LEARNING OBJECTIVES FUNDAMENTALS PREFACE

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1 FUNDAMENTALS PREFACE Accreditation standards, as mandated by many engineering accreditation organizations, now include outcome assessment components. Often one of these components includes the delineation of detailed educational objectives, and, in addition, some means of evaluating whether or not these objectives have been achieved by the students. One way of addressing this issue is for instructors in departments of engineering to incorporate learning objectives in their course offerings. To this end we decided to include learning objectives both in the textbook and this instructors guide. There appear on the first page of each of the textbook chapters several learning objectives, general in nature, that are relevant to that chapter's content. Furthermore, we have included here, a detailed list of objectives for each of the 21 chapters. We believe that, in addition, to providing outcome assessment criteria, these objectives will also help the instructor to organize the course subject material and also give direction to the classroom presentations; in addition, objectives allow the instructor to ascertain whether or not the intended course goals have been achieved. When distributed to and used by the students, their studying becomes more focused and effective, and preparation for examinations is facilitated.

2 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1. List six different property classifications of materials that determine their applicability. 2. Define what is meant by a structural element of a material, and then cite two structural elements. 3. (a) Cite the four components that are involved in the design, production, and utilization of materials. (b) Now, briefly describe the interrelationships between these components. 4. Cite three criteria that are important in the materials selection process. 5. (a) List the three primary classifications of solid materials, and then cite the distinctive chemical feature of each. (b) In addition, note the other three types of materials, and, for each, its distinctive feature(s). CHAPTER 2 ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND INTERATOMIC BONDING 1. Name the two atomic models cited, and note the differences between them. 2. Describe the important quantum-mechanical principle that relates to electron energies. 3. (a) Name the four electron quantum numbers. (b) For a specific electron, note what each of its quantum numbers determines. 4. Write a definition of the Pauli exclusion principle. 5. Cite the general characteristics of the elements that are arrayed in each column of the periodic table. 6. Write the equation that relates energy and force. 7. (a) Schematically plot attractive, repulsive, and net energies versus interatomic separation for two atoms or ions. (b) Now note on this plot the equilibrium separation and the bonding energy. 1

3 8. (a) Briefly describe ionic, covalent, metallic, hydrogen, and van der Waal's bonds. (b) Now note what materials exhibit each of these bonding types. 9. Given the chemical formula for a material, be able to cite what bonding type(s) is (are) possible. 10. Given the electronegativities of two elements, compute the percent ionic character of the bond that forms between them. 11. Define what is meant by the term "molecule". CHAPTER 3 STRUCTURES OF METALS AND CERAMICS 1. Give a definition of a crystalline solid. 2. Describe the difference between crystalline and noncrystalline materials. 3. Give a brief definition of a unit cell. 4. Schematically diagram face-centered cubic, body-centered cubic, and hexagonal close-packed unit cells. 5. Given the atomic radius of an atom which forms into a face-centered cubic crystal structure as well as the metal's atomic weight, compute its density. 6. Given the atomic radius of an atom which forms into a body-centered cubic crystal structure as well as the metal's atomic weight, compute its density. 7. (a) Explain what is meant by coordination number and atomic packing factor. (b) Cite the atomic packing factors and coordination numbers for body-centered cubic, facecentered cubic, and hexagonal close-packed crystal structures. 8. Make a distinction between cations and anions. 9. Cite two features of the component ions that determine the crystal structure of a ceramic material. 10. Sketch (or describe) unit cells for sodium chloride, cesium chloride, zinc blende, fluorite, and perovskite crystal structures. 11. Given the chemical formula for a ceramic compound, the ionic radii of its component ions, and, using Table 3.5, determine the crystal structure. 12. For an ionic compound having one of the crystal structures discussed in this chapter, be able to compute its density given the atomic weights of the constituent elements, the unit cell edge length, and Avogadro's number. 2

4 13. Draw and describe the basic structural unit for the silicate ceramics. 14. Sketch (or describe) the following: (a) a unit cell for the diamond cubic crystal structure, (b) the atomic structure of graphite, and {(c) the structure of a C 60 fullerene molecule}. 15. Briefly define polymorphism (or allotropy). 16. Distinguish between crystal system and crystal structure. 17. Recognize and also give the lattice parameter relationships for all seven crystal systems--i.e., cubic, hexagonal, tetragonal, rhombohedral, orthorhombic, monoclinic, and triclinic. 18. Given a unit cell and three direction indices, draw the direction represented by these indices referenced to this unit cell. 19. Given a direction which has been drawn referenced to a unit cell, specify its direction indices. 20. Given a unit cell and the Miller indices for a plane, draw the plane represented by these indices referenced to this unit cell. 21. Given a plane that has been drawn referenced to a unit cell, specify its Miller indices. 22. For hexagonal crystals, be able to convert both directional and planar indices from the threeaxes scheme to the four-axes (Miller Bravais) scheme. 23. Given the unit cell for some crystal structure, be able to draw the atomic/ionic packing arrangement for a specific crystallographic plane. {24. Define both linear and planar atomic densities.} {25. For a give crystal structure, be able to determine the linear density for a specified crystallographic direction.} {26. For a given crystal structure, be able to determine the planar density for a specified crystallographic plane.} 27. (a) Draw the packing of a close-packed plane of spheres (atoms). (b) Describe how both hexagonal close-packed and face-centered cubic crystal structures may be generated by the stacking of close-packed planes. (c) Cite which planes in both hexagonal close-packed and face-centered cubic structures are close-packed. 28. For a ceramic material which crystal structure may be generated from the stacking of closepacked planes of anions, given which type of interstitial positions (tetrahedral or octahedral) are occupied with cations, do the following: (a) specify what fraction of these sites are filled, and (b) note the occupied interstitial positions between two close-packed planes drawn as stacked one upon the other. 29. Briefly cite the difference between single crystals and polycrystalline materials. 30. Define grain boundary. 3

