HARSH ENVIRONMENT IMPACT ON RESISTOR RELIABILITY

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1 HARSH ENVIRONMENT IMPACT ON RESISTOR RELIABILITY Marie Cole, Lenas Hedlund 1, George Hutt, Tibor Kiraly 2, Levente Klein 3, Steve Nickel 1, Prabjit Singh 4, Tim Tofil 1 IBM Corporation Hopewell Junction, NY 1 Rochester, MN, 2 Szekesfehervar, Hungary, 3 Yorktown Heights, NY, 4 Poughkeepsie, NY colems@us.ibm.com ABSTRACT The electronics industry has observed an increase in the incidents of corrosion failures in data centers located in harsh industrial environments and in geographies with atmospheres high in sulfur-bearing gaseous contamination. Several failing signatures have been observed, including creep corrosion of copper plating on printed circuit boards and the corrosion of resistor terminals. Resistor terminal corrosion results in electrical opens as the corrosion product, silver sulfide, builds up and consumes the terminal metallurgy. The reaction to these corrosion failures has included three key efforts. The first has been to investigate the source of the sulfur-bearing gases and to take actions to reduce the exposure of the electronics to these corrosive gases. The second has been to increase the robustness of the components to sulfur-bearing gases either through a change in the construction of the component or applying gasimpervious barriers. And the third has been to develop a laboratory accelerated corrosion technique to predict and compare the life of the components in harsh field conditions. This paper will discuss work in each of these three areas. Significant efforts have been undertaken to assess the environmental conditions in numerous data centers and recommend steps to improve the air quality. Manufacturers of components have developed alternative materials and/or constructions to improve the robustness of components when exposed to high sulfur environments. Mitigation techniques to apply a barrier such as a conformal coating have been developed and evaluated for effectiveness. And laboratory evaluation techniques have been explored to assess and rank component robustness for use in high sulfur environments. Keywords: sulfur environment, corrosion, resistor reliability INTRODUCTION Information Technology (IT) equipment has become ubiquitous with server systems found in increasingly varied environments from the traditional data center to the manufacturing floor. And as the use of IT equipment has become more prevalent world-wide, an increasing number of data centers are located in growth markets in the Asia Pacific region such as China and India. Along with these new locations and environments, comes the challenge of providing optimum conditions for server system operation. Typically, the focus for maintaining an adequate data center environment has been on temperature and humidity control [1,2]. As the IT industry has experienced a recent increase in the number of system failures linked to high levels of airborne sulfur [3,4,5,6,7], an additional focus has developed on gaseous and particulate contamination. New recommendations have been issued for the control of airborne contaminants [8]. These recommendations can be met even under challenging environmental conditions when air filtration systems are employed. In parallel to increasing awareness of the risks of high sulfur conditions to encourage better control of data center environments, the industry has taken action to increase the robustness of the hardware most susceptible to high sulfur levels. Numerous companies and industry groups have taken action to better understand and address the creep corrosion phenomenon found with printed circuit board (PCB) metallization [6,7,9,10]. Although not as widely discussed, efforts have also been undertaken to increase the robustness of thick film resistors which typically use silver as the base conductor material [4,5]. Alternatives to silver electrodes such as silver alloys or noble metals can decrease the susceptibility to sulfur induced corrosion. Several authors have documented the mechanism for silver sulfide corrosion of thick film resistors [4,5,11], as well as techniques for performing accelerated laboratory testing. These laboratory techniques include mixed flowing gas (MFG), hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S) gas, sulfur oil and flowers of sulfur exposures. Work remains to correlate these test methods and conditions to the actual high sulfur environments IT equipment is exposed to in a contaminated data center or manufacturing facility. Appropriate test methods could also assess whether other possible mitigation techniques, such as conformal coatings, would aggravate [5] or improve resistor performance in a sulfur environment. MONITORING THE ENVIRONMENT A recent white paper from ASHRAE [8] recommends that data center environmental corrosivity levels be such that copper and silver will corrode at rates less than 300 angstroms/month. Corrosion rates are highly geographical location dependent, corrosive sites being located mostly in India and China, with rare instances in the USA and EU. The risk of failure due to corrosion is aggravated by the continuous miniaturization of electronic component, that now have features sizes approaching the corrosion product

