Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)
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1 2 Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) EDM is a thermal material removal process in which material is removed by local melting or vaporizing small areas at the surface of workpiece. The EDM process removes material by controlled erosion of the material by repetitive electric sparks between the work and tool submerged in a dielectric medium. Russian scientist Lazarenko (1) studied the electric discharge for metal cutting application and developed spark erosion machine in EDM process has been in use since English scientist Priestly studied in detail the erosive action of electric discharges on metals in The heat energy is liberated by means of short duration electrical impulses, with a well-controlled feeding of the electrode tool. EDM finds its application in machining of hard metals which cannot be machined easily by conventional metal cutting processes. The products include dies, tools made of tungsten carbide, stellite, hard alloy steels, hastalloy, nimonic, etc. ing principle: The principle of working of EDM is based on the erosion of the material by repetitive sparks between the workpiece and the tool submerged in a bath of the dielectric medium. The working system is illustrated in Fig The workpiece and tools are two electrodes connected by D.C pulse generator. Electrode tool is a shaped tool of required profile to be cut on the workpiece. The workpiece and electrode are separated by a gap to establish a pulsated spark across which the dielectric fluid flows. The servo drive system maintains the spark gap for continuous operation with desirable feed of the tool. Classification of EDM process: Based on the type of tool electrode used and its area of application, EDM processes are classified as: 1. Sinking by EDM i. Drilling by EDM ii. Die Sinking by EDM
2 8 Thermal Metal Cutting Processes Capacitor Motor Generator Diode Fig. 2.3 Rotary pulse generator circuit. Power Supply + Vacuum Tube Capacitor Control Fig. 2.4 Vacuum tube pulse circuit. Fig. 2.4 shows a vacuum tube pulse generator circuit. A series of vacuum tubes are connected in parallel. The electronic control circuit turns on the tube and the condenser gets charged. This also enables the current flow to stop in case of a short circuit. vacuum tube circuits require high voltage and low current supply. Vacuum tube pulse generator circuits are further improved by using transistors in place of vacuum tubes. Present-day EDM machines adopt transistorized pulse circuits. They can give higher material removal rate with better surface finish and better dimensional tolerance. The frequency duration and intensity of spark discharges are better controlled with wider variations. Figure 2.5 shows a transistor circuit for pulse generator used in EDM. Switching is done in this circuit by an oscillator at a selected predetermined frequency without the capacitors. The oscillator is also controlled by the gap condition between the Oscillator + Control Dielectric Fig. 2.5 Transistor circuit pulse generator for EDM.
3 Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) 9 tool and work so that the transistors are put off when short circuited. Transistor pulse circuits are switched by low power square wave generators and allow independent on and off controls. Also, the system provides unidirectional square-wave pulses to the electrode tools. feed control: During EDM operation material will be removed from the workpiece and the electrode tool. This will increase the gap between the tool and the work. In order to maintain a constant gap and arcing voltage and to prevent short circuiting the tool must be fed properly with a feed control device. Rapid response of the system is essential with a low inertia drive. Any overshooting will close the arc gap causing short circuiting. Hence, it is required to have rapid reversing feed motion. Actuation of the control is derived from a signal obtained from an electrical sensor responding to gap voltage or working current or both. The schematic arrangement of servocontrol for tool feed is shown in Fig The gap between the electrode tool and the workpiece is critical. The feed of the tool is controlled by a servomechanism which automatically maintains a constant gap. During operation the capacitor is repeated at rate 50 khz and 500 khz with voltage between 50 V-380 V and current from 0.1 A to 500 A (7) (8). Servo Control Rectifier Current Control ( ) (+) Power Supply Fig. 2.6 Schematic arrangement of servocontrol for tool feed in EDM. The cutting power in EDM depends upon the relative voltage to which the capacitor is charged. If the arc gap is more than the optimum, the consequent reduction in frequency is not compensated for by an increase in energy per spark discharged thereby the power decreases. At shorter gaps the power decreases because the increased frequency is not sufficient to compensate for the reduction in stored energy. During EDM operation it will be difficult to ensure optimum conditions of gap setting as the power is increased because the dielectric medium will be contaminated with metal particle removed from the work and tool, and breakdown occurs at lower voltages.