5 31. Give definitions for isotropy and anisotropy. {32. Briefly describe the phenomenon of diffraction.} {33. Given the angle at which an x-ray diffraction peak occurs, as well as the x-ray wavelength and order of reflection, compute the interplanar spacing for the crystallographic planes that are responsible for the diffraction peak.} {34. For crystals having cubic symmetry, given the lattice parameter (i.e., unit cell edge length), compute the interplanar spacing for a set of crystallographic planes of specified Miller indices.} 35. Schematically diagram the atomic structure of a silica glass. CHAPTER 4 POLYMER STRUCTURES 1. Define the term isomerism. 2. Describe a typical polymer molecule in terms of its chain structure, and, in addition, how the molecule may be generated by repeating mer units. 3. Draw mer structures for polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride, polytetrafluoroethylene, polypropylene, and polystyrene. 4. Distinguish between a homopolymer and a copolymer. 5. Distinguish between bifunctional and trifunctional mer units. 6. For some homopolymer, given its mer chemical formula, its several molecular weight ranges, and, for each range, the number and weight fractions, be able to compute: (a) the numberaverage and weight-average molecular weights, and (b) the number-average and weightaverage degrees of polymerization. 7. For a copolymer, given its mer chemical formulas, the atomic weights of the constituent atoms, and the fraction of each mer type, be able to compute the average mer molecular weight. 8. Cite two features of polymer chains that restrict their ability to rotate and bend. 9. Name and briefly describe the four general types of molecular structures found in polymers. {10. Distinguish between head-to-tail and head-to-head configurations.} 11. Name and briefly describe: {(a) the three types of stereoisomers,} {(b) the two kinds of geometrical isomers,} and 4

6 (c) the four types of copolymers. 12. Name the two classifications of polymeric materials according to their mechanical characteristics at elevated temperatures. 13. Cite the differences in behavior for thermoplastic and thermosetting polymers, and also the differences in their molecular structures. 14. Draw the following chemical repeat units: acrylonitrile, butadiene, chloroprene, cis-isoprene, isobutylene, and dimethylsiloxane. 15. (a) Briefly describe the crystalline state in polymeric materials (b) Cite the main difference between the crystalline state in polymers and in metallic materials. 16. Given the density of a polymer specimen, as well as densities for totally crystalline and amorphous materials of the same polymer, be able to compute the percent crystallinity. 17. Cite how the degree of crystallinity in a polymer material is affected by polymer chemistry, by characteristics of the polymer structure, and for the various copolymers. 18. Briefly describe the structure of a chain-folded polymer crystallite. 19. Briefly describe and diagram the spherulitic structure for a semicrystalline polymer. CHAPTER 5 IMPERFECTIONS IN SOLIDS 1. Describe both vacancy and self-interstitial crystalline defects. 2. Given the density and atomic weight for some material, as well as Avogardo's number, compute the number of atomic sites per cubic meter 3. For some material, given the number of atomic sites per cubic meter, the energy required for vacancy formation, and, in addition, the value for the gas constant, compute the number of vacancies at some specified temperature. 4. Name and describe eight different ionic point defects that are found in ceramic compounds (including Schottky and Frenkel defects). 5. Define the term electroneutrality, and note what part it plays in the formation of ionic point defects in ceramic materials. 6. Define stoichiometric, and cite one example of a nonstoichiometric material. 7. Note two ways in which an ionic compound can be made to be nonstoichiometric. 5

7 8. (a) Given a substitutional impurity ion, determine whether or not it will render an ionic compound nonstoichiometric. (b) If the host material does become nonstoichiometric, ascertain what kind(s) of defect(s) form, and how many form for every substitutional impurity ion. 9. Define what is meant by the term "alloy". 10. State the two types of solid solutions, and provide a brief written definition and/or schematic diagram of each. 11. State the criteria for the formation of each of substitutional and interstitial solid solutions. 12. Given the atomic radii of host and impurity atoms, as well as their crystal structures, electronegativities, and valences, determine if solid solutions that form are (a) substitutional with appreciable solubility, (b) substitutional with limited solubility, or (c) interstitial. 13. Note three requirements that must be met in order for there to be significant solid solubility of one ionic compound in another. 14. Given the masses and atomic weights of two or more elements in a metal alloy, compute the weight percent and atomic percent of each element. 15. {(a) Given the composition (in weight percent) and atomic weights for two elements in an alloy, determine the composition in atom percent.} {(b) Make a composition conversion from atom percent to weight percent.} 16. Given the atomic weights and densities for two elements in an alloy: {(a) Determine the average density when the composition is specified in weight percent.} {(b) Determine the average density when the composition is specified in atom percent.} 17. Given the atomic weight for each of two elements in an alloy: {(a) Determine the average atomic weight when the composition is specified in weight percent.} {(b) Determine the average atomic weight when the composition is specified in atom percent.} 18. For each of edge, screw, and mixed dislocations: (a) describe and make a drawing of the dislocation; (b) note the location of the dislocation line; and (c) indicate the direction along which the dislocation line extends. 19. (a) Describe the atomic structure within the vicinity of a grain boundary. (b) Make a distinction between high- and low-angle grain boundaries. (c) Explain how a low-angle tilt boundary is formed by an array of edge dislocations. 20. Describe the arrangement of atoms in the vicinity of a twin boundary. 21. Define the terms microstructure and microscopy. 6