2 thickness, by the introduction of RoHS compliant components into electronic assemblies and by the increasing use of air-side economizers that have the potential of allowing the ingress of contaminated, corrosive air into data centers. Real-time monitoring and need for high sensitivity detection of corrosion rates drives the development of new sensors that can be integrated in control loops of air handling units (AHUs) for thermal and corrosion management of data centers. Today, parameters such as temperature, humidity and airflow can be routinely monitored spatially and temporally. To complete the picture of the environmental situation in a mission critical data center, there is an urgent need to add real-time corrosion monitoring to this list of parameters. To be deployed in data centers in large numbers, real-time corrosion monitors, in addition to being accurate and reliable, must be small (less than an inch cube), must be able to respond quickly to changing corrosion conditions, must be able to be connected to an internet/intranet and must be low cost. No such monitors are commercially available. Existing corrosion sensor technologies are based on three methodologies: (1) change of electrical resistance of metal films due to corrosion; (2) change of mass of metal films; and (3) coulometric reduction analysis to determine thickness of metal corrosion products. The first two methods are attractive from a point of view of real-time corrosion monitoring that can be integrated in to the data center management system, once their accuracy and reliability are improved and their size and cost is substantially reduced. The third method is useful for longterm monitoring where one is interested in the cumulative effect of corrosion over longer periods of the order of months. RESISTORS AND SULFUR INDUCED CORROSION Resistor Construction The most commonly used resistor in electronic assemblies is the standard, surface mount, thick film resistor. The construction of these resistors (Figure 1) begins with an alumina substrate and uses thick film silver metal paste to form two contacts on the surface of the substrate, one on each end. A resistive element is then screened onto the substrate to connect the two silver contacts to form the resistor while leaving a portion of each silver contact exposed for the resistor terminal construction. A protective coating is applied over the resistive element and a portion of the silver contacts, but leaves the remainder of the contact visible to be plated with the final nickel and tin solderable terminals. This structure does not guarantee a gas tight envelope around the inner silver contact, but provides adequate protection from the environment by various metallic and nonmetallic protective layers as described earlier and shown in Figure 1. Under normal environmental contamination levels, the protective layers are sufficient to provide reliable service of the resistor. Figure 1. Exploded view of the construction of a standard surface mount resistor [12]. In environments high in sulfur-bearing gaseous contamination, the ingress of corrosive gases can corrode the silver terminal metallization. The mechanical stresses arising from the greater volume occupied by the corrosion products can crack the resistor package. The degraded hermeticity of the package increases the rate of ingress of the corrosive gases, hastening the silver corrosion. When all the silver in a local length of the silver termination is converted to silver sulfide, the resistor fails. The silver sulfide corrosion product is often seen as needles sticking out of the edges of the coating protecting the resistor, as shown in Figures 2 and 3. The same failure mode for a resistor network can be seen in Figure 4. Figure 2. Silver sulfide resistor corrosion schematic The corrosion of silver by sulfur-bearing gases and the role of relative humidity have been extensively studied by many investigators but the complex, non-linear and synergistic nature of the atmospheric corrosion mechanism does not allow one to derive a simple nomograph that relates the gaseous composition, temperature and humidity to the corrosion rate of silver. The most comprehensive study of the atmospheric corrosion of silver was done by Rice et al. in 1981 [13]. This work and others are summarized below. The corrosion of metals such as copper and iron is strongly influenced by moisture. Below about 50% relative humidity, the corrosion rate of these metals is low; above about 60% relative humidity, the corrosion rate rises very steeply with rise in relative humidity. In contrast, Rice et al. showed that the corrosion rate of silver was not influenced by the relative humidity. Silver is quite insensitive to sulfur dioxide, because silver is resistant to diluted sulfuric acid. Presence of nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) and/or ozone (O 3 )