4 10 Thermal Metal Cutting Processes The sparking and discharge in EDM can be improved by vibrating the tool electrode. If the tool electrode is vibrated, the gap between the tool and work opens and closes regularly and the discharge will not entirely depend on tool gap conditions. Discharge will take place when the tool is closer to the work and deionization of the dielectric happens when the gap is more to prevent discharge. The efficiency of vibrating tool electrode can be enhanced by synchronizing with the resonant frequency of the charging capacitance of the control system. The vibration frequency is of the order of 1000 Hz. The vibration type EDM is well-suited for roughing and metal deposition operations. Dielectric medium: The dielectric medium plays an important role in the working of the EDM process. The dielectric is usually a low viscosity hydrocarbon oil. The workpiece and electrode tool are separated by the dielectric. During operation the dielectric medium is ruptured when the tool and work gap is about 0.03 mm and at about 70 V, when the dielectric is ionized to form a column or path in the tool and work gap so that a surge of current takes place as the spark is produced. The spark discharge will be in a micro small area at around 10,000 C and thousands of atmospheric pressure and takes place in less than a micro second for each spark. A tiny part of work material vaporized due to the arc is expelled as the column of ionized dielectric vapour collapses. The tiny metal particles are cooled into small spheres and are swept from the area by the flow of dielectric fluid. Functions of Dielectric fluid: Essential functions of a dielectric fluid used in EDM process are: 1. Remain electrically non-conductive until the required breakdown voltage is attained, i.e., it should possess high dielectric strength. 2. When once the breakdown voltage is reached it should breakdown electrically instantly. 3. Deionize the spark gap, i.e., quench the spark rapidly after the discharge has occurred. 4. Carry away the metal particles removed from the arc gap. 5. Act as a good cooling medium. Desirable Properties of dielectric fluid: In order to act as a good dielectric medium and meet the various functions the fluid is required to possess the following properties: 1. High electric strength for proper insulation. 2. High flash and fire point to prevent fire hazards. 3. Low viscosity and good wetting properties 4. Chemically neutral to prevent corrosion. 5. Non-toxic in nature. 6. Low decomposition rate for long life. 7. Low cost 8. Good quenching properties.
5 Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) 11 Common dielectric fluids: The dielectric medium commonly used is a lowviscosity hydrocarbon or mineral oil. The different fluids used are kerosene, paraffin oil, transformer oil, lubricating oil, etc. Distilled water is also recommended when higher rates of material removal is desired. Kerosene is widely used as dielectric medium in EDM process. Table 2.1 gives the performance of different dielectric fluids used in EDM applications. From the table it can be observed that the wear ratio is low with kerosene as dielectric medium. The material removal rate is also low with kerosene. Distilled water gives higher material removal rate with least wear ratio. Tetraethylene glycol gives a very high MRR. The surface finish produced by water dielectric medium will be rough compared to other mediums. Table 2.1 Performance of different dielectric fluids in machining steel using brass tool. Sl. No. Dielectric fluid Material removal Wear ratio-work Rate cm 3 /amp min 10 4 material / tool material 1. Kerosene Distilled water Tetraethylene glycol The dielectric fluid must be filtered before reuse so that the metal removed from the workpiece and tool electrode is separated so that the performance is not affected during the process. Flushing of dielectric: Flushing refers to proper circulation of dielectric fluid at the gap between the work and electrode tool in EDM. The efficiency of the cutting process to a great extent depends on the flushing of dielectric fluid. Good flushing is essential to achieve good machining conditions in EDM. As the machining progresses the dielectric fluid gets contaminated with eroded metal particles and carbon particles resulting due to cracking of dielectric fluid due to heat. The contamination of the fluid reduces its insulation strength leading to early discharge of the spark. If the contamination becomes more than the permitted level, then in the tool and the work gap bridges are formed leading to short circuiting thereby damaging the tool and work surface. Proper flushing eliminates such bridges in the gap. The different methods of circulation of dielectric fluid for flushing in EDM are: 1. Pressure dielectric flow 2. Reverse dielectric flow 3. Vacuum dielectric flow 4. Vibration flush cut Fig. 2.7 illustrates the four different methods of flushing used in EDM.
