Advanced Materials for Thermal Management of Electronic Packaging

Transcription

1 Xingcun Colin Tong Advanced Materials for Thermal Management of Electronic Packaging Sprin ger

2 Contents 1 Thermal Management Fundamentals and Design Guides in Electronic Packaging 1 Rationale of Thermal Management 1 Heat Sources and Thermal Effects on Integrated Circuit Operation 3 Thermal Failure Induced by Different Coefficient of Thermal Expansions 5 Thermal Failure Rates 6 Thermal Management Challenges and Common Concerns 6 Overall Picture of Thermal Management in Different Packaging Levels 9 Chip Level Packaging Thermal Management 11 Board Level Packaging Thermal Management 12 System-Level Packaging Thermal Management 15 Thermal Management Solutions 16 Hardware Solutions 17 Software Solutions and Software-Based Dynamic Thermal Management 22 Optimal Thermal Design of a Package 25 Fundamentals of Heat Transfer and Thermal Calculation in Electronic Packaging 27 Conduction 28 Convection 31 Radiation 32 Multimode Heat Transfer in Electronic Packaging 34 Microscale Heat Transfer 36 Design for Advanced Thermal Management of Electronic Packaging 38 Thermal Design Guidelines 39 Thermal Modeling and Simulation 41 Experimental Verification 46 ix

3 x Contents Materials Selection for Advanced Thermal Management 47 Interface Joining Materials 48 Bulk Materials for Heat Spreading and Dissipating 49 Materials and Components Integration 50 Environmental Compliance of Thermal Management Materials 52 RoHS 53 WEEE 54 Summary 55 References 57 2 Characterization Methodologies of Thermal Management Materials 59 Thermal Properties and Measurement Techniques 59 Thermal Conductivity and Diffusivity 59 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 68 Specific Heat Capacity 69 Thermal Shock Resistance 70 Thermal Characterization of Micro/Nanomaterials 72 Electrical Properties and Measurement Techniques 80 Electrical Conductivity and Resistivity 80 Permittivity and Its Characterization 83 Thermomechanical Characterization 84 Characterization Techniques of Thermally Induced Stress and Strain 85 Fundamental Equations of Deformable Bodies 90 Constitutive Behavior 91 Thermomechanical Analysis 94 Thermomechanical Failures 100 Analytical Techniques for Materials Characterization 104 Optical Microscopy 104 X-Ray Diffraction 106 Scanning Electron Microscopy 109 Transmission Electron Microscopy 110 Scanning Acoustic Microscopy 112 Atomic Force Microscopy 114 Surface Finish Requirement and Contact Interface Compatibility 117 Corrosion and Oxidation Protection 117 Solderability of Surface Finishes 121 Effects of Mating Cycles and Operating Environments on Contact Surface Finishes 122 Galvanic Corrosion and Contact Interface Compatibility 123

4 Contents xi Reliability Analysis and Environmental Performance Evaluation 123 Failure Modes and Mechanisms *. 124 Reliability Qualifications 126 References Electronic Packaging Materials and Their Functions in Thermal Managements 131 Materials Selection for Electronic Packaging 131 Metallic Materials 134 Monolithic Metals 134 Metallic Composites 136 Ceramics and Semiconductors 140 Electronic Glasses 143 Polymers 145 Thermoplastics 146 Thermosets 150 Elastomers 153 Multimaterial Laminates 153 Multilayer Materials 154 Metallic Laminate Materials 156 Printed Circuit Board Materials 157 Interface Materials 160 Low Thermal Conductivity Materials 163 Advanced Thermally Conductive Materials 164 References Monolithic Carbonaceous Materials and Carbon Matrix Composites 169 Introduction 169 Natural and Industrial Graphite 173 Pyrolytic Graphite 176 Carbon-Graphite Foams 178 Fabrication Process 179 Thermal Conductivity and Heat Transformation 181 Thermally Conductive Carbon Fibers 183 Diamond 188 Carbon Nanotubes 192 Graphene 196 Carbon-Carbon Composites 197 Summary 199 References 199

5 xii Contents 5 Thermally Conductive Polymer Matrix Composites 201 Introduction 201 Polymer Matrix Types 202 Reinforcements of Conductive Polymer Composites 207 Design and Modeling of Conductive Polymer Composites 209 Theoretical Modeling 211 Computational Modeling 215 Percolation Theory 217 General Fabrication and Manufacturing Processes of Polymer Matrix Composites 219 Typical Applications for Thermal Management 222 Polymer-Carbon Composites 223 Polymer-Metal Composites 224 Polymer-Ceramic Composites 225 Polymer Matrix Nanocomposites 227 Summary 231 References High Thermal Conductivity Metal Matrix Composites 233 Introduction 233 Processing of Metal Matrix Composites 235 Solid State Methods 235 Liquid State Methods 239 In Situ Fabrication Methods 242 Codeposition 243 Aluminum Matrix Composites 245 Aluminum-Boron 245 Aluminum-Graphite 246 Aluminum-Diamond 247 Aluminum-Silicon Carbide 248 Aluminum-Silicon 252 Copper Matrix Composites 253 Copper-Graphite 254 Copper-Carbon Nanofiber 257 Copper-Silicon Carbide and Copper-Diamond 258 Other Metal Matrix Composites 266 Beryllium Composites 267 Silver-Diamond 270 Low-CTE Composite Solder 272 Summary 274 References 275