3 enhances the rate of silver corrosion rate by an order of magnitude. Silver corrosion is very sensitive to hydrogen sulfide [14]. As in the case of sulfur dioxide, ozone and/or nitrogen dioxide act in synergy with hydrogen sulfide to speed up the formation of silver sulfide [14]. The effect of air flow velocity on corrosion of silver was studied by Volpe. It was shown that the silver corrosion rate increased with flow rate up to 0.1m/s and became insensitive to air flow above this flow rate [15]. contact to slow its reaction with sulfur. The third method eliminates the silver contact by replacing it with a gold flash contact that prevents sulfur attack. Figure 4. Silver sulfide resistor network corrosion at 95x (top) and 350x (bottom). Figure 3. Silver sulfide resistor corrosion at low (top) and high (bottom) magnification. The corrosion of silver in resistors is also influenced by the presence of silicone coating often sprayed as conformal coating on circuit boards to protect against dust. Hillman et al. report the majority of resistor failures have occurred in electronic assemblies encapsulated in silicone, which acts as a sponge for the sulfur-based gases [5]. Improving Corrosion Resistance Industrial, robotic and automotive markets must contend with high sulfur environments and the resistor industry has created "Anti-Sulfurated" thick film resistors for those applications. Three methods have been employed to strengthen these parts. Some resistor suppliers add an additional protective coating over the internal silver contact of the thick film resistor. Other suppliers modify the silver TEST METHOD EXPLORATION A set of experiments was undertaken to evaluate several possible lab techniques to replicate the sulfur induced corrosion observed in the field. These experiments included MFG at multiple conditions, H 2 S gas at multiple concentration levels, sulfur oil immersion with and without chlorine and a variation on the ASTM B 809 Flowers of Sulfur (FoS) test. In some cases, the resistors were tested on printed circuit boards attached using a SAC reflow or SnPb hand soldering process. In other cases, the resistors were tested as loose components. Mixed Flowing Gas Mixed flowing gas test capability was available at an internal IBM facility since the EIA A condition IIA [16] is used routinely as a test method for the reliability qualification of certain types of connectors. An outside lab

4 was contracted to provide Battelle condition IV [17] test capability. The specifics for these test conditions, along with EIA A condition IV as a comparison, are listed in Table 1. Class Temp (C) RH (%) H 2 S (ppb) Cl 2 (ppb) NO 2 (ppb) SO 2 (ppb) EIA IIA 30±1 70±2 10±5 10±3 200±50 100±20 EIA IV 40±1 75±2 200±20 30±5 200± Batt. IV 50±1 75±2 200±20 50±5 200± Table 1. Comparison of MFG conditions. Samples were obtained from three resistor suppliers and several resistor network suppliers. After ten days of testing at the EIA Class IIA condition there was no visible corrosion on the 0805 or 0402 standard resistors or the 4x0402 standard resistor networks, all of which had been assembled to PCBs. Although few details have been published for the acceleration factor derivation for MFG testing, the EIA Class IIA is projected to simulate seven years in a Business Office environment that IBM designates as G1 [18]. Copper and silver monitoring coupons were included in the testing exposure and had the following results when normalized to 30 days: Cu 4753 Å, Ag 485 Å After four weeks of testing at the Battelle Class IV condition, cards with soldered 0805 standard resistors and 4x0402 standard resistor networks from three suppliers were removed for electrical probing and visual inspection. Although all of the PCB vias and connectors showed copper corrosion products, none of the individual resistors or resistor networks showed electrical failure. Battelle MFG conditions have been referenced as simulating one year of field life for every two days in the test chamber [17]. H 2 S Gas Two experiments using H 2 S gas in increasing concentration levels were conducted on samples from three suppliers. Both experiments were at 25 o C and 70% RH. Test cells of loose 0805 and assembled 1206 standard resistors, along with soldered 4x0402 standard resistor networks were tested in 100ppm H 2 S gas for 624 hours with no resistance change and no obvious signs of corrosion. Another study tested six soldered 0805 standard and antisulfur resistors from each of three different suppliers in 1% H 2 S gas. Although there was one resistance fail of a standard resistor from Supplier C at 450 hours, there were no other fails through 1000 hours of testing. Sulfur Oil A 5% sulfur oil experiment with a temperature of 105 o C did not result in any fails after 650 hours of test on soldered 0805 standard resistors from three suppliers. In addition, there were no fails