pig iron containing high percentage of carbon in an induction furnace. Ferro silicon and molybdenum are added separately on charge calculation basis depending on the recovery of silicon and molybdenum. Inoculation is carried out as per the set procedures using Traditional inoculants which are based on ferrosilicon or calcium silicide. The purpose of inoculation is to aid in providing enough nucleation sites for the carbon to precipitate as graphite rather than iron carbide (cementite, Fe 3C). This is done by preventing under-cooling to temperatures below the meta-stable eutectic temperatures where carbide (white) structures are formed. The iron solidification mechanism is prone to form chilled iron structures when the inoculation is inadequate, and there are several reasons why chilled structures are undesirable. Chilled structures interfere with machining, necessitate additional heat treating operations, result in non-conformance with specifications and, in general, increase the total cost of production. The tundish cover ladle method is suitable for better magnesium recovery and was used in the present work for the production of SiMo cast iron. The use of a refractory dividing wall to form an alloy pocket in the bottom of the ladle gives an improved Mg recovery. It is essential that the Fe-Si-Mg alloy is not exposed to the liquid iron until quite late in the filling procedure, so the filling hole is positioned to introduce liquid iron away from the alloy pocket in the ladle bottom. The final chemical composition determined by spectroscopy test is given in Table 1.

3 TABLE 1. Chemical composition of the SiMo cast iron in wt% C 3.32 Si 3.37 Mn Cr 0.02 Ni Mo 0.65 the matrix of pearlite (10%) and ferrite (85%). The average grain size was measured as per standard ASTM E112 and the grain size number is 6. The Brinell hardness test is conducted as per the ASTM E10 standard, and the method consists of indenting the test material with a 5 mm diameter ball subjected to a load of 750 kgf. The full load is applied for a dwell period of 15 seconds on the specimen. The diameter of the indentation left in the test material is measured using powered microscope with a least count of 0.01 mm and Brinell hardness number (BHN) is determined to be in range of Cu P S Nb <0.004 Ti <0.051 B. Microstructure and hardness analysis The primary purpose of mounting sectioned specimens of SiMo cast iron was to have convenience in handling specimens of small size and thickness. A compression type semi-automatic mounting press was used to mount the specimens with the thermosetting resin (Bakelite) in a mold of 25mm in diameter. The mounting press was set at a temperature of 150 C and pressure of 290bar. A heating and cooling cycle of 5min was adopted to set the thermosetting resin completely. Generally, for polishing, grinding should start with a grit size of silicon carbide (SiC) enough to establish an initially flat surface. Therefore, an abrasive grit size of 220 was course enough to be used on the specimen surfaces sectioned by a diamond abrasive wheel. The grade (grit size) of emery papers used in the fine grinding sequence were in the ascending order of fineness i.e. grit sizes of 220, 320, 420, 600, 800, 1000 and The mounted specimens were finely polished with alumina of different grades which is the final step in producing the mirror like finish. The microscopic examination of mirror polished unetched specimen will only reveal a few microstructural features such as nodularity of graphite structures, nodule count, inclusions, porosity or cracks or some physical imperfections. Therefore, etching is used to reveal the grain boundaries clearly in the specimen. So, the specimens were etched with 3% Nital solution (3% Nitric acid + 97% Ethyl alcohol). The microstructure, shown in Fig. 1, clearly reveals the graphite spheroids in Fig. 1. Microstructure at a magnification of 200X revealing the nodules and grains C.Tensile testing of samples Tensile specimens were prepared as per ASTM A370 standard by machining and were tested on a 50kN UTM table top at a cross head speed of 2.5mm/min. One end of the specimen was held in the bottom grip which is stationery, and the other end was held in upper grip attached to the cross head mounted with a load cell of very high accuracy as shown in Fig. 2. A dedicated HORIZON software was used to acquire the load vs. elongation data. This data was further used to draw stress-strain plot, and the salient points were determined. The tensile tests were carried out thrice to capture the scatter in results.