8 {22. Explain what preparations are necessary for observation of the grain structure of a polycrystalline material with an optical microscope.} {23. Name and briefly describe the operation of each of the two types of electron microscopes.} {24. In general terms briefly explain how scanning probe microscopes operate.} 25. Given a photomicrograph of a polycrystalline material, as well as the magnification, determine the grain size using intercept and ASTM methods. CHAPTER 6 DIFFUSION 1. Give a brief definition of diffusion. 2. Explain the terms interdiffusion and self-diffusion. 3. (a) List and briefly describe the two atomic mechanisms of diffusion. (b) Indicate for which type diffusion occurs more rapidly, and then explain why this is so. 4. Given the mass of material diffusing through a cross-sectional area over a specified time period, compute the diffusion flux. 5. Define the terms concentration profile and concentration gradient. 6. Make a distinction between steady-state and nonsteady-state diffusion. 7. For steady-state diffusion through a metal sheet, determine the diffusion flux given values for the diffusion coefficient, the sheet thickness, and the concentrations of diffusing species at both surfaces. 8. Cite the driving force for steady-state diffusion. 9. Write Fick's second law in equation form. 10. For diffusion into a semi-infinite solid and when the concentration of diffusing species at the surface is held constant, compute the concentration at some position after a specified time given the following: (a) the pre-diffusion concentration in the solid, (b) the surface composition, and (c) the value of the diffusion coefficient of the diffusing species. Also, assume that a tabulation of error function values (similar to Table 6.1) is available. 11. Cite two factors that influence diffusion rate (i.e., the magnitude of the diffusion coefficient). 7

9 12. Given the pre-exponential, D o, the activation energy, the absolute temperature, and the gas constant, be able to compute the value of the diffusion coefficient. 13. Given a plot of the logarithm of the diffusion coefficient (to the base 10) versus the reciprocal of absolute temperature, determine values for the diffusion coefficient's pre-exponential and activation energy. 14. Note one difference in diffusion mechanism (a) for ionic ceramics and for metals, and (b) for polymers and for metals. CHAPTER 7 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES 1. List three factors that should be considered in designing laboratory tests to assess the mechanical characteristics of materials for service use. 2. Given the tensile load on a specimen and its original and instantaneous cross-sectional dimensions, be able to compute the engineering stress and true stress. 3. Given the original and instantaneous lengths of a specimen which is being loaded in tension, be able to compute the engineering strain and true strain. 4. Given the magnitude of a tensile stress that is applied parallel to the specimen axis, compute the magnitudes of normal and shear stresses on a plane that is oriented at some specified angle relative to the specimen end-face. 5. Distinguish between elastic and plastic deformations, both by definition, and in terms of behavior on a stress-strain plot. 6. Compute the elastic modulus from a stress-strain diagram. 7. Given the elastic modulus and either elastic engineering stress or strain, be able to compute the other (strain or stress). 8. For a material that exhibits nonlinear elastic behavior, be able to compute tangent and secant moduli from its stress-strain diagram. 9. State what is occurring on an atomic level as a material is elastically deformed. 10. Briefly explain how the shape of a material's force versus interatomic separation curve influences its modulus of elasticity. 8

10 11. Given the cross-sectional area of a specimen over which a shear forced of specified magnitude acts, and, in addition, the resulting shear strain, be able to compute the shear modulus. 12. Define anelasticity. 13. Given Poisson's ratio and the elastic strain in the direction of the applied load (or axial strain), be able to compute the elastic strain in the lateral (or perpendicular) direction. 14. Cite the typical value range of Poisson's ratio for metallic materials. 15. Given values of modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio for an isotropic material, estimate the value of its shear modulus. 16. Given an engineering stress-strain diagram for a metallic material estimate the proportional limit, and then determine the yield strength (0.002 strain offset) and the tensile strength. 17. Schematically sketch the stress-strain behavior for a metal that displays distinct upper and lower yield points, and then explain how the yield strength is determined. 18. Given the stress-strain behavior for two metals, be able to distinguish which is the stronger. 19. For a cylindrical specimen of a ductile metal that is deformed in tension, describe how the specimen's profile changes in moving through elastic and plastic regimes of the stress-strain curve, to the point of fracture. 20. Explain why engineering stress decreases with increasing engineering strain past the tensile strength point. 21. Give a brief definition of ductility, and schematically sketch the engineering stress-strain behaviors for both ductile and brittle metals. 22. Given the original and fracture dimensions of a specimen deformed in tension, be able to determine its ductility in terms of both percent elongation and percent reduction of area. 23. For metallic materials cite which tensile parameters are sensitive (and also insensitive) to any prior deformation, the presence of impurities, and/or any heat treatment. 24. For metallic materials cite how elastic modulus, tensile and yield strengths, and ductility change with increasing temperature. 25. Give brief definitions of and the units for modulus of resilience and toughness (static). 26. Given yield strength and modulus of elasticity values for some material, compute its modulus of resilience. 27. Given the stress-strain behavior for two metals, determine which is the most resilient and which is the toughest. 28. Given the values of the constants K and n in the equation relating plastic true stress and true strain, be able to compute the true stress necessary to produce some specified true strain. 9