after 500 hours on several additional resistor and resistor network body sizes from one of the suppliers. Another experiment used an oil mix combining three parts 5% sulfur oil and one part 23% chlorine oil, again at a temperature of 105 o C. The test matrix for this experiment included loose and soldered 0805 standard and anti-sulfur resistors from three suppliers, along with several other smaller standard resistors and resistor networks from one of the suppliers. While there were no fails of the anti-sulfur resistors through 600 hours, there were fails as early as 300 and 600 hours in the testing of resistor networks (1206 CC Rnet) and standard resistors (0805), respectively, among each of the suppliers samples soldered to cards. Flowers of Sulfur An initial experiment using a Flowers of Sulfur test method based on ASTM B 809 compared the performance of 0805 loose standard and anti-sulfur resistors from three suppliers. The Flowers of Sulfur test was performed dry at a temperature of 105 o C. The humidity typically used in the flowers of sulfur test was removed since the focus in this case was for silver sulfide corrosion, a mechanism that is not accelerated by humidity. Removing the humidity reduced the corrosion of the copper features on the test card without impacting the silver sulfide corrosion mechanism. The copper test points on the test cards were coated with solder to further reduce the corrosion and improve the testability. The temperature was increased from the ASTM test method to increase the sulfur concentration in the test chamber and accelerate the corrosion. Suppliers A and B had failures of the standard resistors as early as 450 hours of test, while resistors from Supplier C did not fail during the 600 hour duration of the test. The test card matrix of additional resistors and resistor networks of varying body sizes from multiple suppliers used in the hot oil and sulfur gas experiments were also subjected to Flowers of Sulfur. This time, none of the 0805 resistors failed during the 720 hour duration of the test. Similar to the hot oil with sulfur and chlorine, the 1206 CC Rnet failed here at 550 hours and the other resistors / resistor networks in this test cell did not fail during the 976 hour duration of the test. Comparison Overall, the test results from the four different methods were quite varied, as can be seen in Tables 2-4, suggesting the possibility that a defect mechanism caused by variations in the materials or construction of the resistors may play a role in time to failure. Similar parts in the same cell would have a wide range of time to failure and across different cells there would be failures at similar durations in some, but not all, cases. The results in the hot oil with sulfur and chlorine and flowers of sulfur testing appeared to be most consistent.

5 As mentioned previously, there is some limited acceleration factor information published for MFG conditions. No published acceleration factor information was found for the other test methods explored. Determining a relationship between lab testing and field life should be explored in subsequent testing. Supplier Hot Oil S / Cl F o S H 2 S 100ppm A No fails 600 No fails B No fails 450 No fails C No fails No fails No fails Table 2. Hours to first failure for loose 0805 resistors. Supplier Hot Oil F o S H 2 S 1% MFG IV S / Cl A 600 No fails No fails No fails B 600 No fails No fails No fails C No fails No fails 450 No fails Table 3. Hours to first failure for assembled 0805 resistors. Figure 5b. SEM image of corrosion on a resistor immersed in hot oil (sulfur / chlorine) for 90 hours. Body Size Hot Oil Hot Oil F o S S S / Cl 0201 No fails No fails No fails 0402 No fails No fails No fails 0804 CV No fails No fails No fails Rnet 1206 CC No fails Rnet Table 4. Hours to first failure for assembled resistors from Supplier C. Failing samples from the hot sulfur / chlorine oil and flowers of sulfur test cells were examined to make a comparison to corrosion samples returned from the field. As can be seen in the SEM images, the sulfur / chlorine oil (Fig. 5a and b) and flowers of sulfur (Fig. 6) showed corrosion product similar to the field sample shown previously in Figure 3. Figure 6. SEM images of corrosion on a resistor network exposed to flowers of sulfur at 105C for 309 hours. Figure 5a. SEM image of corrosion on a resistor immersed in hot oil (sulfur / chlorine) for 90 hours. Flowers of Sulfur 0402 Resistor and Rnet Matrix The flowers of sulfur test method had advantages over the hot oil test method. Test cards could be wired for resistance monitoring with both the cards and wires surviving in flowers of sulfur, which they could not in the hot oil. One more matrix was run in flowers of sulfur at 105 o C before making a final decision on the test method for a full second round of testing. This matrix included 0402 standard and anti-sulfur resistors from Suppliers A, B and others. It also included 0402 standard resistor networks from Suppliers A, B, C and others.