4 the metal-mould heat transfer coefficient, for normal mould were fixed based on the guidelines of the material model. The process parameters such as an initial temperature of the melt (1420 C), feeding effectiveness of 70%, pouring rate, time and sand mould temperature (40 C) were set to complete the simulations. The results of solidification simulation include colour-coded freezing contours at different instants of time starting from beginning to end of solidification. This provides a much better insight into the phenomenon compared to shopfloor trials. III. Results and discussions Fig. 2. Tensile test in progress on a 50kN UTM D. Numerical simulation using MAGMASOFT A lot of information which is generated during casting simulation as discussed below is very useful for taking approximate corrective measures in the casting design, a lot of which would not be available when using conventional processes. To what extent this information can lead to a measurable improvement of casting design or process is depending on the level of integration of the simulation into development and manufacturing processes. E. Modeling of gating and feeding system First of all, a CAD model of exhaust manifold was created using SOLIDWORKS and then the model in STL format was imported to MAGMASOFT casting simulation software for designing of gating and feeding system. Once the part was imported, then mould cavity was made with parting line. The optimization of the feeding system was done in two iterations of simulations: 1. Designing with eight central risers and three side risers, 2. Designing with central runners and side risers. Design 1, resulted in an inadequate flow of molten metal into the cavity and thereby increasing the turbulence and hot spots in castings in the right side of the runner. Design 2 is a modification of the first one in which the flow is uniform in all the castings, and hence the hot spots are pushed to the risers to produce a sound casting.thermo-physical properties i.e. density (varying from 7100 to 6850 kg/m 3 depending on temperature 100 to 1480 C), specific heat (in the range of 469 to 850J/kg- K), and thermal conductivity (32 to 14 W/m-K) of the SiMo cast metal as well as the mould material as a function of temperature were put in the software. Material model was designed based on the required composition of the melt. Boundary conditions, such as A. Microstructure and hardness In SiMo cast iron, during magnesium treatment, the nodules of graphite nucleate on small inclusions of magnesium oxides and decides the nodule count. The growth of these nodules will take place by diffusion of C from the molten metal. Incidentally, after some time, these nodules ceases to grow further and gets surrounded by an austenite shell and further growth will occur by diffusion of carbon through the austenite shell. Since the diffusion of carbon is lower in austenite than in the liquid, the growth rate of the nodule decreases gradually. It is also observed that the growth rate for graphite nodules is lower now, therefore there will be a small number of nodules at the end of solidification. The nodularity is observed to be 79%, and the size of the nodule varies from 3μm to 5μm. Nodule count is found to be 287/mm 2. The micrograph shown in Fig. 1, clearly reveals the matrix of pearlite (10%) and ferrite (85%). The percentage of carbide is observed to be 5% max. Only. The average ASTM grain size number is 6. The hardness of the cast material varies from 210 to 228BHN. B. Solidification Simulation Simulation provides a magnitude of the result obtained for filling and solidification that allow designers, casting engineers and all people engaged in the casting process to make important decisions for improvements that need to be taken. Fig. 3 depicts the filling pattern of the moulds with design-1 of gating system. It is clearly observed that with this design the flow of material is intermittent and non-uniform leading to higher turbulence at various junctions. Turbulences in the melt should be reduced to avoid gas defects formed by entrapped air in the casting and flow velocities need to be consistent through ingates. Temperature distribution during solidification is shown Fig. 4. It is seen that some parts of the castings are with a low temperature of 1245 C which may lead to nondirectional solidification in those parts leading to casting defects.

