Proposed heat treatment conditions to improve toughness of steel grinding balls
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1 Poposed heat teatment conditions to impove toughness of steel ginding balls C. Camui, C. Caasco, O. Zapata-Henández, L. Reyes, R. Colás, N. Gaza Montes de Oca Following standad heat teatment, steel ginding balls possess hadness values geate than 60 Rockwell C in the case of 3 inch diamete balls. The intenal zone is also had and theefoe has low toughness, educing the woking life of the ball. The objective of the pesent study was to impove the quality of 3 inch diamete ginding balls by poducing highe suface hadness and a cental zone with adequate toughness. To achieve this, time-tempeatue-tansfomation diagams wee poduced, and finite diffeence and finite element modelling of the tempeatue distibution within the balls duing quenching and equalisation teatment wee expeimentally validated. Fom these, new heat teatment conditions wee established to poduce lowe cental hadness values, (53-55 HRC), while maintaining the suface values. This esulted in 60% fewe in Dop Ball Test than balls pocessed by standad heat teatment. Keywods: Steel ginding balls - Hadness - Toughness - Quenching time - Impoved woking life Intoduction Steel ginding balls of 3 and 5 inch diamete ae the most commonly used sizes in the milling of coppe oes. They ae fabicated fom steel ods austenised at 800º C followed eithe by oll-foming (3 inch balls) o by foging (5 inch balls). In both cases, the balls ae then quenched in wate at an initial tempeatue of 50º C and then equalised, (i.e. natual cooled in open ai), to a unifom tempeatue. Fo the 3 inch diamete balls, the time fo each of these teatments is 80s and 40s, espectively. The stuctue of the balls afte final cooling is matensite with some etained austenite [1].. Since ginding balls ae subjected to wea, abasion and impact, the desiable goal of heat teatment should be to ensue that they have popeties appopiate to the opeational conditions unde which they ae to be used: lowe esidual stess; a high degee of hadness and wea esistance in thei suface zone; and an adequate toughness in thei cental zone to enable them to absob some impact enegy without cacking. Calos Camui *, Claudia Caasco Depatment of Mateials Engineeing, Univesity of Concepcion, Edmundo Laenas 70, Concepcion, Chile. *ccamui@udec.cl Fo typical 1% cabon steel containing alloy components such as Mn, C and V, 3 inch balls would be expected to have a suface hadness in the ode of 65 RC, associated mainly with a matensitic micostuctue; howeve, manufactues quality standads only specify 65 RC as the maximum hadness available, togethe with an acceptable minimum value of 60 RC []. In addition, both the poduces and uses of ginding balls nomally claim that the volumetic hadness of the balls should have a standad quality simila to the suface hadness, as can be seen in Table 1 []. This implies that not only the suface zones but also the cental zones of the balls must be of high hadness. As a consequence, high tensile stength and low toughness is achieved, wheeas in fact it is pefeable to have a modeate hadness in the cental zone to impove the impact esistance of the ginding balls. In addition, as the matensitic stuctue in the cental zone of the balls foms only duing the equalisation step of the manufactuing pocess, high esidual stesses ae geneated when the volumetic dilatation associated with the austenite- to- matensite phase tansfomation duing equalization is constained by the matensitic extenal zone induced duing quenching [3-8]. The esidual stess duing heat teatment of steel ginding balls has peviously been modelled and analytically solved and validated. The final equations obtained wee (moe details can be found in efeences [1,3-8] ): Osca Zapata-Henández, Luis Reyes, Rafael Colás, Nelson Gaza Montes de Oca Faculty of Mechanical and Electical Engineeing, Univesity of Nueva Leon, Mexico. ( ) ( 1+ ν ) F( ) d C + C 1 ( 1 ν ) 3 ( 1 ν ) 3 u = + E u u 1 σ = E ( )( ) ( ) u u ( ) ( ) + + F + 1 ν ν ν 1 ν 1 ν 1 (1) () whee u is the adial displacement at position ; is th La Metallugia Italiana - n
