Chapter 8: Molecules and Materials
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1 Chapter 8: Molecules and Materials Condensed Phases - Solids Bonding in Solids Metals Insulators Semiconductors Intermolecular Forces Condensed Phases - Liquids
2 Carbon There are three forms of the element carbon. Graphite, diamond, and fullerenes. Graphite and diamond have been known for a long time. Fullerenes were discovered in 1985 in the form of C 60. C 60 was named buckminsterfullerene due to its resemblance to geodesic domes popularized by the architect Buckminster. Carbon has long been used as material in important applications. Diamond is used in drill bits and jewelry. Graphite is used in pencils, as a lubricant, and as a composite material. Applications for fullerenes and nanotubes are still being explored.
3 The structures of diamond and graphite. In each case only a small part of the entire structure is shown.
4 Graphite The p orbitals (a) perpendicular to the plane of the carbon ring system in graphite can combine to form (b) an extensive π-bonding network.
5 Carbon Atoms to Diamond Results in a completely filled bonding band. Therefore, the a lot of energy is needed to promote an electron into the next higher energy level. So diamond is a very poor conductor of electricity (it is an insulator)
6 Condensed Phases - Solids The properties of a solid are related to its crystal structure. Each carbon atom in diamond is covalently bonded to four neighboring atoms. Diamond is an inordinately hard material. Electrons in localized bonds diamond is an isulator The carbon atoms in graphite are covalently bonded into flat sheets. Graphite sheets can slide past each other. Electrons in delocalized bonds graphite is an conductor
7 Phase diagrams are maps showing in which state or phase a compound or element will be most stable at a given combination of pressure and temperature. Carbon The state or phase of a compound can be manipulated by changing the temperature and pressure of the compound.
8 Carbon Nanotubes are a type of fullerene that have remarkable properties. Tensile strength significantly higher than steel. Nanotubes grown with a metallic element enclosed within them show promise as wires that are one molecule wide. Most recently discovered form of carbon.
9 Condensed Phases - Solids Atoms or molecules arrange themselves into two types of solids. Crystalline solids: atoms or molecules assume a regular, repeating geometric arrangement. Amorphous solids: atoms or molecules assume a random arrangement. Packing efficiency in crystalline solids is the percentage of space occupied by a given arrangement. The less empty space in the packing of atoms or molecules in a solid, the higher the packing efficiency. The higher the packing efficiency, the higher the density of a solid.
10 Two ways to maximize packing efficiency. The second layer of atoms will stack offset to the first layer of atoms to give about 74% packing efficiency. The third layer can stack directly above the atoms in the first layer - hexagonal close-packing (hcp). The third layer an stack directly above the hollows in the first layer - cubic closepacking (ccp). Condensed Phases - Solids
11 Closest Packing Arrangements of Uniform Spheres
12 Condensed Phases - Solids A unit cell is the smallest collection of atoms that displays all the features of the crystal structure. Three types of cubic unit cells simple cubic (sc) containing 1/8 each of 8 corner atoms, body-centered cubic (bcc) containing one additional atom within, face-centered cubic (fcc) with an additional 1/2 each of 6 atoms along the faces.
13 Three Cubic Unit Cells and the Corresponding Lattices
14 Calculation of Packing Efficiency To determine the number of complete atoms per unit cell: fcc = 1 2 (# face-center atoms) 1 8 (# corner atoms) 4 bcc = (# body-center atoms) 1 8 (# corner atoms) 2 sc 1 8 (# corner atoms) 1 To find the total volume occupied by atoms: r is the radius. total volume occupied by atoms # atoms in unit cell 4 3 r 3
15 Number of Spheres in a Face-Centered Cubic Unit Cell
16 Calculation of Packing Efficiency To find the volume of the unit cell in terms of radius: V a 3 (where a is the edge length of the unit cell) a fcc 2 2 To calculate packing efficiency: r; a bcc 4 3 r; a sc 2r Packing efficiency volume of atoms in unit cell total volume of atoms in unit cell 100 Packing efficiency Face-centered cubic structure is 74%. Body-centered cubic structure is 68%. Simple cubic structure is 52%.
17 Condensed Phases - Solids Coordination number is the number of atoms immediately adjacent to any given atom. Simple cubic has a coordination number of 6. Body-centered cubic has a coordination number of 8. Close-packed structures have a coordination number of 12. As coordination numbers increase, each atom in the lattice interacts with more neighbor atoms. The attractive forces for these interactions hold the crystal together. Close-packed structure, with a coordination number of 12, is one of the most common crystal structures.
18 Closest Packing Coordination Number Middle sphere has 12 equivalent nearest neighbors
19 Solids Example Silver crystallizes in a face-center cubic structure. a) Show that silver s packing efficiency is 74%. b) The radius of a silver atom is 144 pm. Calculate the density of the solid silver. c) What is the coordination number?
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Outline Introduction: Ceramic materials Carbon based materials Applications of ceramics Ceramic Processing Mechanical properties of Ceramics Dr. M. Medraj Mech. Eng. Dept. - Concordia University Mech 421/6511