6 The results for the 0402 standard resistors varied quite widely for the five suppliers tested. Resistors from Suppliers A, B and D had first fails between 235 and 500 hours, while Suppliers E and F had no fails through the end of test at 950 hours. The anti-sulfur versions from Suppliers A and B performed significantly better than their standard versions with a no fails through 950 hours for Supplier A and one fail at 824 hours for Supplier B. First fail data in hours for the 0402 resistors is shown in Figure 7. failure with smaller resistor bodies. Additional testing in phase two was designed to explore these trends. First Fail (Hours) First Fail (Hours) A A AS B B AS D E F 0 A B C D E F G CV RNET CC RNET Figure 9. First fail data for 0402 resistor networks. O4O2 Figure 7. First fail data for 0402 standard and anti-sulfur resistors. The time to failure characteristics for the 0402 standard resistors from Suppliers A, B and D are shown in Figure 8. Figure 10. Time to failure for 0402 CV resistor networks. TEST METHOD SELECTION The Flowers of Sulfur test was selected to continue into a second round of testing that would use multiple conditions to explore kinetics and evaluate a more complete range of resister and resistor network body sizes from several suppliers and include anti-sulfur resistor constructions. Figure 8. Time to failure plot for 0402 resistors. The results for the 0402 CC and CV resistor networks also varied widely. All of the 20 resistor network samples from Suppliers B and D in the CC format failed by 163 hours. Resistor networks from other suppliers had some early fails, but the time for all samples to fail was much longer. And samples from Supplier F lasted for almost the entire 950 hour test duration. First failure data for the resistor networks is shown in Figure 9. The failure distribution characteristics for the 0402 CV resistor networks from Suppliers B, C, D and E are shown in Figure 10. Even with the wide variation in the results, there did appear to be a trend for the resistor networks to fail earlier than the resistors. There also appeared to be a trend for earlier Second Phase Test Matrix of Resistor Networks For the second phase test of resistor networks (Rnet), samples were obtained from three different suppliers (A, B, C). Each Rnet sample was a four resistor device. There were two body sizes represented, 4x0402 and Some Rnets had convex terminations (CV) while others had concave terminations (CC). Anti-Sulfurated (AS) Rnets were provided by one of the suppliers (C). All of the Rnets were soldered onto printed circuit test vehicle cards. This test included a study of three conformal coatings (CCX, CCY, CCZ) at two different flowers of sulfur temperature conditions, 105 o C and 80 o C. None of the resistors had power applied during the test. The samples were arranged into stress cells shown in Table 5. The results for the standard 4x0402 Rnets from the three suppliers were similar to each other whether tested at 80 o C or 105 o C, as shown in Figures 11 and 12, respectively, although Supplier B was the first to fail. It s unknown whether the CC configuration of the Rnets from Supplier B played a role in the earlier failure, since the Rnets from both Suppliers A and C used the CV configuration. The samples

7 tested at 105 o C included two lots of Rnets, assembled to the test cards in different facilities. The samples tested at 80 o C shared a common lot and assembly facility with one of the groups of Rnets tested at 105 o C. Sum of Qty FoS Temp Coating Ta = 105C Ta = 80C Supplier - RNET No Coat CCX CCY CCZ No Coat CCX CCY CCZ A-4x0402 CV B-4x0402 CC C-4x0402 CV C-4x0402 CV AS B-1206 CV C-1206 CV AS Grand Total Table 5. Second phase RNET test matrix. Figure 11. Time to failure for 0402 Rnets at 80 o C. Figure 13. Time to failure comparison for 0402 Rnets tested at 105 o C and 80 o C. Using Supplier C as the example to evaluate the potential benefit of conformal coating, it can be seen in Figure 14 that two of the coatings, CX and CY, actually decreased the time to failure at 105 o C. These two coatings had similar chemistry and decreased the time to failure for the standard Rnets from all of the suppliers. Coating Y had a similar impact on the time to failure at 80 o C for standard Rnets from Suppliers A and C, but had no affect on standard Rnets from