5 Fig. 5. Mould filling in design-2 Fig. 3. Design-1 shows material flow in the sand moulds Fig. 6. Temperature distribution during solidification with design-2 Fig. 4. Temperature distribution with design-1 The desired direction of the molten metal flow into the cavity is meeting in design-2 as shown in Fig. 5. There is less turbulence in the molten material, and the filling of the cavity is almost uniform. In this design, the temperature distribution also shows that the highest temperature remains in the feeding system leading to directional solidification as shown in Fig. 6. Solidification simulation as shown in Fig. 7 depicts that all the hot spots are restricted to the risers which is a clear indication of directional solidification to produce defect free sound castings. This design of gating system employs thirteen risers in total. The volume contraction of metal during the solidification leads to shrinkage cavities and dispersed porosity depending on the alloy and the wall thickness of the casting. Heavy sections of the casting usually form a stable metal skin, whereas thin walls and especially the in-gate start to freeze quickly. For this reason, feeding can only be used as a compensation of the shortfall in volume if the in-gates are thicker than the wall of the casting, where further feeding is necessary. Fig. 7. Solidification Simulation with optimum design-2 To validate the simulation results, a trial casting is prepared in the sand mould with the guidelines following the gating system of design-2 as discussed above. Although the accuracy of these simulation results is limited to only 75%, the details of the simulation are very beneficial to produce a sound casting as shown in Fig. 8.

6 Fig. 8. A trial casting of exhaust manifold with runners and ingates IV. Conclusions The present paper discusses the design and optimization of the gating and rise ring system for an exhaust manifold by casting four number of castings simultaneously in one pouring using simulation software MAGMASOFT. The following conclusions are drawn on the basis of results: 1. The nodularity in the casting is observed to be 79% with nodule count of 287/mm 2 and the size of the nodule varies from 3μm to 5μm. 2. The percentage of carbide is observed to be 5% maximum. The average ASTM grain size number is 6, and the hardness of the cast material varies from 190 to 230BHN. 3. The microstructural analysis depicts 85% ferrite, 10% pearlite and less than 5% carbides in the matrix. 4. In the simulations, it is observed that with gating design-1, the flow of the metal is intermittent and non-uniform leading to higher turbulence at various junctions which may lead to non-directional solidification in those parts leading to casting defects. Hence, gating design-2 is better to produce sound castings. 5. A trial casting is prepared in the sand mould with the guidelines following the gating system of design-2. Although, the accuracy of these simulation results are limited to only 75%, the details of the simulation are very beneficial to produce a sound casting. of heavy section ductile iron castings. Procedia Structural Integrity, : p [3] Atzori, B., G. Meneghetti, and L. Susmel, Material fatigue properties for assessing mechanical components weakened by notches and defects. Fatigue & Fracture of Engineering Materials & Structures, (1 2): p [4] Beeley, P., 3 - Solidification 2 The feeding of castings, in Foundry Technology (Second Edition). 2001, Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford. p. 100-VIII. [5] Boettinger, W.J. and D.K. Banerjee, 7 - Solidification A2 - Laughlin, David E, in Physical Metallurgy (Fifth Edition), K. Hono, Editor. 2014, Elsevier: Oxford. p [6] IRON, D., Ductile Iron Society [7] Labrecque, C. and M. Gagne, Ductile iron: fifty years of continuous development. Canadian Metallurgical Quarterly, (5): p [8] Nimbulkar, S.L. and R.S. Dalu, Design optimization of gating and feeding system through simulation technique for sand casting of wear plate. Perspectives in Science, : p [9] Dabade, U.A. and R.C. Bhedasgaonkar, Casting Defect Analysis using Design of Experiments (DoE) and Computer Aided Casting Simulation Technique. Procedia CIRP, : p [10] Ravi, B. and D. Joshi, Feedability analysis and optimisation driven by casting simulation. Indian Foundry Journal, (6): p [11] Iqbal, H., et al., Mold design optimization for sand casting of complex geometries using advance simulation tools. Materials and Manufacturing Processes, (7): p [12] Sun, Z., H. Hu, and X. Chen, Numerical optimization of gating system parameters for a magnesium alloy casting with multiple performance characteristics. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, (1): p References [1] Chaengkham, P. and P. Srichandr, Continuously cast ductile iron: Processing, structures, and properties. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, (8): p [2] Borsato, T., et al., Effect of in-mould inoculant composition on microstructure and fatigue behaviour

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