11 29. Schematically plot both the tensile engineering stress-strain and true stress-strain behaviors for the same material and explain the difference between the two curves. 30. Describe the phenomenon of elastic recovery using a stress-strain plot. 31. Determine the elastic strain recovered for some material, given its stress-strain plot and the total strain to which a specimen has been subjected. 32. Give three reasons why the stress-strain characteristics of ceramic materials are determined using transverse bending tests rather than tensile tests. 33. Given the cross-sectional dimensions of a rectangular ceramic rod bent to fracture using a three-point loading technique, as well as the distance between support points, and the fracture load, compute the flexural strength. 34. Given the radius of a cylindrical ceramic rod that is bent to fracture using a three-point loading technique, as well as the distance between support points, and the fracture load, compute the flexural strength. 35. For a porous ceramic, do the following: {(a) Given the modulus of elasticity for the nonporous material, compute E for a specified volume fraction of porosity.} {(b) Given values of the experimental σ o and n constants, calculate the flexural strength at some given P.} 36. (a) Schematically plot the three different characteristic types of stress-strain behavior for polymeric materials. (b) Now note which type(s) of polymer(s) display(s) each of these behaviors. 37. Make a comparison of the general mechanical properties (i.e., modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, and ductility) of plastics and elastomeric materials with metals and ceramics. 38. Cite three affects on the mechanical characteristics of a polymer as its temperature is increased, or as the deformation strain rate is decreased. 39. (a) Describe the macroscopic tensile deformation of a cylindrical dog-bone specimen (i.e., specimen profile) of a typical ductile plastic to fracture. (b) Correlate this behavior with the stress-strain plot. {40. Define viscoelasticity.} {41. (a) Describe the manner in which stress relaxation measurements are conducted.} {(b) Using the results of a stress relaxation test, briefly explain how the relaxation modulus is determined.} {42. (a) On a graph of the logarithm of relaxation modulus versus temperature plot schematic curves for semicrystalline, amorphous, and crosslinked polymers.} 10

12 {(b) On this plot note melting and glass transition temperatures.} {(c) In addition, indicate on this same plot glass, leathery, rubbery, and viscous flow regions.} 43. Define hardness in a one- or two-sentence statement. 44. Cite three reasons why hardness tests are performed more frequently than any other mechanical test on metals. 45. Name the two most common hardness-testing techniques that are used in the U.S., and give two differences between them. 46. Name and briefly describe the two different microhardness testing techniques. Now cite situations for which these techniques are generally used. 47. Cite three precautions that should be taken when performing hardness tests in order to insure accurate readings. 48. Schematically diagram tensile strength versus hardness for a typical metal. 49. Cite five factors that can lead to scatter in measured data. {50. Given a series of data values that have been collected, be able to compute both the average and the standard deviation.} 51. Given the yield strength of a ductile material, be able to compute the working stress. CHAPTER 8 DEFORMATION AND STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS 1. Describe edge dislocation motion by the translation of an extra half-plane of atoms as atomic bonds are repeatedly and successively broken and then reformed. 2. Briefly describe how plastic deformation occurs by the movement of both edge and screw dislocations in response to applied shear stresses. 3. Distinguish between edge and screw dislocations in terms of the direction of line motion in response to an applied shear stress. 4. Define dislocation density and cite its units. 5. Given a drawing of atom positions around an edge dislocation, locate regions of compressive and tensile strains which are created in the crystal due to the presence of the dislocation. 6. Name and describe the kind of lattice strains that are found in the vicinity of a screw dislocation. 7. Define slip system. 8. Specify the characteristics of a slip system for some crystal structure. 11

13 9. Specify the slip systems for face-centered cubic and body-centered cubic crystal structures. 10. Explain, in terms of slip systems, why body-centered cubic and hexagonal close-packed metals ordinarily experience a ductile-to-brittle transition with decreasing temperature, while face-centered cubic metals do not experience such a transition. {11. Define resolved shear stress and critical resolved shear stress.} {12. Compute the resolved shear stress on a specified plane given the value of the applied tensile stress, as well as 1) the angle between the normal to the slip plane and the applied stress direction, and 2) the angle between the slip and stress directions.} {13. Describe the nature of plastic deformation, in terms of dislocation motion, for a single crystal that is pulled in tension.} 14. Briefly explain how the grain structure of a polycrystalline metal is altered when it is plastically deformed. {15. Briefly describe, from an atomic perspective, how plastic deformation results from the formation of mechanical twins.} {16. Cite two differences between deformation by slip and deformation by twinning.} 17. Explain why and describe how the yield strength of a metal is related to the ability of dislocations to move. 18. Describe how grain boundaries impede dislocation motion and why a metal having small grains is stronger than one having large grains. 19. Given a plot of yield strength versus d -1/2 (d being the average grain size), be able to determine the values of σ o and k y, and also the yield strength at a specified value of d. 20. Briefly describe the phenomenon of solid-solution strengthening. 21. Briefly explain solid-solution strengthening for substitutional impurity atoms in terms of lattice strain interactions with dislocations. 22. Describe the phenomenon of strain hardening (or cold-working) in terms of 1) changes in mechanical properties, and 2) stress-strain behavior. 23. Given the original and deformed cross-sectional dimensions of a metal specimen that has been cold-worked, compute the percent cold work. 24. Schematically plot tensile strength, yield strength, and ductility versus percent cold work for a metal specimen. 25. Briefly describe the phenomenon of strain hardening in terms of dislocations and strain field interactions. 26. Cite three characteristics/properties that become altered when a metal is plastically deformed. 27. Briefly describe the changes that take place as a metal experiences recovery. 12

