YIELD POINT PHENOMENA IN METALS AND ALLOYS

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1 YIELD POINT PHENOMENA IN METALS AND ALLOYS

2 Yield Point Phenomena In Metals and Alloys E. O. Hall Plenum Press NEW YORK

3 E. O. Hall 1970 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 1970 US Edition published by PLENUM PRESS a division of Plenum Publishing Corporation, 227 West 17th Street, New York, NY Library of Congress Catalog Card Number ISBN-13: : / e-isbn-13:

4 Preface Exceptions to the rule are always interesting, and the anomalies in the stress-strain curves of mild steel and in many other metals and alloys have excited the curiosity of engineers and scientists for well over a hundred years. Yet it is only during the last twenty years that significant theoretical advances have been made, and the aim of this book has been to examine these theories against the background of the considerable volume of experimental results published over the last few years, up to mid Hence this review volume has a two-fold aim; the first chapter attempts to review the general theories of yield point phenomena, using sufficient examples only to illustrate the theories. This chapter is intended to be complete in itself, and could be read by undergraduates who wish to appraise rapidly the general background to the problem. The remaining chapters deal, in turn, with the various alloys exhibiting yield point phenomena. Thus, chapter 2 on mild steel, is a more extensive study of quench and strain ageing, while Chapter 3 is on the refractory metals and discusses theories of the low-temperature strength. The next concerns hydrogen in meta-is. Chapters 5 and 6 discuss the face-centred cubic alloys, particularly the cases of the unloading yield point and intermetallic compounds. Chapter 7 covers hexagonal and ionic structures. A brief final chapter considers the areas where further research may be fruitful. Some knowledge of dislocation theory and stereographic projection must be assumed, but the aim is to make the book as self-contained as possible, and of interest to a wide range of solid-state physicists, metallurgists and engineers.

5 Acknowledgments I started this book while on sabbatical leave at the University of Cambridge in 1966 and therefore wish to thank both the University of Newcastle, for granting the leave, and Professor R. W. K. Honeycombe, of Cambridge University, for the use of facilities in his department. In addition, the help given by colleagues in supplying either unpublished data, or data prior to publication, is acknowledged in the text. Finally, I wish to thank Mrs. J. Saunders and Mrs. E. Burns for their careful typing of the draft and final copy respectively.

6 Contents Preface Acknowledgments List of Plates v VI viii 1 YIELD POINT PHENOMENA AND THEIR THEOR- ETICAL BACKGROUND 1 Introduction - The effects of tensile machine and specimen stiffness - Types of yield point effects - The upper yield point-experimental- The upper yield point-theoretical - The lower yield point - Strain ageing - Pseudo yield points 2 IRON AND ITS ALLOYS Introduction - Effects of carbon, nitrogen and other elements - Quench ageing - Yielding behaviour - Strainageing kinetics - Effects of radiation damage- Single crystals - Steels 3 THE GROUP VA AND VIA METALS Introduction - Vanadium - Chromium - Niobium - Molybdenum - Tantalum - Tungsten - Alloys of these metals Discussion 4 HYDROGEN IN METALS Hydrogen embrittlement - Solubility of hydrogen in metals - Mild steel- Group Va and VIa metals - Nickel Palladium - Titanium and zirconium 5 ALUMINIUM AND ITS ALLOYS Introduction - The unloading yield point effect - ' Commercially pure' aluminium - Aluminium-copper alloys Aluminium-magnesium alloys - Other aluminium alloys Theories of yield points in aluminium alloys

7 viii Contents 6 OTHER FACE-CENTRED CUBIC METALS AND ALLOYS 201 Introduction - Copper and its dilute alloys - Brass - Silver and its alloys - Nickel and its alloys - Thorium - Ordered alloys 7 MISCELLANEOUS MATERIALS Introduction - Whiskers - Ionic crystals - Semiconducting materials - Hexagonal metals and alloys 8 DISCUSSION APPENDIX BIBLIOGRAPHY INDEX List of Plates 1.1 Luders bands in mild steel 1.2 Luders bands in pie dish 1.3 Shear at front of Luders band 1.4 Luders bands in mild steel 1.5 Luders bands 1.6 Dislocation loops 1.7 Dislocation cell structure 2.1 Dislocations in N-Fe alloy 2.2 Band markings in mild steel 2.3 Stacking faults in steel 3.1 Defects in chromium 3.2 Strain markings in tantalum 4.1 Luders bands in steel strip 4.2 Dislocation patterns in nickel 5.1 Band markings in AI-Cu alloy 5.2 Strains in AI-Mg alloy 7.1 Dislocations in Mg-Th alloy opposite page

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