2 Memoie whee u is the adial displacement at position ; n is the Poisson s modulus; F() is a themo- mechanical function that involves linea contaction duing cooling and expansion due to austenite-matensite phase tansfomation; σ is the adial stess; E is the elastic modulus of the austenite-matensite mix, detemined expeimentally fom tensile tests at tempeatues between 50º C and the matensitic stat tempeatue, Ms; C 1 and C ae constants which ae detemined fom the following bode conditions: At suface of the balls, s = 0. If the cente of the ball has a tempeatue Ms, then at this position s / =0. If the tempeatue of the ball at a adius Ms, then s ( *) = 0, whee * is the adius fo which T( = *) = Ms. In addition, if fo some adius ** the effective o equivalent stess s ef, (defined in this case as s ef = s -s qq, whee s qq is the cicumfeential stess), is equal to o geate than the yield stess of the steel s 0, then s ef(=**) = s 0, if s ef <s R (uptue stess), o s ef(=**) = 0 if s ef s R. Due to its low ductility, the uptue stess of the steel in the balls, is appoximately equal to its tensile stength. The adial distibution of cicumfeential stess is obtained fom equation () and the foce equilibium fom equation (3). σ ( σ σ ) θθ + = 0 The had, low-toughness centa The had, low-toughness cental zone and the high esidual stesses induced duing heat teatment esult in the balls having a shote woking life than is potentially possible. The pesent study aimed at simulate the heat teatment of the 3 and 5 inch diamete balls and, in paticula, impoving the woking life of 3 inch diamete steel ginding balls by poducing it with a cental zone of modeate hadness and adequate toughness, theeby educing the need fo ball eplacement and so loweing mineal pocessing costs. While obtaining these equiements may seem simple, in fact it is fa fom it; fo instance, if the cooling ate of the cente of the balls is much geate than the citical velocity of quenching, the whole ball would consist of matensite and etained austenite. Howeve, it was easoned that thee may be an optimal heat teatment in which the cental zone of the balls is quenched up to a tempeatue that would allow, duing the equalisation, some popotion of the phase tansfomation of the austenite to occu above Ms. This would poduce a stuctue with lowe hadness and highe toughness, without affecting the suface hadness. (3) Table 1 - Standad hadness and chemical composition of 3 inch diamete ginding balls. Suface min. Hadness (RC) Chemical Composition (wt..%) Suface max. Vol. min.. C Mn P max. S max Si C Mo max To accomplish this, 50 heat-teated 3 and 5 inch diamete balls wee obtained fom a company in Chile. The chemical compositions of two of these balls wee detemined by optical emission spectomety (OES), and thei suface and adial hadness wee measued and the volumetic hadness calculated. As discussed below, the quenching ate at the cente of the 3 inch ball was low (6.6 ºC/s on aveage). Consequently the continuous cooling tansfomation (CCT) cuves of thei steel appoximated to the tempeatue- time- tansfomation (TTT) diagams, detemined theoetically in this wok using the JMAT Po softwae [9] and expeimentally by diffeential scanning caloimetic (DSC) and metallogaphic analysis. Two mathematical models, explicit finite diffeence method (FDM) and finite element method (FEM), wee then used to simulate the tempeatue distibution in a typical steel ball duing quenching and equalisation. The modelled esults wee compaed with expeimental data. Fom this infomation, new heat teatment tempeatues (o times) fo the heat teatment of the 3 inch diamete balls wee analysed with the aim of poducing cental zones with matensite bainite stuctue and some etained austenite, and theefoe with geate toughness. Dop Ball testing involving up to 4000 impacts was pefomed to two goups of 0 balls 3 inch diamete balls: one 30 standad teatment goup and one poposed teatment goup. Finally, the distibution of the esidual cicumfeential stesses following equalisation of both goups of balls was calculated fom eqs. (1) to ( 3). Methodology To detemine the chemical composition of the selected balls, two half-discs wee cut fom each ball while efigeated. The chemical composition was detemined by OES at thee adial positions: peiphey, semi-adius and cente. Thei