14 28. Briefly describe what occurs during the process of recrystallization, in terms of both the alteration of microstructure and mechanical characteristics of the material. 29. Cite the driving force for recrystallization. 30. Make a schematic plot of how the room temperature tensile strength and ductility vary with temperature (at a constant heat-treating time) in the vicinity of the recrystallization temperature, for a metal that was previously cold-worked. 31. Define recrystallization temperature. 32. Name two factors that influence the recrystallization temperature of a metal or alloy, and then note in what way they influence the recrystallization temperature. 33. Make a distinction between hot-working and cold-working. 34. Describe a procedure that may be used to reduce the cross-sectional area of a cylindrical specimen, given its original and deformed radii, and, in addition, the required strength and ductility after deformation. 35. Describe the phenomenon of grain growth from both macroscopic and atomic level perspectives. 36. Cite the driving force for grain growth. 37. For some polycrystalline material, given a value for the diameter exponent (n), and, in addition, the grain diameters at two different times at an elevated temperature, be able to compute the following: 1) the original grain diameter, and 2) the grain diameter after yet another time. 38. Briefly describe the mechanism by which plastic deformation occurs for each of crystalline and noncrystalline ceramic materials. 39. On the basis of slip considerations, briefly explain why crystalline ceramic materials are so brittle. 40. Briefly define viscosity and cite the units in which it is expressed. 41. Briefly describe the mechanism by which semicrystalline polymers elastically deform. 42. Describe (and sketch) various stages in the plastic deformation of a semicrystalline (spherulitic) polymer. {43. Briefly describe the effects of annealing on a semicrystalline polymer that has been permanently deformed.} 44. Discuss the influence of the following factors on polymer tensile modulus and/or strength: (a) molecular weight, (b) degree of crystallinity, (c) extent of crosslinking, (d) predeformation, and (e) the heat treating of undeformed materials. 45. (a) Briefly describe the molecular mechanism by which elastomeric polymers deform elastically. 13

15 (b) Now cite the driving force for the recoil of an elastomeric material. 46. Note the four criteria that are necessary for a polymer to exhibit elastomeric behavior. 47. Briefly describe the vulcanization process and what effect it has on the mechanical characteristics of elastomeric materials. CHAPTER 9 FAILURE 1. Cite the three usual causes of failure. 2. (a) Cite the two modes of fracture and the differences between them. (b) Note which type of fracture is preferred, and give two reasons why. 3. Describe the mechanism of crack propagation for both ductile and brittle modes of fracture. 4. Describe the two different types of fracture surfaces for ductile metals, and, for each, cite the general mechanical characteristics of the material. 5. Briefly describe the mechanism of crack formation and growth in moderately ductile materials. 6. Briefly describe the macroscopic fracture profile for a material that has failed in a brittle manner. 7. Name and briefly describe the two crack propagation paths for polycrystalline brittle materials. 8. Explain why the strengths of brittle materials are much lower than predicted by theoretical calculations. 9. Given the magnitude of an applied tensile stress, and the length and tip radius of a small crack which axis is perpendicular to the direction of the applied stress, compute the maximum stress that may exist at the crack tip. 10. Cite the conditions that must be met in order for a brittle material to experience fracture. 11. Briefly state why sharp corners should be avoided in designing structures that are subjected to stresses. 12. For some material, given values of the modulus of elasticity and specific surface energy, and the length of an internal crack, be able to compute the critical stress for propagation of this crack. {13. Define critical strain energy release rate, and cite and equation for its determination.} 14. Describe/illustrate the three different crack displacement modes. 15. Describe the conditions of {plane stress} and plane strain. 16. In a brief statement define fracture toughness and also specify its units. 14