6 12 Thermal Metal Cutting Processes Dielectric Topper Dielectric Out In In Dielectric (a) Pressure flow (b) Reverse flow (c) Vacuum flow (d) Vibration flush out Fig. 2.7 Different methods of flushing in EDM process. Pressure flow types is a widely used method used for flushing dielectric fluid in EDM. The fluid is forced through holes in the electrode to pass through the gap between the tool and the work. The fluid under pressure flushes out the solid particles and cools the work and tool electrode. In the electrode hole, a needle-like work material will be left off as shown in the figure. This is to be removed afterwards to get a clean machined surface. Reverse dielectric flow allows the flow of the fluid from outside the electrode tool from bottom. With the pressure dielectric flow and reverse dielectric flow there will be a taper formed at the mouth of the cavity formed as shown in the figure. Vacuum dielectric flow flushing produces straight holes as shown in the figure. Vacuum is created using a vacuum pump to draw the fluid around the tool electrode which passes through a central hole. This method will also leave a central needle-like work material which is to be removed afterwards to have a clean surface. In vibratory type of fluid flushing tool is vibrated to provide flushing action to the dielectric fluid. This method is used for very small tools that cannot accommodate a fluid passage for the flow of the dielectric fluid. This method is useful for deep hole drilling of small diameter. Electrodes: Any electrically conducting material can serve as an electrode tool in EDM. In EDM process the shape of the tool is transferred in the cavity cut during machining. Thus, the shape and accuracy of the machined surface will depend primarily on the shape and accuracy of the tool electrode. During cutting erosion takes place on both tool and workpiece. The wear ratio range from 5:1 to 100:1. The wear of the tool compared with the wear of the work, i.e., the material removed is referred to as wear ratio. The wear ratio depends on the physical and chemical properties of the tool and work material, dielectric fluid used and the operating conditions of the machining process. The melting point of tool and work material is found to affect the wear ratio of work and tool.
7 Electric Discharge Machining (EDM) 13 Wear ratio is given by: 2,3 W r = 2.25 M T Where, W r = /tool wear ratio M T = /tool melting point ratio. Wear ratio of work and tool reduces with increase in cross-sectional area of work and tool. But the wear ratio increases with higher cutting rate, in machining sintered hard metals, vanadium and molybdenum steels. Narrow deep sections with sharp corners results with higher wear ratio. wear can be minimized by reversing the polarity and using copper tools. EDM electrode tools are made by forming, casting, machining or by powder metallurgy. s as small as 0.1 mm diameter have been successfully used in EDM process. EDM tool material: The tool material used in EDM should possess high melting and vaporising temperature like graphite or high thermal conductivity like copper. It should possess other properties like ease of fabrication or shaping and resistance for wear. The cost is another consideration in the selection of material as a tool material for EDM. The main factors that determine the suitability of a material for application as electrode tool material in EDM are: 1. Higher metal removal rate 2. Lower tool wear 3. Higher degree of electrical efficiency Although any electrically good conductive material can serve as an electrode, considering the factors and properties essential for better application in EDM graphite has been widely used as tool material. Graphite possess a relatively low wear rate with a high degree of electrical efficiency and is relatively easy to fabricate and is of lower cost. A good isotropic grain structured graphite with fine grains possessing same current-carrying and wear characteristics in any direction make excellent electrode tool for EDM. Copper, copper-tungsten and brass are also extensively used as EDM tool material. Minimum tool wear condition can be obtained in EDM using graphite electrodes with frequency of about 3000 khz, 30 A power supply. A coating of steel on graphite electrode tool is given to control the actual wear of graphite tool. But, the no-wear machining condition produces a workpiece machined surface very much rough for most applications and a finishing cut is invariably needed. Different electrode tool materials used in EDM and their characteristics are given in Table 2.2. As the major operating factors of material removal rate, wear ratio and machining stability are dependent on power supply to the system the selection of tool electrode material is governed not only on the work material to be cut but also on the type of machine used (g). Although the electrode tool in EDM is designed as a mirror image of the shape and size of the work to be produced, a certain amount of clearance must be provided on the tool side to get the correct size of the work produced after machining. This is an important design consideration in designing the tool
8 14 Thermal Metal Cutting Processes Table 2.2 material used in EDM and their characteristics. Material Material Wear ratio Fabrication Cost Application Removal Rate Graphite High Low Easy High All metals Copper High in roughing Low Easy High All metals Brass High in finishing High Easy Low All metals Tungsten Low Low Difficult High For small holes Tungsten- Low Low Difficult High Accurate work Copper alloys Cast Iron Low Low Easy Low Restricted Steel Low High Easy Low Finishing Zinc Alloys High in roughing High Easy Low All metals electrode. The amount of clearance to be provided depends on the material removal rate, tool material and material of the work to be machined. It also depends on the nature of cut like roughing or finishing operation. In machining hardened steel with brass as tool material the side clearance to be provide is 0.25 mm, with duralumin the clearance will be 0.3 mm and for graphite electrode it will be 0.35 mm. With higher material removal rate (rough cut) the clearance to be provided is 0.5 mm, for medium rate it will be 0.3 mm and slow rate of cutting (fine surface) the clearance will be 0.05 mm. Process capability: The surface produced by electric discharge machining is by a number of small craters distributed over the surface due to sparks generated. The size of the crater, thereby the quality of the surface depends on the energy produced in the spark. If the energy is high, deeper craters are produced leading to poor surface finish. Melting point and latent heat of melting are two important properties which determine the volume of material removed for every discharge. The material removed per discharge will be normally in the range of 10 6 to 10 4 mm 3. As the process is a thermal process and is not a mechanical energy dependent process for material removal, the material properties like hardness, strength and toughness of work material will not influence the material removal rate. The frequency of discharge, the energy per discharge, the voltage and current is usually varied to control the material removal rate. The material removal rate and surface roughness increase with increase in current density and decrease in frequency of spark. With varying working parameters resulting with different energy density material removal rate in EDM vary over a large range from 2 to 400 mm 3 /min. Higher material removal rate produces rough cut surface with molten recast structure with poor surface texture and low fatigue properties. To get a good surface finish, finishing cut with low material removal rate or a separate finishing operation is essential to remove recast layer. As discussed earlier oscillating electrodes technique gives good surface finish.