Rockwell hadness was measued at the suface and at points 3 mm apat along a adius, using a LECO hadness teste. To obtain the TTT cuves by a metallogaphic method, steel samples measuing 10x10x5 mm wee taken fom each ball and austenised at 800 C fo 30 min in a vetical funace with gas potection. Samples wee then tempeed at 300,400, 500 and 600 C in a stainless steel cucible containing a salt bath of 1.5 kg 15% NaCl fo 600 and 500 C, and of 50% KNO 3 at 300 and 400 C. Samples wee maintained at the above tempeatues fo diffeent times, then immediately wate-quenched. They wee then polished, etched and obseved metallogaphically; the images wee analysed using Image J (64-bit) softwae to La Metallugia Italiana - n
3 detemine the popotions of matensite and the emaining phase coesponding to the austenite tansfomation at each tempeatue. DSC analysis using Netzsch equipment was conducted on 100 mg steel samples austenised at 800 C fo 0 min, then cooled at 50 C/min to 700 o 600ºC and maintained at those tempeatues. To model the tempeatue T of the balls, the following assumptions wee made [1,3-8] : The balls wee spheical and homogeneous, and only adial tempeatue gadients occu. The themal conductivity K and the specific heat Cp of the steel depends on its tempeatue. The density ρ of matensite and austenite (o bainite) was assumed to be 7.75 g/cm 3 and 8.03 g/cm 3, espectively [7]. The heat losses fom the quenching wate to the ambient ai ae negligible. The heat equation fo the tempeatue of the balls is then T T K = + ρ R t ( TC p ) with the bounday conditions T ( 0, t) = 0 T K, ( R t) = h( ) T s T am whee R is the ball adius, whee R is the ball adius, and h is the coefficient of heat tansfe between the ball suface at a tempeatue Ts to ambient tempeatue, T am. To solve equation (4) by explicit FDM, adial incements of R/0 and time incements of 0.0s fo quenching and 0.05s fo equalisation wee adopted. The heating of the quenching wate initially at 50º C was consideed as was the heating of the balls duing phase tansfomation fom austenite to matensite. Duing quenching, the coefficient of convective heat tansfe h between the balls and the wate vaies with the tempeatue of the balls. In this case, cooling occus in thee steps: i) until the suface tempeatue of the balls is aound 0ºC, adiation and convection heat tansfe mechanisms acoss the vapou laye suounding the balls is consideed; ii) until a suface tempeatue of the balls is 105ºC, the cooling of the balls is poduced by vapou tanspot fom its suface; and step iii) begins when the suface tempeatue of the ball eaches the boiling point of the wate, and the heat tansfe mechanism becomes convection only [3-8, 10-11]. Typical h values duing quenching vay between (4) W/m ºC (at lowe and highe ball suface tempeatues) and W/m ºC, at a suface tempeatue of 300ºC [1]. Duing equalisation, the heat tansfe mechanism fom the suface of the balls to the ai is natual convection, whee h also depends on suface tempeatue, with an aveage value of 5 W/m ºC [13].. The FEM modelling of the tempeatue changes, given by equation (4), was caied out using DEFORM-HT commecial softwae [14]. The model was constucted taking advantage of the spheical geomety. The heat tansfe conditions wee coupled with phase tansfomation using the popeties and chaacteistics of the mateial pedicted by the JMatPo simulation package. Also, in this case the coefficient of convective heat tansfe between the ball and the wate vaied depending on the tempeatue of the ball. The tempeatue distibution duing quenching and equalization was tested by inseting themocouples at thee diffeent positions in the balls: cente, R/, and nea the suface, R-7mm. The tempeatue of the quenching wate was continuously monitoed duing the pocess fo compaison with simulated esults. Fom the TTT diagams and the tempeatue model duing themal teatment of the balls, fou new themal teatment tempeatues (o times) wee analysed fo quenching and equalisation steps. The objective, as discussed, was to achieve not only matensite and etained austenite in the cente of the finished balls, which will esult in a stuctue of lowe hadness and geate toughness. To expeimentally test the poposed tempeatues, two 3 inch diamete balls