16 17. Make distinctions between {stress intensity factor}, fracture toughness, and plane strain fracture toughness. {18. Given plane strain fracture toughness and yield strength values for a material, compute the minimum plate thickness for the condition of plane strain.} 19. Given the plane-strain fracture toughness of a material, the length of the longest surface crack, and the value of Y, compute the critical (or design) stress. 20. Determine whether or not a flaw of critical length is subject to detection given the resolution limit of the detection apparatus, the maximum applied tensile stress, the plane strain fracture toughness of the material, as well as a value for the scale parameter (Y). 21. Briefly explain why there is normally significant scatter in the fracture strength for identical specimens of the same ceramic material. 22. Note the reason why ceramic materials are stronger in compression than in tension. 23. (a) Briefly describe the phenomenon of crazing. (b) Note in which type of polymers and under what experimental/service conditions is crazing observed. 24. Name three factors that are critical relative to a metal experiencing a transition from ductile to brittle fracture. 25. Name and briefly describe the two techniques that are used to measure impact energy (or notch toughness) of a material. 26. Make a schematic plot of the dependence of impact energy on temperature for a metal that experiences a ductile-to-brittle transition. 27. Note which types of materials do, and also those which do not, experience a ductile-to-brittle transition with decreasing temperature. 28. Cite two measures that may be taken to lower the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature in steels. 29. Define fatigue and specify the conditions under which it occurs. 30. Name and describe the three different stress-versus-time cycle modes that lead to fatigue failure. 31. Given a sinusoidal stress-versus-time curve, be able to determine the stress amplitude and mean stress. 32. (a) Briefly describe the manner in which tests are performed to generate a plot of fatigue stress versus the logarithm of the number of cycles. (b) Note which three in-service conditions should be replicated in a fatigue test. 15

17 33. Schematically plot the fatigue stress as a function of the logarithm of the number of cycles to failure for both materials which do and which do not exhibit a fatigue limit. For the former, label the fatigue limit. 34. Given a fatigue plot for some material: (a) for some particular stress level, determine the maximum number of cycles allowable before failure (fatigue lifetime); (b) for some specified number of cycles, determine the fatigue strength. {35. Briefly describe the two stages of crack propagation in polycrystalline materials which may ultimately lead to fatigue failure.} 36. Describe the two differently types of fatigue surface features, and cite the conditions under which they occur. {37. Given σ max and σ min, and, for a particular material, initial and critical crack lengths, and, in addition, values for the Y, A, and m parameters, estimate the fatigue lifetime.} 38. Cite five measures that may be taken to improve the fatigue resistance of a metal. {39. Describe thermal fatigue failure, and note how it may be prevented.} {40. Describe corrosion fatigue, and then cite five measure that may be taken to prevent it.} 41. Define creep and specify the conditions under which it occurs. 42. Make a schematic sketch of a typical creep curve, and then note on this curve the three different creep stages. 43. Given a creep plot for some material, determine (a) the steady-state creep rate, and (b) the rupture lifetime. 44. Given the absolute melting temperature of a metal, estimate the temperature at which creep becomes important. 45. Schematically sketch how the creep behavior of a material changes with increasing temperature and increasing load (or stress). 46. Make schematic plots showing how the rupture life and steady-state creep rate for a material are represented as functions of stress and temperature. {47. Cite the generalized mathematical expression for the dependence of steady-state creep rate on both applied stress and temperature.} {48. Given a Larson-Miller master plot of creep data for some material, determine the rupture life at a given temperature and stress level.} CHAPTER 10 PHASE DIAGRAMS 16

18 1. Define phase. 2. Name three important microstructural characteristics for multiphase alloys. 3. Cite three factors that affect the microstructure of an alloy. 4. Briefly explain the concept of phase equilibrium. 5. Briefly define metastable in terms of microstructure. 6. (a) Schematically sketch simple isomorphous and eutectic phase diagrams. (b) On these diagrams label the various phase regions. (c) Also label liquidus, solidus, and solvus lines. 7. Given a binary phase diagram, the composition of an alloy, its temperature, and assuming that the alloy is at equilibrium, determine: (a) what phase(s) is (are) present; (b) the composition(s) of the phase(s); and (c) the mass fraction(s) of the phase(s). 8. Given mass fractions and densities for both phases of a two-phase alloy, determine the phase volume fractions. {9. Using an isomorphous phase diagram, explain the phenomenon of coring for the nonequilbrium solidification of an alloy that belongs to this isomorphous system.} 10. Given a binary phase diagram, locate the temperatures and compositions of all eutectic reactions, and then write the reactions for either heating or cooling. 11. Given a binary eutectic phase diagram, for an alloy of specified composition the microstructure of which microstructure consists of both primary and eutectic microconstituents, do the following: {(a) compute the mass fractions of both microconstituents; and} {(b) sketch and label a schematic drawing of the microstructure.} 12. Define microconstituent, and then cite two examples. 13. Given a binary phase diagram, determine the solubility limit of one of the elements in one phase at some given temperature. 14. Explain the following terms: (a) terminal solid solution, (b) intermediate solid solution, and (c) intermetallic compound. 15. For some given binary phase diagram, do the following: (a) locate the temperatures and compositions of all eutectoid, peritectic, and congruent phase transformations; and 17