9 16 Thermal Metal Cutting Processes voltage and affecting a number of controls leading to reduction in pulse energy. If the arcing continues the process is automatically stopped. 2. Adaptive control of off-time with arcless circuits in which gap deionisation is measured: Here triggering of the pulse ahead will be only after complete gap deionisation achieved by adaptive control of off-time. This control automatically eliminates arcing allowing the process to work at maximum pulse duty factor with stable machining conditions. This improves machining conditions to produce better surface. 3. Adaptive process reference selection control: With the circuit the gap is measured, varied automatically to a corresponding machining pulse efficiency till the optimum gap voltage is reached. This is because EDM machining will be most efficient at only one particular spark gap voltage condition. Also, the gain of the servo system is modified till the hunting is eliminated. This control system not only helps in making the machining process automatic, but also makes the process parameter selection easy. 4. Orbiting electrode holder: This is an accessory attached to the head of tool electrode holder which provides X- and Y-direction motion to the electrode in a controlled way. Circular, square, corner and uni-axial movements are provided with this attachment. Specially built-in controls help, in giving a variation in amplitude of motion with the feed of the electrode tool to get taper, parabola, undercut, etc, in machining. Fig. 2.8 illustrates typical shapes cut by using orbiting electrode holder in EDM process. The advantage is the use of simple shaped tool electrodes in getting different shapes like taper, bell-mouth opening, etc. Excellent accuracy can be achieved by controlling the feed by programming the controller computer in the CNC EDM machine. (a) Taper cutting (b) Thread cutting (d) Bell-mouthshaping Fig. 2.8 Typical shapes cut using orbiting electrode holder. Orbiting electrode technique is advantageous in cutting deep blind holes and cavities due to improved flushing. Same electrode can be used for both roughing and finishing operations. As there will be sufficient clearance between the electrode and cut surface tool wear dimension
10 18 Thermal Metal Cutting Processes (a) Circle (b) Square (c) Hexagon (d) Triangle Fig Pre-programmed shapes in CNC-EDM machines. Applications: A wide variety of tools, fixture components and dies are manufactured by EDM process. The process is applicable for a wide range of materials which include hard die tool steels to soft copper and heavy components like forging dies to delicate workpieces such as copper parts for fitting into vacuum tubes. The process is useful when repetitive shapes are required produced from a shaped electrode tool and when maching accuracy is important in workpieces which are already heat treated. EDM is finding a lot of applications in machining difficult to machine materials used in space industries, hard carbides, refractory metals and heat treated steels. It is also useful to cut workpieces that is too fragile to withstand the cutting force in conventional machining. Some of the items shaped by EDM for production applications and used in working conditions are: 1. Dies, fixtures, gauges 2. Cutting tools 3. Press tools, extrusion dies 4. Die moulds for plastics 5. Diecasting dies, mould inserts 6. Remachining, repairing of worn dies for hot and cold forging 7. Making forging dies like connecting rod forging dies, etc. 8. Sintering dies 9. Calibrating tools 10. Shaping carbide tools, templates. In making a die cavity, by conventional method many operations like milling, grinding, drilling and finishing operations are to be performed at different stages. Whereas by EDM process the same die cavity can be finished by a fewer stages like making the electrode tool and EDM machining, i.e., by faster cycle time. It reduces the machining requirements. Further, the process is economical even for one piece. The economical analysis reveals in majority of cases the cost of production of dies by EDM machining will be 50% less than the cost of manufacturing by conventional methods.
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