Chapter 11: Applications and Processing of Metal Alloys

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1 Chapter 11: Applications and Processing of Metal Alloys ISSUES TO ADDRESS... What are some of the common fabrication techniques for metals? What heat treatment procedures are used to improve the mechanical properties of both ferrous and nonferrous alloys? Chapter 11-1

2 Metal Fabrication How do we fabricate metals? 1. Refining (Extraction) 2. Forming Refining Forming Rough stock formed to final shape Hot working vs. Cold working Chapter 11-2

3 Production of Iron from Ore Iron Ore Coke (carbon) (Fe 2 O 3 and impurities) Limestone (CaCO 3 to remove slag) BLAST FURNACE gas refractory vessel layers of coke and iron ore air slag Molten iron heat generation C + O 2 CO 2 reduction of iron ore to metal CO 2 + C 2CO 3CO + Fe 2 O 3 2Fe +3CO 2 purification CaCO 3 CaO+CO 2 CaO + SiO 2 + Al 2 O 3 slag World annual production: ~10 9 ton Chapter 11-3

4 Production of Copper 1. Mining copper sulfides (CuFeS 2, Cu 2 S) 2. Remove Fe (through oxides) 3. Oxidize copper sulfides into copper oxides and decompose Cu 2 O to obtain copper 2Cu 2 S + 3O 2 = 2Cu 2 O + 2SO 2 2Cu 2 O = 4Cu + O 2 4. Further refining with help of (sulfuric) acid digestion and electro-deposition or further melting Cu e - = Cu Annual world production: ~20x10 6 ton ~80% of all copper recycled Chapter 11-4

5 Production of Aluminum Al bonds to oxygen strongly, difficult to reduce by carbon (as compared with Fe or Cu) or by thermal decomposition (as for Cu) Electrolytic production in molten salt of Na 3 AlF 6 -CaF 2 : 2Al 2 O 3 = 4Al + 3O 2 World annual production: 40x10 6 ton Chapter 11-5

6 Metal Fabrication Methods (i) FORMING Forging (Hammering; Stamping) (wrenches, crankshafts) A o die blank force force Drawing (rods, wire, tubing) A o die die A d A d tensile force often at elev. T die must be well lubricated & clean CASTING Rolling (Hot or Cold Rolling) (I-beams, rails, sheet & plate) A o force A o MISCELLANEOUS ram roll roll Extrusion (rods, tubing) container billet container A d Adapted from Fig. 11.8, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. die holder extrusion die ductile metals, e.g. Cu, Al (hot) Chapter 11-6 A d

7 Metal Fabrication Methods (ii) FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS Casting- mold is filled with molten metal metal melted in furnace, perhaps alloying elements added, then cast in a mold common and inexpensive gives good production of shapes weaker products, internal defects good option for brittle materials and/or complex shape Chapter 11-7

8 Metal Fabrication Methods (iii) FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS Sand Casting (large parts, e.g., auto engine blocks) Sand Sand molten metal Model material need to withstand T >~1500ºC and is inexpensive and easy to mold, e.g., sand To create mold, pack sand around form (pattern) of desired shape Chapter 11-8

9 Metal Fabrication Methods (iv) FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS Investment Casting (low volume, complex shapes e.g., jewelry, turbine blades) Stage I Mold formed by pouring plaster of paris (CaSO4.2H2O) around wax pattern. Plaster allowed to harden. wax I Stage II Wax is melted and then poured from mold hollow mold cavity remains Stage III Molten metal is poured into mold and allowed to solidify. II III Chapter 11-9

10 Metal Fabrication Methods (v) FORMING CASTING MISCELLANEOUS Die Casting -- high volume -- for alloys having low melting temperatures Continuous Casting -- simple shapes (e.g., rectangular slabs, cylinders) molten solidified Chapter 11-10

11 Metal Fabrication Methods (vi) FORMING Powder Metallurgy (metals w/low ductility or very high melting points) pressure point contact at low T densify heat area contact densification by diffusion at higher T CASTING MISCELLANEOUS Welding (when fabrication of one large part is impractical) filler metal (melted) base metal (melted) fused base metal unaffected heat-affected zone unaffected piece 1 piece 2 (Electro) plating or other electrodeposition Adapted from Fig. 11.9, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig from Iron Castings Handbook, C.F. Walton and T.J. Opar (Ed.), 1981.) Chapter 11-11