19 (b) write reactions for all these transformations for either heating or cooling. {16. Write the Gibbs phase rule in its most general form, and explain each term in the phase rule equation.} {17. Apply Gibbs phase rule in single- and two-phase regions, as well as on isotherm lines for binary phase diagrams.} 18. Name the crystal structures for both ferrite (α-iron) and austenite (γ-iron). 19. Give the composition of iron carbide, Fe 3 C, and also the maximum solubility of carbon in both α-ferrite and austenite phases. 20. Specify the temperature and composition at which the eutectoid reaction occurs, and write this eutectoid reaction for either heating or cooling. 21. Cite the three types of ferrous alloys on the basis of carbon content, and the composition range for each. 22. Briefly describe the pearlite structure, and then calculate the relative amounts of the two phases in this structure. 23. Given the composition of an iron-carbon alloy containing between wt% C and 2.11 wt% C, be able to (a) determine whether it is a hypoeutectoid or hypereutectoid alloy; (b) specify the proeutectoid phase; (c) compute the mass fractions of the proeutectoid phase and pearlite; and (d) make a schematic diagram of the microstructure. {24. Given the composition of an Fe-C-M alloy (where M represents a metallic element other than iron--e.g., Cr, Ni, Mo, etc.), and a plot of the eutectoid composition versus the concentration of element M, be able to determine (a) the proeutectoid phase, and (b) the approximate mass fractions of proeutectoid and pearlite microconstituents.} CHAPTER 11 PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS 1. Cite the two distinct steps that are involved in the formation of particles of a new phase. 2. Make a schematic fraction transformation-versus-logarithm of time plot for a typical solid-solid transformation, and then note nucleation and growth regions on the curve. 3. For some solid-solid reaction, given values of the constants k and n, compute the fraction transformation after a specified time. 18

20 4. Given a fraction transformation-versus-logarithm of time curve at some temperature, be able to determine the overall rate of the transformation. 5. Define the terms supercooling and superheating. 6. Explain how an isothermal transformation diagram for some alloy is generated from a series of isothermal fraction transformation-versus-logarithm of time curves. 7. Describe the difference in microstructure for fine and coarse pearlites, and then explain this difference in terms of the isothermal temperature range over which each transforms. 8. Briefly describe the microstructures of bainite and spheroidite. 9. Briefly describe martensite in terms of its crystal structure and microstructure. 10. Describe the difference between thermally activated and athermal transformations, and then cite one example of each transformation. 11. Describe the heat treatment that is necessary to produce martensite, and explain why it forms instead of pearlite or bainite. 12. Given the isothermal transformation diagram for some iron-carbon alloy and also a specific isothermal heat treatment, be able to describe the microstructure that will result. The microstructure may consist of austenite, a proeutectoid phase, fine pearlite, coarse pearlite, spheroidite, bainite, and/or martensite. {13. Given a continuous cooling transformation diagram for some particular alloy and a specific cooling curve, describe the resulting microstructure that exists at room temperature.} {14. Define what is meant by the critical cooling rate, and given a continuous cooling transformation diagram, schematically plot the critical cooling curve.} {15. Describe or diagram how alloying elements other than carbon alter the continuous cooling transformation diagram for a steel. Now explain, in terms of this alteration, how alloying elements make a steel more "heat-treatable."} 16. Schematically diagram how tensile strength, hardness, and ductility vary with carbon content for steels having microstructures consisting of fine and coarse pearlite, and spheroidite. Also, explain why hardness and strength increase with increasing carbon content. 17. Explain briefly why fine pearlite is harder than coarse pearlite, which in turn is harder than spheroidite. 18. Qualitatively compare the mechanical characteristics of bainite and iron-carbon alloys that have other microstructures. 19. Cite two reasons why martensite is so hard and brittle. 20. Describe the microstructure of tempered martensite. 21. Describe the heat treatment necessary to produce tempered martensite. 19

21 22. Compare the properties of martensite and tempered martensite, and also explain the properties of tempered martensite in terms of its microstructure. 23. Schematically plot how hardness depends on tempering time at constant temperature, and briefly explain this behavior. 24. Schematically plot how yield strength, tensile strength, and ductility depend on tempering temperature (at constant tempering time), and then explain this behavior. 25. (a) Describe the phenomenon of temper embrittlement. (b) Note what procedures cause it to occur. (b) List measures which may be taken to prevent it. 26. Describe briefly and qualitatively the procedure necessary to transform one steel microstructure into another (e.g., bainite to spheroidite). 27. Using a phase diagram, describe the two heat treatments (solution and precipitation) that are involved in the precipitation hardening of a binary alloy. Explain why each heat treatment is carried out and what happens to the microstructure during each heat treatment. 28. (a) Schematically plot how the room temperature yield and tensile strengths, and hardness depend on the logarithm of time for the precipitation heat treatment at constant temperature. (b) Explain the general shape of these curves in terms of the mechanism of precipitation hardening (i.e., dislocation-precipitate particle interactions). 29. Cite two necessary requirements for an alloy to be precipitation hardenable. 30. Briefly describe, from a molecular perspective, (a) crystallization, (b) melting, and (c) the glass transition for polymeric materials. 31. For polymer crystallization, given values of the constants k and n, compute the fraction crystallization after a specified time. 32. Schematically plot specific volume versus temperature for crystalline, semicrystalline, and amorphous polymers, noting glass-transition and melting temperatures. 33. { (a) List four characteristics or structural components of a polymer that affect its melting temperature.} {(b) Note the manner in which each characteristic/component influences the magnitude of T m.} 34. {(a) List six characteristics or structural elements of a polymer that influence its glass transition temperature.} {(b) Now note how each of these characteristics/elements affects the magnitude of T g.} CHAPTER 12 20