fo each of the fou poposed conditions wee coated with cabon to pevent decabuisation and austenised at 800 C fo 3 h in a muffle funace, then quenched and equalised at the cuent conditions of enty tempeatue and wate flow and ai tempeatue, but fo the newly poposed tempeatue teatment. When this pocess was complete fo each ball, half-discs wee cut fom them and thei suface, volumetic and cental hadness s wee detemined. Once the suface and cental hadness s of the balls wee measued satisfactoily, 0 balls wee austenised and themally teated unde the new conditions. These 0 balls and a goup of 0 standad balls wee weighted and then successively subjected to up to 4000 cycles of a Dop Ball Tests fom a dop of 5 metes. The weight loss and the factued o cacked balls in each goup wee then noted. Results In geneal, no significant diffeences in chemical composition wee obseved, eithe between the balls themselves o between locations within the balls. Table shows the composition of the suface of the 3 inch diamete balls, which was consistent with those listed in Table 1. Rockwell C hadness values of 6.5, 61.8 and 61.RC wee obtained fo the suface, volumetic and cental positions, espectively. The high cental hadness value implies low steel toughness in that zone. Tab. - Measued chemical composition of 3 inch diamete ball. Element C Mn P max. S max Si C V. Cu Ti Composition (wt.%) La Metallugia Italiana - n
4 Memoie Figue 1 shows the expeimental TTT diagams fo the 3 inch diamete balls, obtained fom the DSC esults and fom micogaphs as peviously descibed. Ms tempeatue was 15 C. Figue shows the FDM simulated tempeatue distibution duing quenching at the thee adial locations, togethe with the obseved themocouple tempeatue values. The close ageement between the simulated and obseved values is paticulaly notable at the cente (R=0mm) and at the intemediate position (R=19mm); howeve the obseved nea suface tempeatues wee affected by wate enteing the hole dilling to place the themocouple and wee theefoe lowe than pedicted. Note the close ageement between theoetical and expeimental values, being the theoetical tempeatue of the wate lowe than the measued, since the heat loss fom the wate to ambient ai was not consideed in the model. Fig. 3 - Incease in tempeatue of wate duing quenching of 3 inch diamete balls Figue 4 shows the FEM simulated tempeatue distibution duing quenching and equalisation at thee adial locations fo the: A) 3 inch and B) 5 inch diamete balls, supeposed on obseved values. Fig. 1 - Expeimental TTT diagam fo the steel in the 3 inch diamete balls.(p= pelite; B=bainite; s=stat; f=finish) Fig. 4 - Tempeatue distibution simulated by FEM duing quenching and equalisation of A: 3 inch and B: 5 inch diamete balls. Fig. - Tempeatue distibution simulated by FDM duing quenching of 3 inch diamete balls. The incement in tempeatue of the quenching wate as a esult of immesion of the balls of 3 inch diamete is shown in Figue 3. In figue 5 the compaisons between tempeatues pedicted by FEM and measued by themocouples ae plotted fo 3 and 5 inch diamete balls. Almost all the data agees within ±10%, as indicated by the dotted lines on the gaph, with the exception of the values ecoded by the themocouple located close to the suface, affected by contact with the quenching wate. 3 La Metallugia Italiana - n
5 this figue ae measued fom the stat of the heat teatment, fo example fo ball A (3 inch diamete) 80s epesents the end of quenching and thus 100s coesponds to 0s of equalisation. Fig. 5 - Compaison between tempeatues pedicted by FEM and measued by themocouples in 3inch (filled symbols) and 5 inch diamete balls (open symbols). Figue 6A and B shows the CCT cuves pedicted by JMatPo softwae based on the chemical composition of the steel of the 3 (Table ) and 5 inch diamete balls assuming an austenite gain size of 50 µm and the cooling cuves pedicted by FEM. Note the acceptable ageement between the expeimental TTT diagam, figue 1, and the theoetical CCT cuves, figue 6 A, fo the steel in the 3 inch diamete balls. Fig. 7 - Volume faction of the micostuctual constituents as a function of adial position in ball A duing quenching afte (a) 40s and (b) 80s of this teatment; and equalisation afte (c) 0 s and (d) 40 s. Fig. 8 - Matensite volume faction as a function of adial distance fo diffeent teatment times in: A, 3 inch and B, 5 inch diamete balls. Fig. 6 - Theoetical CCT and cooling cuves fo balls: A, 3 inch diamete and B, 5 inch diamete. The volume faction of the vaious mico stuctual components in the 3 inch diamete balls ae shown in Figue 7 as a function of the adial position and time, pedicted by JMat Po softwae. The distibutions duing quenching ae shown in the uppe plots (a is fo 40s and b is fo 80 s). The lowe plots c and d show the faction duing equalisation, 0 s and 40 s afte quenching. Figue 8 shows the faction tansfomed to matensite in 3 and 5 inch diamete balls as a function of distance fom the suface and fo diffeent teatment times. Note that the times shown in In figues 7 and 8 it is notable that no incement of matensite faction occus at the suface of the balls duing equalisation, since the suface tempeatue duing this stage is highe than the tempeatue at this position at the end of quenching, as figue shows. Duing the equalisation cooling step, the tempeatues of the cental zones of the balls each values below Ms and, as a consequence, at the end of equalisation thee is a matensite faction acoss almost the whole adius of the 3 inch diamete balls, associated with thei adial and cicumfeential esidual stesses. Afte equalisation the 3 inch balls wee stoed in boxes to allow them to each ambient tempeatue at a vey slow cooling ate. This poduced the stabilisation and the pesence of etained austenite in the balls at ambient tempeatue. Using the expeimental TTT diagams and the tempeatue La Metallugia Italiana - n
6 Memoie models obtained, fou new themal teatment pocesses wee tested fo the 3 inch diamete balls, consisting of final quenching tempeatues of 600, 550, 500 and 450ºC at the cente of the balls, ove a common equalisation time of 00 s. The aim was ceate a condition whee some bainite pecent exists at the cente of the balls afte heat teatment, without affecting the suface hadness. Table 3 shows the esults of the aveage suface and cental hadness s in the finished balls teated unde these conditions. Tab. 3 - Ball hadness following poposed heat teatments. Final quenching tempeatue at the cente of the balls (ºC) Final equalisation tempeatue of the balls (ºC) Suface hadness (RC) Cental hadness (RC) Fo final quenching tempeatues of 550 and 600ºC at the cente of the balls, the suface eached tempeatues geate than Ms duing equalisation, and tempeing occued. Consequently not enough hadness was obtained at this position. Convesely, at lowe cental tempeatues, (i.e. below 450ºC), no austenite tansfomation occued above Ms such that high hadness was achieved at the cente of the balls. Howeve, a quenching time of 55 s (instead of the cuently used 80s), esulted in a final cental tempeatue of 500ºC (instead of the cuent 73 C) at the end of the teatment, and maintaining a peipheal tempeatue at 100 C was found to be adequate. Subsequently, the equalisation fo 00s (instead of the cuently used 40s), esulted in a unifom ball tempeatue of 03 C (instead of the cuent 139 C) at the end of this pocess. Figue 9 shows the expeimental TTT diagam fo the steel of the 3 inch diamete balls. The cuent and poposed cooling of the cental zone duing quenching (500ºC as the final tempeatue) and equalization ae supeimposed. Fig. 9 - TTT diagam fo 3inch diamete balls and cooling cycles fo the cente of the balls fo cuent and poposed heat teatments In Figue 9 it can be seen that the cente of the balls cuently used does not undego austenitic tansfomation at tempeatues above Ms. This explains the high hadness in the cental zone, in which only matensite and some etained austenite ae pesent. Instead, with the poposed teatment times, some popotion of austenite tansfoms to bainite at tempeatues geate than Ms, which implies a lowe hadness in that zone. Afte austenisation and themal teatment of the two balls using the poposed teatment conditions, values of suface hadness 6 RC, volumetic hadness 61 RC and cental hadness RC wee obtained. The volume faction of each phase pesent at the cente of the finished ball following the poposed teatment wee estimated accoding to the law of mixtues