12 Annealing of Metals Annealing: Heat to certain temperature Tanneal, then cool slowly. Stress Relief: Reduce stresses resulting from: - plastic deformation - nonuniform cooling - phase transform. Spheroidize (steels): Make very soft steels for good machining. Heat just below T eutectoid & hold for h. Process Anneal: Negate effects of cold working by (recovery/ recrystallization) Types of Annealing Full Anneal (steels): Make soft steels for good forming. Heat to get g, then furnace-cool to obtain coarse pearlite. Normalize (steels): Deform steel with large grains. Then heat treat to allow recrystallization and formation of smaller grains. Based on discussion in Section 11.7, Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Chapter 11-12

13 Hardness, HRC Quenching & Hardenability -- Steels Hardenability measure of the ability for steel to form martensite a meta-stable phase with very high hardness specimen heated to g phase T (e.g., >727C) 24ºC water flat ground Rockwell C hardness tests Adapted from Fig , Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig adapted from A.G. Guy, Essentials of Materials Science, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1978.) Plot hardness versus distance from the quenched end. Adapted from Fig , Callister & Rethwisch 8e. Distance from quenched end Chapter 11-13

14 Hardness, HRC Reason Why Hardness Changes with Distance/Cooling Rate For steel, faster cooling harder (certain hard (meta-stable) phase formation); slower cooling softer (less or no hard phase formation) T(ºC) Fast cooling M(start) M(finish) A M distance from quenched end (in) Slow cooling 0% 100% Adapted from Fig , Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig adapted from H. Boyer (Ed.) Atlas of Isothermal Transformation and Cooling Transformation Diagrams, American Society for Metals, 1977, p. 376.) Time (s) Chapter 11-14

15 Influences of Quenching Medium & Specimen Geometry Effect of quenching medium: Medium air oil water Rate of cooling low moderate high Effect of specimen geometry: When surface area-to-volume ratio increases: -- cooling rate throughout interior increases -- hardness throughout interior increases Position center surface Cooling rate low high Hardness low moderate high Hardness low high Chapter 11-15

16 Precipitation Hardening Particles impede dislocation motion and make alloys harder & stronger Ex: Al-Cu system 700 Procedure: T(ºC) L CuAl A: solution heat treatment +L q+l (get uniform solid solution) A B: quench to room temp. q (uniform solid solution) +q 400 C -- C: reheat/aging to nucleate small precipitates (q within phase) Other alloys that display precipitation hardening: Cu-Be Temp. Cu-Sn Mg-Al A (sol n heat treat) B (Al) wt% Cu composition range available for precipitation hardening Adapted from Fig , Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig adapted from J.L. Murray, International Metals Review 30, p.5, 1985.) Adapted from Fig , Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig is courtesy of G.H. Narayanan and A.G. Miller, Boeing Commercial Airplane Company.) C (precipitate q) Adapted from Fig , Callister & Rethwisch 8e. B Time Microstructure of Al with fine precipitates Chapter 11-16

17 tensile strength (MPa) %EL (2 in sample) Influence of Precipitation Heat Treatment on TS & %EL Example of Al Alloys: Maxima on TS curves w/ aging time yet min on EL% curve Increasing T accelerates precipitation hardening process Too long aging decreases strength again due to overageing or growth of precipitates ºC 204ºC 1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr precipitation heat treat time ºC 149ºC 1min 1h 1day 1mo 1yr precipitation heat treat time Adapted from Fig , Callister & Rethwisch 8e. (Fig adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H. Baker (Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, p. 41.) Chapter 11-17

18 Summary Ferrous alloys: steels and cast irons Non-ferrous alloys: -- Cu, Al, Ti, and Mg alloys; refractory alloys; and noble metals. Metal fabrication techniques: -- forming, casting, miscellaneous. Hardenability of metals -- measure of ability of a steel to be heat treated. Precipitation hardening --hardening & strengthening due to formation of precipitate particles. --Al, Mg alloys precipitation hardenable. Chapter 11-18

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