6 Contents xiii 7 Thermally Conductive Ceramic Matrix Composites 277 Introduction 278 State of the Art in Processing of SiC Matrix Ceramic Matrix Composites 279 SiC-Diamond Composites 283 SiC-Carbon Composites 287 Reaction-Bonded SiC Composites 290 Aluminum-Toughened SiC 293 Ceramic Nanocomposites 294 Ceramic Matrix Composite Thermal Protection System 299 Summary 302 References Thermal Interface Materials in Electronic Packaging 305 Thermal Joint Conductance and Selection of Thermal Interface Materials 306 Thermal Joint Conductance 306 Criteria for Selection of Thermal Interface Materials 309 Metallic Thermal Interface Materials 314 Reflow Solders and Active Bond Process 315 Nonreflow Solders and LMAs 320 Composite Solders and Hybrid Metallic Thermal Interface Materials 323 Gold-Gold Interconnection 332 Organic Thermal Interface Materials 338 Thermally Conductive Elastomer Materials 339 Thermal Grease and Compound 342 Phase Change Materials 343 Polymer Solder Hybrid Materials 347 Graphite-Based Thermal Interface Material 351 Advanced Thermal Interface Materials 352 Gelvet and Fiber-Reinforced Thermal Interface Materials 352 Nanotechnology Based Thermal Interface Materials 358 Thermal Interface Materials Selection and Application 362 Commercial TIMs Selection and Application 363 Future Directions 367 Summary 368 References Materials and Design for Advanced Heat Spreader and Air Cooling Heat Sinks 373 Overview of Air Cooling 374 Passive Air Cooling 374 Active Air Cooling 375

7 xiv Contents Spreading and Constriction Resistance 378 Type of Heat Spreaders and Their Materials Selection 384 Dielectric Heat Spreader Materials 385 Metallic and Composite Heat Spreader Materials 388 Graphite Heat Spreader 389 Advanced Heat Spreaders 392 Air Cooling Heat Sink 394 Type of Air Flow Heat Sinks 394 Heat Sink Design Constraints and Design Parameters 396 Heat Sink Materials Selection and Fabrication Process 404 Nanostructure Enhanced Heat Sink and Complex Spreader Sink 412 Summary 418 References Liquid Cooling Devices and Their Materials Selection 421 Introduction 421 Direct Liquid Cooling 423 Immersion Cooling 424 Liquid Jet Impingement 431 Spray Cooling 435 Indirect Liquid Cooling 439 Heat Pipe Cooling 442 Fundamental Principles of Heat Pipe Cooling 444 Heat Pipe Design and Type of Heat Pipes 445 Limitations on Heat Transport Capacity 450 Applications of Heat Pipe for Electronic Cooling 452 Refrigeration Cooling 456 High-Flux Cooling with Phase-Change Heat Transfer 462 Enhancement of Pool Boiling 463 Enhancement of Forced-Convection 466 Embedded Droplet Impingement for Integrated Cooling of Electronics 468 Summary 469 References Thermoelectric Cooling Through Thermoelectric Materials 477 Introduction 477 Thermoelectric Effects 481 Seebeck Effect 481 Peltier Effect 482 Thomson Effect 484 Application of Thermoelectric Effects to Thermoelectric Cooling 485

8 XV Design and Architecture of Thermoelectric Cooling Devices 487 Design Methodology 487 Multistage Architecture 492 Thermoelectric Materials and Future Development Trends 495 Fermi Energy in Thermoelectric Materials 496 Optimization Criteria of the Thermoelectric Materials 497 Bulk Thermoelectric Materials 502 Low-Dimensional Thermoelectric Materials 512 Thermoelectric Nanocomposites 516 Summary 522 References 523 Development and Application of Advanced Thermal Management Materials 527 Materials Development Routine and Methodology 527 Establishing Application Target and Materials Requirements 528 Materials Selection with Optimal Balance of Cost and Performance 532 Thermal Modeling and Design-In Methodology 533 Prototype Fabrication and Experimental Validation 538 Production Layout and Quality Assurance 540 Smart Composites and Multifunctional Materials for Thermal Management 544 Thermal Management Materials with Enhanced Electromagnetic Interference Shielding and Absorbing Performance 546 Minimizing EMI from Heat Sinks 546 Combination of Board Level Shielding and Heat Dissipation 547 Thermally Conductive EMI Absorbing Materials 549 Thermally Conductive Metalized Plastic Housing for EMI Shielding 551 Thermal Management Application in Computer Design 552 Design Baseline for Power Management and Performance Optimization 553 Packaging-Level Solutions 555 System-Level Solutions 559 Thermal Management Application in Photonic LED Packaging 561 Thermal Characterization of LED Systems 562 Design Guideline for LEDs with Efficient Thermal Dissipation 565

9 xvi Contents Thermal Management Solutions and Challenges of LEDs 570 Thermal Management Application in Sustainable Energy Generation 571 Thermal Management of Batteries 571 Thermal Management of Fuel Cells 574 Thermal Management of Solar Cell Packaging 576 Perspective and Future Trends 577 Electrothermal and Multiphysics Codesign and Software Solutions 578 Progress and Future Trends of High Heat Flux Thermal Management 582 Thermal Challenges for Next-Generation Military, Automotive, and Harsh-Environment Electronic Systems 586 Summary 588 References 591 Appendix: Standards and Specifications for Evaluation of Thermal Management in Electronic Industry 595 A. Standards for Thermal Analysis 595 B. Standards for Life and Reliability Evaluation 598 C. Standards for Flammability and Toxicity Testing 603 Index 607