Supplier B. In contrast, the third coating, CZ, extended the time to failure considerably for standard Rnets from all of the suppliers. At 105 o C, the earliest failure was at 21 days for Supplier B and 123 days for Supplier A, as compared to four days with no coating. Similarly, at 80 o C the earliest failure was at 111 days for Supplier B as compared to 18 days with no coating. There were no fails for standard Rnets from Supplier C with the CZ coating at either 80 o C or 105 o C and no fails for Supplier A at 80 o C. The affect of coating materials clearly indicated a significant dependence on the chemistry of that coating. Figure 12. Time to failure for 0402 Rnets at 105 o C. A comparison of the 80 o C to 105 o C results, Figure 13, shows the Rnets tested at 80 o C surviving from 5.5 (Supplier B) to about 8 times longer (Suppliers A, C) than those tested at 105C, using the Scale or Characteristic Life as the point of comparison. Figure 14. Comparison of coatings X and Y with no coating for Supplier C. There were no fails in any of the test cells through the end of test at 168 days for the anti-sulfur Rnets from Supplier C including both test temperatures and coating or no coating options. It should not be assumed that all anti-sulfur options

8 are as effective as this case, but the improvement from Supplier C proved to be significant. Although the available 1206 Rnet samples were more limited, similar comparisons were examined. For the standard 1206 Rnet samples obtained from Supplier B, those tested at 80 o C survived about five times longer than those tested at 105 o C, as shown in Figure 15. This relative performance is similar to that observed for the standard 4x0402 Rnets from Supplier B (5.5x) as shown previously in Figure body sizes representing both standard thick film and Anti-Sulfurated (AS) versions. The samples were assembled on test cards and half of the resistors were coated with Coating Z. The parts were arranged into the stress cells shown in Table 6. This testing was on-going at the time of publication and results will be reported during the conference presentation. Conformal Coating on resistors >> Flowers of Sulfur Temp >> No Coat CCZ No Coat CCZ Ta=105C Ta=105C Ta=80C Ta=80C Humidity >> Dry Dry Dry Dry Figure 15. Comparison of 0402 and 1206 standard Rnets tested at 105 o C and 80 o C. Coatings X and Y shortened the time to failure at 105 o C as compared to No Coating. At 80 o C, only Coating Y shortened the time to failure. As with the 0402 standard Rnets, Coating Z extended the time to failure for the standard 1206 Rnets tested at both 80 o C to 105 o C compared to No Coating. The anti-sulfurization from Supplier C was as effective with the 1206 Rnets as it had been with the 0402 Rnets. There were no fails in any of the test cells through the end of test at 168 days for the anti-sulfur Rnets from Supplier C including both test temperatures and coating or no coating options. A comparison was also made for the 0402 and 1206 standard Rnets from Supplier B. Without knowing if the difference in Rnet format, CC for the 0402 and CV for the 1206, the failure trend would indicate that the smaller body size fails earlier. When tested at 105 o C and 80 o C, the 1206 Rnets lasted 2.5 and 2.2 times longer than the 0402 Rnets, respectively. Second Phase Test Matrix of Resistors At the start of this second phase of flowers of sulfur testing for discrete resistors, the conformal coating options had already been explored on the Rnet test and it was decided to focus only on the Coating Z. Again, two stress temperatures were selected: 105 o C and 80 o C. None of the resistors had power applied during the test. Four suppliers (A,B,C,H) provided discrete resistor samples in 0402, 0603, 0805 and A A A A A-0402 AS A-0603 AS A-0805 AS A-1206 AS B B B B B-0402 AS B-0603 AS B-0805 AS B-1206 AS C C C C C-0402 AS C-0603 AS C-0805 AS C-1206 AS H H H H H-0402 AS H-0603 AS H-0805 AS H-1206 AS Table 6. Second phase resistor test matrix. CONCLUSIONS 1) Modified Flowers of Sulfur testing dry at 105 o C was found to be an effective accelerated test to reproduce the silver sulfide corrosion in resistors and resistor networks found in high sulfur field conditions. 2) Temperature dependence for the time to failure was observed when comparing results for testing performed at 105 o C and 80 o C.