22 ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES 1. Give two equation forms of Ohm's law. 2. Given the electrical resistance, as well as length and cross-sectional area of a specimen, compute its resistivity and conductivity. 3. Compute the electric field intensity given the voltage drop across a specified distance. 4. Make the distinction between electronic and ionic conduction. 5. Describe the formation of electron energy bands as a large number of atoms, initially widely separated and isolated from one another, are gradually brought together, and allowed to bond to one another such that a crystalline solid is formed. 6. Briefly describe the four possible electron band structures for solid materials. 7. Briefly describe the electron excitation events in metals, semiconductors, and insulators by which free electrons are produced, which electrons may participate in the electronic conduction process. 8. Calculate the mobility of an electron, given its drift velocity and the magnitude of the electric field. 9. Calculate the electrical conductivity of a metal, given the number of free electrons per unit volume, the electron mobility, and the electrical charge on an electron. 10. (a) Cite three sources of electron scattering centers for metals. (b) Write Matthiessen's rule in equation form. 11. Calculate the temperature component of electrical resistivity for a metal at some temperature, given values for its ρ o and a constants. 12. For a solid solution alloy, given the impurity concentration (in atom fraction) and a value for the constant A, calculate the impurity contribution to the electrical resistivity. 13. For a two-phase metal alloy, determine the impurity contribution to the electrical resistivity given volume fractions and electrical conductivity values for the two phases. 14. Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic semiconducting materials. 15. Cite two examples for each of the Groups IVA, IIIA-VA, and IIB-VIA semiconducting materials. 16. Describe the formation of a hole in terms of electron excitations in semiconductors. 17. Compute the electrical conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor given the electron and hole mobilities, the electronic charge, and either the number of electrons or number of holes per unit volume. 21

23 18. For n-type extrinsic semiconduction: (a) Describe the excitation of a donor electron in terms of both electron bonding and energy band models. (b) Compute the electrical conductivity given the electron mobility, the number of free electrons per unit volume, and the electronic charge. 19. For p-type extrinsic semiconduction: (a) Describe the electron excitation that involves the formation of a hole in terms of both electron bonding and energy band models. (b) Compute the electrical conductivity given the hole mobility, the number of holes per unit volume, and the electronic charge. 20. (a) On a plot of logarithm of carrier (electron, hole) concentration versus the reciprocal of absolute temperature draw schematic curves for both intrinsic and extrinsic materials. (b) On the extrinsic curve note the region of saturation or exhaustion. 21. For an intrinsic semiconductor, given electrical conductivity values at two different temperatures, compute the conductivity at yet a third temperature. 22. Given a plot of logarithm carrier concentration versus the reciprocal of absolute temperature for an intrinsic semiconducting material, determine the band gap energy. 23. {(a) Briefly describe the experimental setup that is used to demonstrate the Hall effect.} {(b) Note the primary reason that Hall effect measurements are made.} {24. Compute the Hall constant, given the specimen thickness, and values for the electric current, applied magnetic field, and the Hall voltage.} 25. {(a) For a p-n rectifying junction describe electron and hole distributions in both forward and reverse biases.} {(b) Now explain the process of rectification by means of electron and hole motions in response to these two bias modes.} {26. In terms current-voltage characteristics for both forward and reverse biases, describe how a p-n junction acts as a rectifier.} {27. For both junction and MOSFET transistors: (a) detail the configuration of the various components, and (b) explain the operation of both transistor types.} 28. Compute the mobility of an ionic species given its valence and diffusion coefficient, and, in addition, temperature, Boltzmann's constant, and the electrical charge associated with an electron. 29. Compare electrical conductivity magnitudes for typical ceramics and polymers with those of the metallic materials. 22

24 {30. Define the following: (a) electric dipole, (b) dielectric material, and (c) polarization.} {31. Compute capacitance given the applied voltage and magnitude of charge stored on each plate.} {32. Given plate area and plate separation for a parallel-plate capacitor, and, in addition, the permittivity of a vacuum, calculate the capacitance.} {33. Compute the dielectric constant for some material given its permittivity, as well as the permittivity of a vacuum.} {34. Calculate the dipole moment for a single dipole given the magnitude of each dipole charge and the charge separation distance.} {35. Given the electric field and the permittivity for a material, determine the dielectric displacement.} {36. Briefly explain how the charge storing capacity of a capacitor may be increased by the insertion and polarization of a dielectric material between its plates.} {37. Compute the polarization for a typical dielectric material given its permittivity, as well as the permittivity of a vacuum and the applied electric field.} {38. Name and describe the three types of polarization.} {39. Define and explain relaxation frequency as it applies to dielectric materials.} {40. Define (a) dielectric breakdown, and (b) dielectric strength.} 41. {(a) Briefly describe the phenomenon of ferroelectricity.} {(b) Explain ferroelectric behavior in barium titanate.} {42. Briefly describe the piezoelectric phenomenon.} CHAPTER 13 TYPES AND APPLICATIONS OF MATERIALS 1. Cite three reasons why ferrous alloys are used extensively as engineering materials, and also three of their major limitations. 2. Define what is meant by a plain carbon steel, and cite three typical applications. 3. Recognize the four digit AISI/SAE designation for both plain carbon and low alloy steels, and from such determine the carbon content. 4. Name three other types of steels and for each cite compositional differences, distinctive properties, and typical uses. 5. Specify the three classes of stainless steels. 6. Cite two differences between cast irons and steels. 23

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