LANDOLT-BÖRNSTEIN. Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Naturwissenschaften und Technik. Neue Serie. Gesamtherausgabe: K.-H. Hellwege O.
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1 LANDOLT-BÖRNSTEIN Zahlenwerte und Funktionen aus Naturwissenschaften und Technik Neue Serie Gesamtherausgabe: K.-H. Hellwege O. Madelung Gruppe III: Kristall- und Festkörperphysik Band 17 Halbleiter Herausgeber: O. Madelung M. Schulz H. Weiss f Teilband c Technologie von Si, Ge und SiC W. Dietze E. Doering P. Glasow W. Langheinrich A. Ludsteck H. Mader A. Mühlbauer W. v. Münch H. Runge L. Schleicher M. Schnöller M. Schulz E. Sirtl E. Uden W. Zulehner Herausgegeben von M. Schulz H. Weiss f Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York Tokyo 1984
2 Table of contents Semiconductors Subvolume c: Technology of Si, Ge and SiC (edited by M. SCHULZ H. WEISS f) A Introduction (M. SCHULZ) 1 General remarks 1 2 Frequently used Symbols 2 3 Conversion of units 5 4 Abbreviations frequently used in semiconductor technology 6 B Technology of semiconductors 6 Tetrahedrally bonded semiconductors Silicon and germanium Technological data (A. MÜHLBAUER) Introduction Phase diagrams and liquidus curves Solubility in solid Si and Ge Equilibrium distribution coefficient Melt diffusion coefficient Evaporation rate Tetrahedral covalent radius Thermophysical properties Properties of liquid Si and Ge 19 References for Crystal growth Deposition of polycrystalline Silicon (W. DIETZE) Introduction Deposition technology Processes connected to deposition Deposition conditions Alternative processes Preparation and purification methods of Ge (W. DIETZE) Czochralski growth of Si and Ge (W. ZULEHNER) Introduction Czochralski pulling technique Starting materials Crucible materials Heating and furnace equipment Growth ambients Automatic control Recharging methods Czochralski pulling apparatus Impurity incorporation Oxygen incorporation Zone melting (A. MÜHLBAUER, subsection P. GLASOW) Introduction Silicon float-zone technology 41
3 X Table of contents Forces in a floating zone Doping of float-zone grown crystals Redistribution of impurities Faceting Growth of high purity germanium Unconvendonal Si crystallization techniques (M. SCHULZ, E. SIRTL) Directional solidification Mould casting Sheet growth Wafer preparation (W. ZULEHNER) Ingot preparation Slicing, lapping, and edge rounding Etching, polishing, wafer finishing 56 References for Characterization of crystal properties Properties of polycrystalline Silicon (W. DIETZE) Properties of Czochralski Silicon (W. ZULEHNER) Doping profiles Oxygen in CZ Silicon Impurities in CZ Silicon Lattice defects Properties of float-zone Silicon (A. MÜHLBAUER) Doping profiling Impurity striations Impurities Defects Properties of high purity germanium (P. GLASOW) Impurities in the starting material Impurities in purified Ge Diagnostic techniques (A. MÜHLBAUER, subsection P. GLASOW) Doping profiling Impurity and defect analysis Characterization - techniques for high purity germanium 82 References for Device technology Basic device structures (H. MADER, subsection P. GLASOW) Introduction Diodes Transistors Bipolar transistors MOS-transistors Thyristors Bipolar integrated circuits MOS-integrated circuits CMOS integrated circuits Nuclear radiation detectors 104 References for Diffusion (W. LANGHEINRICH under assistance of K. HABERLE) Introduction 118
4 Table of contents XI Diffusion coefficients Introduction of impurities by diffusion Properties of diffusion source material Diffusion in the System Si0 2 /Si Diffusion profiles Properties of masking layers Gettering 144 References for Ion implantation (H. RUNGE) Introduction Depth distribution of implanted ions Annealing Implantation of dopants in Si Implantation of dopants in Ge Useful formulas Range tables Evaluation of ion implanted layers Implantation apparatus 170 References for Nuclear transmutation doping (M. SCHNÖLLER) Introduction Nuclear transmutation Radiation defects Side reactions of neutron irradiation Irradiation exposure time Selection and preparation of the starting Silicon Neutron irradiation Radioactivity of the irradiated Silicon Annealing 189 References for Silicon epitaxy (A. LUDSTECK) Introduction Basic technology Scope of the data collection Properties of materials used in Si epitaxy Epitaxial Silicon growth Doping during epitaxy Low-pressure deposition Defects in epitaxial layers Evaluation of epitaxial Silicon films 207 References for Fabrication of layers (subsections , E. DOERING, L.SCHLEICHER) Introduction to insulating films Thermal oxidation of Silicon Modified thermal oxidation processes Chemical vapour deposition Evaporation Sputtering Anodization Properties of insulating films 225 References for Requirements on metal layers Metal deposition Properties of metals used for deposition Intrinsic properties of metal layers 610
5 Table of Contents Residual gas dependent properties of metal layers References for Litography (H. MADER) Introduction Resists Photolithography Electron-beam lithography X-ray lithography Ion-beam lithography 270 References for Etching processes (H. MADER) Wet etching Wet etching techniques Wet etching processes for pattern generation Wetetchants 282 References for Dry etching Ion etching processes Reactive dry etching processes Systems used for reactive dry etching Gases used in reactive dry etching 328 References for Final device preparation (E. UDEN) Survey of package groups Package components and materials Assembly methods Properties of packages 395 References for Silicon carbide (W. v. MÜNCH) Introduction Technological data Figures of merit for devices SiC phase diagram Solubility of carbon in Silicon Vapour pressure of silane Compounds Crystal growth Introductory remarks Melt growth Vapour growth Deposition of polycrystalline SiC Lely technique Characterization of crystal properties Polytype verification and crystal defects Electrical properties Luminescence Devices technology Introductory remarks General processing Steps Diode-(rectifier)-fabrication Field-effect transistor fabrication Light-emitting diode fabrication Diffusion Ion implantation Epitaxy 411
6 Table of contents Vapour-phase epitaxy (VPE) Liquid-phase epitaxy (LPE) 412 Thermal oxidation 412 Surface preparation Introductory remarks Gaseous etching Molten salt etching Electrolytic etching 414 Contact fabrication 414 References for Figures 590 ff ff. XIII
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