9 3) A variation in time to failure was observed for samples from different suppliers. 4) Conformal coating materials were found to either accelerate or decelerate the time to failure depending on their chemistry. 5) A possible shorter time to failure was observed for the CC format Rnet as compared to the CV format, but is confounded by the samples being from different suppliers. 6) A possible trend in a shorter time to failure for smaller body size Rnets was observed, but is confounded by a difference in the CC versus CV format. 7) The anti-sulfurization technique evaluated in this study was effective at delaying the on-set of silver sulfide corrosion in both resistors and resistor networks. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors gratefully acknowledge the contributions of the following colleagues: Dylan Boday, Biao Cai, Des Fitzpatrick, Mark Marnell, Dallas Martin, Wayne McKinley, Michael Meilunas, Lee Randall, Surangkana Umpo and Heidi Williams. As originally published in the SMTA International 2010 Conference Proceedings. [10] Toscano, L, Long, E., Creeping Corrosion of PWB Surfaces in Harsh Sulfur Containing Environments, Proceedings of SMTA-I, 8/08, Orlando, FL. [11] Reid, M., Punch, J., Ryan, C., Franey, J., Derkits, G., Reents, W, Garfias, L., The Corrosion of Electronic Resistors, IEEE Transactions on Components and Packaging Technologies, Vol. 30, No. 4, December [12] W. J. Plumbridge, R. J. Matela, and A.Westwater, Structural Integrity and Reliability in Electronics. New York: Springer, 2003, Ch. 7. [13] Rice, D.W., P. Peterson, E.B. Rigby, P.B.P. Phillips, R.J. Cappell, and R. Tremoureux, Atmospheric Corrosion of Copper and Silver, J. Electrochem. Soc. 128(2): [14] Muller, C.O., Multiple Contaminant Gas Effects on Electronic Equipment Corrosion, Corrosion, Feb 1991; [15] Volpe L., Environmental Factors in Indoor Corrosion of Metals, Armonk, N.Y., IBM Internal Technical Report. [16] Electronic Industries Association, EIA Standard 364 TP-65B, Mixed Flowing Test Procedure For Electrical Connectors, Contacts and Sockets, December [17] CALCE, Mixed Flowing Gas Testing Introduction and CALCE MFG Capability. [18] IBM Corporate Standard C-S , Product Environment: Psychrometrics, Corrosive Gases and Particulates, REFERENCES [1] ASHRAE publication, Environmental Guidelines for Datacom Equipment, [2] ASHRAE Publication, Thermal guidelines for Data Centers and other Data Processing Environments, Atlanta, [3] Singh P., Schmidt. R. R. and Prisco J., Particulate and gaseous contamination: Effect on computer reliability and monitoring, ASHRAE [4] Axtell, S., Failure of Thick-Film Chip Resistors in Sulfur-Containing Environments, Proceedings of CARTS, [5] Hillman C., Arnold J., Binfield S., Seppi J., Silver and Sulfur: Case Studies, Physics and Possible Solutions, Proceedings of SMTA-I, 10/07, Orlando, FL. [6] Schueller R., Dell Corp, Creep Corrosion of Lead-free Printed Circuit Boards in High Sulfur Environments, Proceedings of SMTA-I, 10/07, Orlando, FL. [7] Xu C., Flemming D., Demerkin K., Derkits G., Franey J., Reents W., Corrosion Resistance of PWB Final Finishes, Proceedings of APEX, 2/07, Los Angeles. [8] ASHRAE white paper, Particle and Gaseous Contamination Guidelines for Data Centers," American Society of Heating, Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., [9] Toscano, L, Long, E., Swanson, J., Creep Corrosion on PCB Surfaces: Improvements of Predictive Test Methods and Developments Regarding Prevention Techniques, Proceedings of SMTA-I, 10/07, Orlando, FL.

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