fo the hadness. Fo typical hadness values of matensite, bainite and austenite of 65, 40 and RC espectively, the volume factions ae: 0.59 matensite, 0.33 bainite and 0.08 etained austenite, compaed to 0.93 matensite and 0.07 etained austenite at pesent. Thus, the above aim was fulfilled. The esults of the Dop Ball tests fo the two sets of 0 balls wee: - standad heat teatment: weight loss 0.15%; 5 balls cacked - poposed heat teatment: weight loss 0.17% ; balls cacked. The weight loss was simila fo both goups of balls, consistent with thei compaable suface hadness; howeve the eduction in the numbe of factues specimens fom 5 to was emakable. The supeio toughness in the cental zone following the poposed teatment was due to lowe hadness and lowe matensite content at thei cental zone (volume faction 0.59 compaed with 0.93 cuently), which also educed the esidual stesses. In this egad, Figue 10 shows the theoetical cicumfeential esidual stesses following standad equalisation pocesses [7] and following the poposed heat teatment, as calculated fom equations (1) to (3). The stesses ae clealy smalle afte the poposed pocess, at thei final equalisation tempeatue of 03ºC ( standad is 139º C) a smalle volume of matensite fomed in the cental zone. 34 La Metallugia Italiana - n
7 Fig Theoetical esidual cicumfeential stesses at the end of equalisation of a 3 inch diamete balls: cuent (solid line) and poposed (dotted line) heat teatments Conclusions FDM and FEM simulation of the tempeatue distibution in steel ginding balls duing heat teatment has povided the tools fo pedicting thei behaviou duing the quenching and equalising pocesses. The pedictions ageed well with measued values and encouaged the seach fo new heat teatments conditions of the balls, educing the quenching time and inceasing the equalisation time. This impoved the quality of the balls by maintaining thei peipheal hadness but educing the hadness of thei cental zone and thus inceasing thei toughness. Specifically, a quenching time of 55s and an equalisation time of 00s esulted in a cental zone of 53 to 55 RC hadness (educed fom 61 RC hadness achieved by cuent heat teatment). At the same time the peipheal hadness was maintained. The numbe of factues in Dop Balls testing was 60% lowe than fo standad balls. Acknowledgements The authos wish to acknowledge the suppot and financial contibution of Conicyt, though Poject Fondecyt and the National Council fo Science and Technology of Mexico, CONACYT. Refeences [1] D. Rodíguez, Mathematical model and expeimental validation of the esidual stess field of ginding balls duing thei quenching and equalization, MSc.thesis. Univesity of Concepción, Concepción, Chile, 007. [] Moly Cop Goup, Technical Infomation, epot, 010. [3] A. Gacía, Residual stesses duing quenching of ginding balls, Eng. thesis. Univesity of Concepcion, Concepcion, Chile., 00. [4] C. Camui, A. Gacía, P. Cañete, Mathematical model of esidual stesses induced duing heat teatment of ginding balls, Poc. Congeso Metalugia, Santiago, Chile, 00. [5] C. Camui, A. Gacia, P. Cañete, Mateials Science Foum,003, 433, [6] C. Camui, A. Gacia, P. Cañete,Mateials Science Foum, 007, , [7] C. Camui, C. Caasco, J. Dille, Jounal of Mateials Pocessing Technology, 008, 08, [8] R. Guo,R. Tune, A.D. Da Silva,N.Saundes, P.Schoede, P.R.Cetlin, J.P. Schillé, Mateials Science Foum,013, 76, [9] C. Camui,C. Caasco, P. Cañete, Revue de Metallugie, 1997, 3, [10] J. Bugos, Modelling and expeimental validation of the tempeatue field duing heat teatment of ginding balls, Eng. Thesis, Univesity of Concepción, Concepción, Chile, 006. [11] F. Incopea, Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Tansfe, John Wiley and Sons, New Yok, [1] P. Le Masson, L. Taha, E. Atioukhine, P. Rogeon, C. Caon, J.J. Qumene, Intenational Jounal of Themal Sciences, 00, 41, [13] L. González, Mathematical modelling of the tempeatue field duing heat teatment of ginding balls. Poposal of new conditions fo heat teatment to impove thei tenacity. Eng thesis, Univesity of Concepción. Concepción, Chile, 014. [14] B.L.Feguson, Z. Li, A.M. Febog, Computational. Mateials Science 005, 34, La Metallugia Italiana - n
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